Encyclopcedia Britannica in 30 Volumes

TheNew Encyclopcedia Britannica in 30 Volumes MACROPJEDIA Vohıme9 Knowledge in Depth FOUNDED1768 15THEDillON Encyclopredia Britannica, Ine. William Benton, Publisher, 1943-1973 HelenHemingwayBenton, Publisher, 1973-1974 Chicago JLondonjToronto /Geneva/Sydney /Tokyo /ManilafSeoul Islamic Peoples, Arts of 977 Kulthüm, Farid al-Atrash, Fayrouz, Rashid al-Hunda wen~ largely the main factors in the development of an rashi, Şadiqa al-Muliiya, and Mutammad al-Gubanshi. artistic theatre in the 19th and 20th · centuries. But con Musical compositions tend to be relatively light and servative Muslims have coiısistently disapproved of the short, falling witlıin the numerous genres of taıvslıifJ, atre, and in Saudi Arabia, for example, no native theatri songs built ona strophic poetic form originating in Spain. cal establishment exists. Iıi such an atmosphere, women's .Such songs have largely replaced Iong compositions of parts were at first taken by men; later, Christian and Jew the qaşldalı type and improvisational forms such as the ish women took the roles, and only in the 20th century layii[f and the maıvwiil. The use of short songs empha have Muslim women participated. sizes the process of separation between, rather than the traditional union of, composer and performer. Among TYPES AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF DAN CB AND THBATRB instrumental forms are the taqslm, or improvisation, and The dance. Folk daneing existed among medieval Is the Turkish beslıref and samii'l. liimic peoples; but such sources as e:idst are mainly can Persian art music continues to be organized into 12 cemed with artistic dance, which was performed chiefly traditional modes, or dastgiih, each of which contains a at the caliph's palace by skilled women. The aristocracy repertory of from 20 to 50 smail pieces called güshehs was quick to imitate this patranage by providing similar ("corners"). In performance of instrumental and vocal performances, its members vying with one anather on fes music, the artist improvises on the chesen güslıeh of a tive occasions. One of these dances, the kurrağ (some- · dastgiilı in a specific order. Modern Arab theoıists also have produced valuable treatises. For example, the 19th-century theorists Michel Muchaqa of Damascus and Malıarnmed Chehab ad-Din of Cairo introduced the theoretical division of the scale into 24 quarter tones. In 1932 the international Congress of Arabian Music was held in Cairo, providing a forum for current analysis of subjects such as musical scales, modes, rhythms, and musical forms. (A.Sh.) m. IsHimic dance and theatre The performing arts have received comparatively little attention in the otherwise rich literatnre of the Isliimic peoples. This is most probably a result of the suspicions entertained by some orthodox Muslim scholars cancem ing the· propriety of the dance and the theatre. Because this applies particularly in relation to the vexing question of human portrayal and its counection with idolatry, the performing arts were regarded by the faitlıful with more than usual caution. Even in the 19th and early 20th cen tnries, most research on the subject; in what may loosely be called the Isliimic world, was carried out by Western ers, chiefly European scholars; and only in the 20th cen tury have indigenous scholars published research on the subject. There are no known references to. the dance or tıieatre in pre-Isliimic Arabia, although nomad tribes were prob ably acquainted with the dance.. The Isliimic peoples themselves seem to have developed this particular art form less .than they did music or architectnre; and in ad Dance as entertalnment for the arlstocracy, shown In "A dition to medieval Isliim's cool attitude toward dance and Festive Party," manuscrlpt lllumlnation from the MasnavT theatre as art forms, it must be added that most women, of Jalal ad-Din ar-Rümi, 1295-96 AD. In the British Museum leading a life of seclusion, could hardly be expected to (MS. OR. 7693, fol. 22~ b.). play .an active part in them. Nevertheless, there has been an active tradition of folk dance in most Isliimic coun times called kurra) developed into a song and dance tries, in addition to daneing as an entertainment spectacle festival held at the caliph's court. Since the latter part of and, particularly in Persia, as an art form. Dervish dane the 19th century the daneing profession has lost ground ing, a featnre especially of Anatolia, Turkey, is a form to the performance of U.S., Latin American, and West peculiar to the IsiiiiDie order of that name. ern European dances in cabarets. In a reaction that set in The theatre has not flourished as a major art under Is after World W ar II, fervent nationalists have tried to cre lam,. although as a form of popnlar entertainment, par ate native dance troupes, revive traditional riıotifs in cos ticularly in mime and shadow-puppet shows, it has per tume and interpretation, and adapt tribal :figures to mod sisted ·vigorously. Nevertheless, the theatre with live ac ern settings. Few dances have survived unchanged; tors received support from the Ottomans in Turkey, and a among them are the dervish dances, performed mainly live popular drama has been strong in Persia, where a in Turkey. · passian ,play also took root Otherwise, the theatrical Folk dance. Though now taken as an expressian of na record of Islam is meagre. Moreover, few neighbouring tional cultnre, folk dances were long regarded as pure en peoples had a well-developed theatre of their own; hence, tertainment and were either combined with theatrical outside si:imulus was lacking, and the Isliimic disapproval shows or ptesented alone. Dance performances, accom of idolatry was so intense that when the shadow theatre panied by music, took place in a special hall or outdoors; evolved in the East in the Iate Middle Ages, the puppets many dancers, particularly the males, were also mimes. were regularly punched with holes to show that they were Sametimes the dance enacted a pantomime, as in Turkey, lifeless. Nonetheless, drama has had some ties with re of physicallove or of a stag hunt, representing the pursuit ligion,.as in Iran and other areas where the Shi'ite branch of a suspicious husband deceived by his wife. of Isliiriı is concentrated. Here a passian play developed, Folk dance, except in Iran, has almost always been rooted in traumatic memories of the bloody warfare of mimetic or narfative, a tradition stili fostered by many Isliim's early years. This was a local phenomenon, unin tribes. fluenced by Christian Europe, and, though stereotyped, Dance as entertainment. The Turks considered danc it movingly re-enacted Shi'ite m~tyrdom. ing a profession for the low-born; herice most daneers Low social A popular theatre, frequently 'including dance, evolved · belonged to minority groups: Greeks, Jews, and Arme standing of independently from about the 17th century in some Mlıs nians. This judgment also applied to the status of profes daneers lim countries. West European and, later, U.S. influences sianal daneers and indeed to most professional entertain- 978 Islamic Peoples, Arts of ers at most periods until modern times. In 19th-century The theatre. In lands where the Sunnite sect was Egypt, both male and female daneers were regarded as strong, mime shows were frequent during the later Mid public entertainers. Many of the women (ghawiizf) be dle Ages. The Ottoman snltans were accompanied on longed to a single tribe and were usually considered lit military campaigns by their own troupe of actors; and as tle better than prostitutes. The eretic element in daneing the Ottoman Empire extended, the court became ever Actors has become focussed in the belly dance, which has be more partial to entertainment, whether at the accessian of at the come the main form of exhibition dance in modern Tur- a snltan, a royal wedding, a circumcision, an official visit, Ottonıan key and the Arab countries. - or a victory. On such occasions, dances and theatrical co urt The mimetic tradition of folk dance has blended well in performances played their part along with parades, fire countries of the Sunnite persuasion with comedy and-with works, music, mock fights, and circus performances in the pa~sion-play- tragedy in Shfite countries. In recent one huge pageant. This lavishing of entertainment years, however, the theatre has been divorced from the reached a height of splendour that the admiring Ottoman dance, for most plays are modelled on European patterns; aristocracy strove to imitate throughout Turkey. In only in the operetta does the old combination remain. Arabia and North Africa, popnlar showsona lesser scale Dance as_an art form. In pre-Islamic times in Iran, were performed in the open air. Another si de to the the dance was both an art form. and _a popnlar entertainment. atre was represented in the shadow plays, which were There are pictures of daneers in miniatures, on pottery, given chiefiy during the fast month of Ramaçilin (the and on walls, friezes, and coins. Some of these ancient sacred ninth month of the Muslim year) to while away dances lived on partially in tribal dances but again, un the time. der Islam's restrictions on women, the art became a male Among Shl'ites the passian play was regularly per monoply. formed, both by professionals and by amateurs. The Iran is perhaps the only Muslim country with a tradition performance was always during the first ten days of the of dance regarded as an art form. When revived after month of Mul)arram (the first in the Muslim year), com World W ar II, folk daneing was encouraged and adapted memerating the suffering and death of the descendants for the foundation of a national ballet. · and relatives of the caliph 'Ali. For generations this was Muslim orthodoxy's very uncertainty over the exact a focal point of the year, gripping audiences in total in status of the artistic dance ensured that it was always con volvement, with its blend of symbolism and realism.

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