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Home , Gunnar Heckscher, Olof Palme, Pranay Gupte

Notes

Preface 1. This list is not exhaustive: Benezir Bhutto, Daniel Ortega, and Fulgencio Battista are among others whose political careers were resurrected after falling from power.

1 Olof Palme: “Moral Duty Is Discontent on a Large Scale”: Creation 1. Hans Haste, Olof Palme (Paris: Descartes et Cie., 1994), 25. tr. of Haste, Boken om Olof Palme. Hans Liv, Hans Gärning, Hans Död (: Tiden, 1986). Chris Mosey, Cruel Awakening: and the Killing of Olof Palme (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), 80. 2. Olof Ruin, : Serving the State, 1946–1949 (Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1990), 53–54. 3. Olof Palme, La Rendez-vous suedois. Conversations avec Serge Richard (Paris: Stock: 1976), 40. 4. Palme, Rendez- vous, 14, 29–30. 5. Christer Isaksson, Palme Privat. I skuggan av Erlander (Falun: Ekerlios Förlag, 1995), 146. Haste, 37. 6. Isaksson, 147–148. 7. Robert Dalsjö. Life-Line Lost. The Rise and Fall of ‘Neutral’ Sweden’s Secret Reserve Option of Wartime Help from the West. Stockholm: Santérus Academic Press, 2006), 23. Modification of Swedish neutrality policy started early in the Cold War. Washington began applying economic pres- sure (delays and even stoppages of exports), which together with political and strategic considerations prompted Swedish acknowledgment of “ideo- logical affirmation” in the West – although not participation in NATO, as the State Department had wished. Birgit Karlsson, “Neutrality and Economy: The Redefining of Swedish Neutrality, 1946–1952,” Journal of Peace Research 32: 1 (1995), 42, 46. 8. NSC 6006/1.Statens Offentliga Utredningar (hereafter, SOU – published reports by official commissions), discussed by Dalsjö. The Kennedy adminis- tration replaced NSC 6006/1 with a slightly stronger commitment.) 236 ● Notes

9. Simon Moores, “Neutral on our Side: US Policy towards Sweden during the Eisenhower Administration,” Cold War History vol. 2 no. 3, (April, 2002), 29–62. 10. This second motive is emphasized by Nils Bruzelius, a Swedish defense specialist, in a draft article he kindly sent to me. 11. “Hemliga atomubåtar gav Sverige säkerhetsgaranti–Secret Nuclear Submarines Guaranteed Swedish Security,” Framsyn [The Swedish Defense Research Agency (FOI) bimonthly publication] 2005, No. 1. English translation available at the FOI website, www.foi.se, under “Polaris Diplomacy.”) 12. Nils Bruzelius, “Near Friendly or Neutral Shores: the deployment of the fleet ballistic missile submarines and US policy towards , 1957–1963,” Licentiate thesis, 2007, Försvarshögskolan (National Defense College), Stockholm. Accessed at URL: http:// www.diva- portal.org/kth/ thesis/abstract.xsql?dbid=4308). 13. Dalsjö, Life-Line , xi, 182–183. 14. Ruin, 59–60, 134. 15. Haste, 41–42. Mosey, 87–88. 16. Haste, 45. 17. Hans Ingvar Johnsson, Spotlight on Sweden (Stockholm: The Swedish Institute, 1999), 143. 18. Bertil Östergren, Wem är Olof Palme. Ett politiskt porträtt (Södertälje: Fingraf AB, 1984) cited in Haste, 57. Ruin, 61. 19. Mosey, 100. 20. Mosey, 101. 21. Ali Farazmand, ed., Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration (New York: Marcel Denker, 2001), 176. 22. Haste, 53–55. 23. Arbetarrörelsens Arkiv och Bibliotek– Archives and Library, The World in the Basement. International Material in Archives and Collections (Stockholm 2002), 52. 24. Arthur Klinghoffer, International Citizens’ Tribunals: Mobilizing Public Opinion to Advance Human Rights (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2002), 141. Dalsjö, Life- Line Lost, 93. 25. Ruin, 287. Haste, 55. 26. Mosey, 98. Ruin, 287. Johnsson, 122. 27. Klinghoffer, 143. Ron Eyerman, Social Movements: A Cognitive Approach (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press), 1996), 168, note 6. 28. Palme, Rendez- vous, 75–76. 29. Dalsjö, 95. 30. Palme, Rendez- vous, 77. 31. Dalsjö, 96. 32. This summation may be found in Dalsjö’s precis, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line to the West,” published by the Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security (PHP) of the Center for Security Studies (CSS), Notes ● 237

Zurich. Accessed at http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch- introduction). Also see his Life-Line Lost, 93–96, 102–103. 33. Dalsjö, Life-Line , 75–81, 274–76. 34. Haste, 69, 71. Ruin, 158. 35. Haste 66. 36. Haste, 73, Mosey, 108, 109. 37. Mosey, 113, 116. 38. Maurice Isserman, The Other American: The Life of Michael Harrington (New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 289. 39. Alf W. Johansson and Norman Torbjörn, “ and International- ism . . . Social and Foreign Policy,” in Klaus Misgeld, Creating . A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden (University Park, PA. Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1972), 365. 40. Palme, Rendez-vous, 100–101. 41. Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 42. Svenska Dagbladet, July 29, 2007. Framsyn Magazine, published by the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI). Accessed at http://www.foi.se/ FOI/templates/Page1622.aspx, 2005, No. 1. 43. SOU 2002:108, 275–299, cited in Dalsjö, Life-Line Lost, 194–195. 44. Wilhelm Agrell, Fred och fruktan. Sveriges säkerhetspolitiska historia, 1918– 2000 Lund: Historiska Media, 2000, p. 180, cited in Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 45. Dalsjö, Life-Line Lost, 213, 230. “Life- line Squandered.” 46. Gunnar Heckscher, The and Beyond: Success and Problems in Scandinavia (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1984), 37–38. 47. Haste, 72. 48. Haste, 76. Mosey, 116–117. Arbetarrörelsens, 60. 49. Mosey, 109–110. 50. Minutes, Sveriges Socialdemokratiska Ungdomsförbund SSO (Swedish Social Democratic Youth Organization) 20th Congress, p. 80, cited in Arbetarrörelsens, 57. 51. Cited in Johnsson, 122. 52. Mosey, 120. Misgeld, 368. 53. Haste, 84. Palme, Rendez- vous, 79–80. 54. Haste, 81. 55. Haste, 83. 56. Haste, 87. 57. Palme, Rendez-vous, 110, 118, 121. 58. , , Olof Palme, La social- démocratie et l’avenir (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), 173–175, 177, 181–182. 59. Nils Christie, A Suitable Amount of Crime (London: Routledge, 2004), 38. 60. Misgeld, 367. Haste, 90. 61. Palme, Rendez-vous, 119–123. Jan- Erik Lane, ed., Understanding the Swedish Model (London: Frank Cass, 1991), 61. 238 ● Notes

2 Olof Palme: Termination 1. Frans Berkhout, Radioactive Waste: Politics and Technology (London and New York: Routledge, 1991), 103. 2. Mosey, 118, 119. 3. Berkhout, 104. Daniel B.Cornfield and Randy Hodson, eds., Worlds of Work: Building an International Sociology of Work (New York: Plenum Publishers, 2002), 331. 4. Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century (New York: The New Press, 1996), 708–09. 5. Villy Bergström, “Party Program and Economic Policy: The Social Democrats in Government,” in Misgeld, 162–63. 6. Thage G. Peterson, Olof Palme som jag minns honom (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 2002), 244. 7. Peterson, 247. 8. Mosey, 124–25. 9. Peterson, 271, 273. 10. Mosey, 125–26. 11. Berkhout, 105. 12. Mosey, 126. 13. Ruth Freeman, Death of a Statesman. The Solution to the Murder of Olof Palme (London: Robert Hale, Ltd., 1989), 168. 14. Haste, 97. 15. Haste, 98.

3 Olof Palme: Interment 1. Peterson, 251. Unless otherwise indicated, subsequent references to the aftermath of the SAP defeat come from Peterson, 252–261. 2. Johansson, 143. 3. Gerhard Lembruch, ed., Renegotiating the Welfare State (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), 123. 4. Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Lifeline.” 5. Dalsjö’s interview with Synnergren cited in Life-Line Lost, 223–225, 231. 6. Dalsjö, Life-Line Lost, 224, 234–235. “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 7. Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 8. Mosey, 128–129. Bjorn Elmbrant, Palme (Stockholm: Fischer and Rye, 1989), 204. 9. Ulf Jönson, “Africa in the Collections,” The World in the Basement: International Material in Archives and Collections Stockholm: Arbetarrörelsens Arkiv och Bibliotek (Labour Movement Archives and Library), 2002, 66–67, 70. Notes ● 239

10. Senyo B.S.K. Adjibolosoo, The Significance of the Human Factor in African Economic Development (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1996), 194. 11. Socialist Affairs 26 (1976), 110. 12. Cited in Douglas Anglin, Canada, Scandinavia, and Southern Africa (Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainsitutet, 1978), 11. 13. Misgeld, 367. 14. A review of correspondence of the three, Briefe und Gespräche. WB, BK, OP (Frankfurt: Europäische Verlangenstalt, 1975) appeared in Socialist Affairs 26 (1976), 26. 15. The so-called Third, or Communist, International (Comintern) was that established by Lenin in 1919 to gather the newly formed Communist Parties. The Second International, the work of democratic socialists opposed to Leninist , was revived the same year, and refur- bished in 1946 as the . 16. Socialist Affairs 28 (1978), 77. 17. , The Impossible Neutrality: Sweden’s Role under Olof Palme (Claremont, : David Philip Publishers, 1994). Kofi Buenor Hadjor, ed., New Perspectives in North- South Dialogue. Essays in Honor of Olof Palme (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988), 256, 267, 272. 18. Hans Ingvar Johnsson, Spotlight on Sweden (Stockholm: The Swedish Institute, 1999), 86. 19. Östergren, 204. 20. Mosey, 129–131. 21. Haste, 94. Socialist Affairs 29 (1979), 77–82. 22. Richard, Le rendez-vous suédois, 111–115. 23. Haste, 104. Mosey, 131–132. 24. Dieter Strand, Med Palme: scener ur en partiledares liv (Stockholm: Norstedt, 1986), Mosey, 133–134. 25. Haste, 106. 26. Peterson, 260–262. 27. Palme, En levande vilja (Stockholm: Tiden, 1987), cited in Mosey, 137. 28. Socialist Affairs 30 (1980), 106. 29. Oscar Handlin, The Distortion of America (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1996), 80–81. The American hostages were released after Reagan administration took office in 1981. 30. Stanley Meisler, : The First Fifty Years (New York: Grove Atlantic, 1995), 248, 367. 31. Judith Fretter, “International Organizations and Conflict Management . . .,” in Jacob Bercovitch, Studies in International Mediation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 113. 32. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 184. Arbetarrörelsens 32 (2002), 83. 33. Stellan Andersson, “An International Network,” Arbetarrörelsens, 83. 34. Elmbrandt, 236. 240 ● Notes

35. Thomas M. Franck, “The Prerogative Power of the Secretary-General,” in Joseph Jude Norton, ed., Public International Law and the Future World Order (Southern Methodist Univ. Press, Dallas:1987), 39. Kevin M. Cahill, Preventive Diplomacy: Stopping Wars before They Start (New York and London: Routledge, 2000), 27. 36. Socialist Affairs 32 (1982), 232. 37. Sassoon, 718–720. 38. Misgeld, 370. 39. Cited in Mosey, 149. 40. Mosey, 148.

4 Olof Palme: Resurrection 1. Peterson, 264–266. 2. Johnsson, 83. 3. Sassoon, 710. 4. Peterson, 265 5. Haste, 113–114. 6. Peterson, 267. 7. Strand, cited in Mosey, 150. 8. Peterson, 268. 9. Mosey, 150. 10. Andreas Lowenfeld, International Economic Law (New York and London: Oxford U. Press, 2002), 536–537. 11. Heckscher, 236. 12. Donald F. Busky, : A Global Survey (Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood, 2000), 37. Karl Molin, “Historical Orientation,” in Misgeld, xxxv– xxxvi. 13. Sassoon, 711–713. 14. Haste, 121–23. Mosey, 153–154. 15. Johansson, 370. Misgeld, 370. 16. Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 17. Dalsjö, Life-Line Lost, 239. 18. The CNP’s report was published both in Swedish and English. Had there been a war . . . Preparations for the reception of military assistance 1949–1969. Report of the Commission on Neutrality Policy. Statens Offentliga Utredningar (SOU) (Stockholm: Fritzes, 1994), 11:264. The report was followed by another carrying the story to 1989. Peace and Security. Swedish Security Policy, 1969–1989. (Stockholm: Fritzes offentliga publikationer, 2004). Thunborg interview with CNP cited in Dalsjö, “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” 19. Andres Kung, “Communism and Crimes against Humanity in the Baltic States: A Report to the Jarl Hjalmarson Foundation, April 13, 1999.” Accessed at http://www.rel.ee/eng/communism_crimes.htm. Notes ● 241

20. In 1999 (and again in 2003), a referendum calling for the euro to replace the krona failed to pass. 21. Mosey, 124, 154–55. 22. Allen Pred, Even in Sweden. Racism, Racialized Spaces and the Popular Geographical Imagination (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 2000), 40. 23. Pred, 41. 24. Mosey, 155. 25. Stephen Padgett, William E. Patterson, A History of Social Democracy in Post- War Europe (London: Longman, 1991), 56–57. 26. Haste, 128–129. Mosey, 159. 27. Freeman, 31–35, 50. 28. Dalsjö interview with , in “Sweden’s Squandered Life- Line.” (Dalsjö, Life-Line Lost), 257. Rumors and stories of the ties to the West endured, and it was these that prompted the creation of a commission to verify or reject them. 29. Kofi Hadjor, ed., New Perspectives in North- South Dialogue. Essays in Honor of Olof Palme (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988), 3. 30. Speculative studies are discussed and criticized by Jan Bondeson (Blood on the Snow: The Killing of Olof Palme (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. 2005). See also H.H.A. Cooper and L.J. Redlinger, The Murder of Olof Palme (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2003). Such speculation, accompanied by arrests and subsequent releases, ran rampant for months. The police found no evidence to support any of these theses, although many Swedes believe that the petty criminal and drug addicted Christer Petterson, cleared of the crime because of police blunders, was guilty. Gradually, the number of police investigators diminished. People thought of other things as Palme receded into the past as an historic personality. And by the end of the decade, Prime Minister Carlsson’s new and more cautious approach had reduced Sweden’s international role to more modest dimensions. With regard to the secret plans providing for Western aid in the event of Soviet aggression, the people who wanted to protect Palme’s memory limited any investigation. When Palme was shot, he was perhaps the only person in the government who held the secret, although he may have shared it with some ministers. (Framsyn, 2005, No. 1. Jan-Ivar Askelin, “Livlös Livlina till Väst–Lifeless Lifeline to the West,” Framsyn, 2004, No. 1.) Not until 1994 would the disclosure of an official commission designed to look into the matter confirm the existence of Swedish cooperation with the West.

5 : “Look At What Has Become of This Country”: Creation 1. , July 15, 1998. 2. Onukaba Adinoyi Ojo, In The Eyes of Time: A Biography of Olusegun Obasanjo (New York: Africana Legacy Press, 1997), 32–33. Akinjide 242 ● Notes

Osuntokun, Chief S. Ladoke Akintola. His Life and Times (London: Frank Cass, 1984), 177–178. However, Ojo carries the story only to 1975, to the start of Obasanjo’s first presidency. 3. Ojo, 22, 43–45. 4. Ojo, 79–83. 5. Eghosa E. Osaghae, Crippled Giant. Nigeria since Independence (London: Frank Cass, 1984), 2, 6–12, 31. 6. Osaghae, 18. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria (Enegu: Fourth Division Publishers, 1998), 1. 7. John Digby Clarke, Yakubu Gowan: Faith in a United Nigeria (London: F. Cass, 1987), 143. 8. Ojo, 114–115. 9. Karl Maier, This House Has Fallen. Midnight in Nigeria (New York: Public Affairs, 2000), 13, 54. 10. Ojo, 131. 11. Obasanjo, My Command. An Account of the Nigerian Civil War (London: Heinemann, 1981), xii–xiii, 102–146. 12. Ojo, 154. 13. Ojo, 158. 14. Toyin Falola, The History of Nigeria (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 138, 142. 15. Ojo,161. 16. Ojo, 167–68. 17. Falola, 147. 18. Ojo, 182. Ojo, “Lest We Forget:The Obasanjo Years in Government,” in Hans D’Orville, Beyond Freedom. Letters of Olusegun Obasanjo (New York: Africa Leadership Foundation, 1996), 667. 19. As the most senior of the three, Obasaanjo was initially asked by the colo- nels to lead the country, but he declined. Shehu Musa Yar’Adua Foundation, Shehu Musa Yar Adua. A Life of Service (Abuja, 2004), 98. Ojo, 5, 185– 187. 20. Obasanjo, Not My Will, (Ibadan: Ibadan Univ. Press), 5–6. 21. Cited in Osaghae, 80. 22. Olayiwola Abegunrin, Nigerian Foreign Policy under Military Rule, 1966– 1999 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 62. Osaghe, Crippled Giant, 79–87. 23. Maier, 56. Ojo, 189–90. 24. Howard W. French, A Continent for the Taking (New York: Knopf, 2004), 32. Ojo, 196. 25. Ojo, 191–193. 26. Falola, 153, 159. 27. Arthur Nwankwo, Before I Die: Olusegun Obasanjo/Arthur Nwankwo Correspondence on the One Party State (Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co., 1989), 212. 28. Ojo, 22–24, 27. Yar’Adua, 122–123. Wole Soyinka, You Must Set Forth at Dawn. A Memoir (New York: Random House, 2006), 185. Notes ● 243

29. Dan Agbese, 27–30, “Profile: Olusegun Obasajo” in Newswatch, 1999. Accessed at http://www.AFBIS.com/Newswatch/Profile.htm. 30. Harvey Glickman, ed., Political Leaders of Contemporary Africa South of the Sahara. A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 223. 31. Ojo, 28, 29. 32. Olusegun Obasanjo, Not My Will (Ibadan: University Press Ltd.: 1990), 169–170. Although often referred to as “president,” the military leaders who seized power called themselves “chief of state.” 33. Ojo, “Lest We Forget, 668. 34. Bennett Ade Odunsi, “The Impact of Leadership Instability on the Democratic Process in Nigeria,” in the Journal of Asian and African Studies 31 (June, 1996), 76. 35. Ojo, 192. Obasanjo, Not My Will,103–104. 36. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 65–66, 91. 37. Maier, This House, 15. 38. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 78. In practice, communal land, held in trust by traditional leaders and mostly in the south, was taken by officials who saw it as a new source of patronage. Yar’Adua, 106. 39. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 67–68, 83–88. 40. Ojo, “Lest We Forget,” 676. 41. Nwankwo, 152, 217. 42. Nwankwo, 215. 43. Ojo, in D’Orville, 675. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 88–89, 53. 44. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 1–2. 45. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 41, 46, 49–50, 103. 46. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 52. 47. Alan Rake, Who’s Who in Africa. Leaders for the 1990s (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 192), 254. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 62–63. 48. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria, 15, 16. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 118. 49. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 102–103. 50. Abegunrin, 75. 51. Washington Post, October 15, 1997. Osagwae, 107. Africa News, Feb. 25, 1999. 52. Ojo, “Lest We Forget,” 678–79. Falola, 160. 53. Abgeunrin, 170. Ojo, 192–93. 54. Abegunrin, 73. 55. Not My Will, 132, 138. Osaghae, 107. 56. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 144–145. Abegunrin, 86–89. The New York Times, March 22, 1999. It was the UK’s colony of Southern Rhodesia which had unilaterally declared its independence in 1965 that became Zinbabwe. The former colony of Northern Rhodesia renamed itself Zambia the previous year. 57. Abegunrin, 91–92. 244 ● Notes

6 Olusegun Obasanjo: Termination 1. Anthony Kirk-Greene, Douglas Rimmer, Nigeria since 1870: A Political and Economic Outline (New York: African Publishing Co., 1981), 29 (Italics mine.) 2. Rake, 254. 3. Rake, 254. 4. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 182–186. 5. French, 42, 43. Current Biography, July, 1999, 46. Jonothan Power, Like Water on a Stone: The Story of Amnesty International (Boston: Northwestern Univ. Press, 2001), 18. 6. Falola, 167. The subtitle of a Shagari biography is “President by Mathematics.” S. Labanji. Bolaji, (Ibadan: Automatic Printing Press, 1980). 7. Wole Soyinka, The Open Sore of a Continent: A Personal Narrative of the Nigerian Crisis (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), 102–103. 8. Osaghae, 125–130. 9. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 181, 182. Obasanjo devoted an entire chapter (Nine) in his memoir to refuting Awolowo’s criticisms of the Shagari election. 10. “May 29, 2007 and Obasanjo: The Exit of the Best Nigeria Ruler So Far,” Nigeria World, May 21, 2007. Accessed at www.nigeriaworld.com/ articles/2007/may/21/html. 11. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 189–191. The letters are reproduced in an anti- Obasanjo account entitled Not His Will, a take-off on the title of Obasanjo’s book, by an Awolowo supporter, Ebenezer Babatope. He claimed that Obasanjo was noted for his fear of the North and its influential military officers, and had bowed to the group’s wishes. Not His Will: The Awolowo Obasanjo Wager (Benin City, Nigeria: Jodah House, 1991), 14. 12. Falola, 164. 13. Soyinka, You Must Set Forth at Dawn, 99–100. Soyinka exaggerated Obasanjo’s alleged return to his tribal roots. 14. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 202. 15. Monsour Khalid, ed., Africa through the Eyes of a Patriot: A tribute to General Olusegun Obasanjo (London: Kegan Paul, 1999), 1–2, 8, 13. 16. Obasanjo (citing the words of an admirer), Not My Will, 210–211.

7 Olusegun Obasanjo: Interment 1. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 215. 2. Power, 3. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 203–205. 3. Anthony Kirk- Greene, Nigeria since 1870: a political and economic outline (New York: Africana Publishing Co., 1981), 79. 4. Obasanjo, Not My Will, vi. Notes ● 245

5. Glickman, 225. D’Orville, Beyond Freedom, 90. 6. Wole Soyinka, You Must Set Forth at Dawn, 85. 7. Falola, 170, 174–75. 8. Larry Diamond, “Political Corruption: Nigeria’s Perennial Struggle,” in Journal of Democracy 2 (Fall 1991), 74. 9. Chinua Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria, 42. Soyinka, Open Sore, 79. 10. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 227. Osaghae, 110–111. 11. Obasanjo, Not My Will, 226–228, 236. 12. Olufemi Vaughan, Nigerian Chiefs: Traditional Power in Modern Politics, 1890s- 1990s (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2000), 156. Obasanjo cited in Nwankwo, 68. 13. Diamond, 75. Maier, 44–45, 62. 14. Cited in Maier, This House, 59. 15. Falola, 186. Diamond, 76, 77. 16. Richard A. Joseph, Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979) cited in Diamond, 79. 17. Cited in Maier, 45. 18. Obasanjo, Challenges of Leadership in African Development (New York: Crane Russak, 1990), 30. 19. Lagos: Friends Foundation Publishers. 20. Nwankwo, 20. The numbers in parentheses refer to pages in Nwankwo’s book. 21. Achebe, A Man of the People, (New York: John Day), 37. Michael Crowder, “Whose Dream Was It Anyway? Twenty-five Years of African Independence,” African Affairs 86:342 (1987), 7–24. 22. Nkrumah (Ghana) presided for nine years; Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), for fifteen; Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), for twenty- four; Kenneth Kaunda (Zambia), for twenty- seven; Hastings Banda (Malawi), for thirty; Félix Houphouët (Ivory Coast), for thirty- three; Léopold Senghor (Senegal), for twenty. 23. King, 21. 24. Xinhua General Overseas News Service, May 17, 1991. 25. Alister Sparks, The Mind of South Africa: The Story of the Rise and Fall of (London: Mandarin Paperbacks, 1991), 351–352. 26. The New York Times, March 2, 1999. 27. Sparks, 352. 28. The Christian Science Monitor, July 11, 1985. Malcolm Fraser and Olusegun Obasanjo, “What To Do about South Africa,” Foreign Affairs, Fall 1986. 29. The New York Times, Aug. 8, 1986. 30. Glickman, 224–225, Ranke, 254. 31. A full list of Obasanjo’s international activities may be found in Hans d’Orville, ed., Beyond Freedom. Letters to Olusegun Obasanjo, 683–684. 32. US News and World Report Oct. 8, 1990, vol.109, p.20. The prize was criticized as elitist because the winners were chosen by foreigners who did 246 ● Notes

not materially contribute to helping people who work to keep their com- munities alive. Toronto Star, Aug. 24, 1990. 33. The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1987. I am obliged to Linda Most for bringing the interview to my attention. 34. Obasanjo, Hope for Africa, 181–200. 35. The New York Times, March 2, 1991. 36. Africa News, May 20, 1991. 37. Africa News, May 20, 1991. 38. Xinhua General Overseas News Service, Oct. 7, Nov. 12, 22, 1991. Africa News, October 12, 1998. 39. In 1993, he published Elements of Democracy: Africa: Rise to Challenge; and Hope for Africa. Xinhua General Overseas News Service, July 28, 1992. 40. Falola, 191. Lewis, “Nigeria, An End to the Permanent Transition” in Journal of Democracy 10 (1999), 144. 41. Soyinka, Open Sore, 36. 42. The Financial Times, May 5, 1993. Lewis, “Nigeria,” 143–144. 43. Norimitsu Onishi, “Nigerian Question Mark: Olusegun Obasanjo,” The New York Times International, March 2, 1999. 44. Osaghae, 297. Newswatch, March 27, 1995. 45. Richard Joseph, “A Laureate’s Lament,” Journal of Democracy 8 (1997), 168. Lewis, “Nigeria . . . Permanent Transition,” 146–147. 46. Obasanjo, Challenges of Leadership in African Development (New York: Crane Russak, 1990). 47. Falola, 196–197. French, 27. 48. Falola, 199. Maier, This House, 3. 49. Soyinka, Open Sore, 151. Fayola, 200. 50. Lewis, “Nigeria . . . Permanent Transition,” 147. 51. The Associated Press, Interpress Service, March 14, 16, 1995. Africa News, March 27, 1995. 52. Deutsche Presse- Argentur, July 17, 21, 25, October 10, 11, 1995. The Daily Telegraph, July 20, 1995. The Economist, July 22, 1995. The Christian Science Monitor, July 24, 1995. D’Orville, Beyond Freedom, 20. 53. Power, 2. 54. Deutsche Presse- Agentur, July 12; November 19, 1996. The Independent, Nov. 20, 1995. 55. Obasanjo, “The Country of Anything Goes,” The New York Review of Books, September 24, 1998. Accessed at www.nyrev.com/nyrev/ WWWarchdisplay.cgi?19980924055F@p1. 56. , June 7, 1999, p.55. Not My Will, 226. 57. Olusegun Obasanjo, This Animal Called Man (Abeokuta: ALF Publications, 1999), 205. Another book drafted in prison, Women of Virtue. Stories of Outstanding Women in the Bible (Abeokuta, 1999) also served a moral pur- pose: to examine “the lives and qualities of some women who feature in the Notes ● 247

Bible to see what lessons can be learned.” The method consisted of citing biblical passages and then discussing them at length. 58. Lewis, “Nigeria,” 149, 156. 59. The Independent, August 1, 1997.The Economist, September 14, 2000. In 2000, Finland was the least corrupt with other Scandinavian countries close behind. 60. “Crippled Giant” is the title of the book by Eghosa E. Osaghae, Crippled Giant. Nigeria since Independence (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998). 61. “World’s Most Populous Countries: 1994 and 2025,” in Almanac 1995 (New York: Houghton Miff lin, 1994), 133. Cited in Godfrey Mwakikagile, “Nigeria,” in Martin P. Mathews, ed., Nigeria: Current Issues and Historical Background (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2002), 17. 62. Soyinka, The Open Sore of a Continent, Chapter 5, Note 7. 63. Achebe, The Trouble with Nigeria, 9–10. 64. Neal Ascherson, “The Writer and the Tyrant,” New York Review of Books, June 22, 2000, 20. 65. Deutsche Presse- Agentur, Nov. 19, 1996. Amnesty International- Nigeria: Human Rights Defenders under Attack,” Accessed at http://www.amnesty. org//ailib/intcam/nigeria/obasanjo.html. 66. 1997 Prize for Freedom- Olusegun Obasanjo. Accessed at http://www. worldlib.org/li/other/prize97.html. Speech by Chief (Mrs.) Stella Obasanjo.

8 Olusegun Obasanjo: Resurrection 1. Power, 4. Obasanjo, cited in Newsweek, Atlantic ed., May 24, 1999. 2. Power, 17. 3. Lewis, “Nigeria, An End to the Permanent Transition,” 151. 4. Falola, 208. 5. Newsweek, May 24, 1999. 6. “Nigeria: It’s Obasanjo at All Costs,” Africa News, February 22, 1999. 7. Emmy Ejekam, “U.S. Africa Online,” accessed at http://www.usafrica online.com/Tribalism.html. 8. The New York Review of Books, Sept. 24, 1998. News- Journal Online, June 6, 1998. The New York Times, July 15, 1998. USAfrica Online accessed at http://www.usafricaonline.com/Tribalism.html. 9. Lewis, “Nigeria, An End to the Permanent Transition,” 152. Francis C. Enemuo, “Elite Solidarity, Communal Support, and the 1999 Presidential Election in Nigeria,” in Issue: A Journal of Opinion 27 (No. 1), (1999) 3. 10. Africa News, May 27, 1999. 11. Lewis, “Nigeria, An End to the Permanent Transition,” 155. The New York Times, March 2, 1999, p.1. 12. Enemuo, 3. Africa News, October 12, November 9, 16, 1998. 248 ● Notes

13. Africa News, October 12, 1998. 14. Fela’s most famous song, “Coffin for the Head of state,” tells in street idiom how he and his followers tried to present the coffin to the general. The New York Times, March 2, 1999. 15. Maier, This House, 28–29. 16. International Herald Tribune, Feb. 16, 1999. Africa News, Feb. 12, 1999. The Daily Telegraph (London), February 22, 1999. 17. Enemuo, 4. 18. Enemuo, 4. Julius O. Ihonubere, “The 1999 Presidential Election in Nigeria: The Unresolved Issues,” Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 27, (1999) 59. 19. Current Biography, July, 1999, 47. 20. Daily Telegraph, Feb. 22, 1999, 12. 21. Daily Telegraph, Feb. 22, 1999. The Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1, 1999. 22. Ihonvbere, 59. 23. Cited in Newsweek, May 24, 1999, Atlantic ed. 24. Cited in Power, 45. 25. Enemuo, 4. 26. Abegunrin, 186, 191. 27. The Christian Science Monitor, April 15, 1999. 28. The Christian Science Monitor, April 15, 1999. 29. Newsweek, May 25, 1999, p. 32. 30. Ottawa Citizen, May 25, 1999. 31. Inaugural speech accessed at http://www.nigeriahighcommottowa.com/ newdawn.html, accessed September 21, 1999. The New York Times, May 30, 1999. 32. Sklar, 1999, 106. Newsweek, June 7, 1999, 55. 33. Africa Today, September 1998. Khalid, 24–25, 28. 34. Maier, This House, xxi–xxii. 35. Obasanjo, cited in Financial Times, November 4, 1998. Lewis cited by Daren Crew, “The 2003 Elections,” in Robert Rotberg, ed., Crafting the New Nigeria (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 101. 36. R.L.Sklar, E. Onwudiewe, O. Kew, “Nigeria: Completing Obasanjo’s Legacy,” Journal of Democracy 17 (July, 2006), 110–111. The New York Times, February 21, 2007. 37. Rotimi T. Suberu, “Nigeria’s Muddled Elections,” Journal of Democracy 18 (October 2007), 97. 38. The Banker, November 1, 2007. Jean Herskovits, “Nigeria’s Rigged Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 86 (July–August 2007), 115–130. 39. Kaniye S.A. Ebeku, “Niger Delta Oil. Development of the Niger Delta and the New Development Initiative,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 43 (4) (2008), 408, 417. 40. The New York Times, November 24, 2006. The International Herald Tribune, Feb. 15, 2007, 6. Herskovits, 115–30. Notes ● 249

41. Sklar, 114. 42. Robert Compton, “Olusegun Obasanjo, Prophet of Nigeria,” Biography Resource Center, 296–97. Accessed at http://galenet.galegroup.com. Herskovits, 115–30.

9 : “Like a Tigress”: Creation 1. Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography (New York: Pantheon, 1993), 266. Katherine Frank, Indira. The Life of Indira Gandhi (New York: Houghton- Mifflin), 2002, 423–424. (Another version had it that the phone line had been cut, and it was her staff that rallied support.) Jad Adams, Phillip Whitehead, The Dynasty. The Nehru- Gandhi Story (New York: TV Books, 1997), 241. 2. Elisabeth Bumiller, May You Be the Mother of a Hundred Sons (New York: Ballantine Books, 1990), 153. Pranay Gupte, Mother . A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi (New York: Scribner’s, 1992), 130, 148, 182. To distinguish her from the well-recognized Mohandas Gandhi, like many biographers I have used both the first name, Indira, as well as Mrs. Gandhi. 3. Indira Gandhi, India: The Speeches and Reminiscences of Indira Gandhi (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1975, 15, cited in Adams, 88. Jayakar, 148–149. Bumiller, 150. 4. L.N. Sarin, Indira Gandhi: A Political Biography (New Delhi: S. Chand, 1974), 118. Nayantara Saghal, Indira Gandhi: Her Road to Power (New York: Friedrick Ungar, 1982), 6. Ela Sen, Indira Gandhi: A Biography (London: Peter Owen, 1973), 9–10. Krishan Bhatia, Indira: A Biography of Prime Minister Gandhi (New York: Praeger, 1974), 226. Dhirendra K. Vajpeyi and Y. K. Malik, “India: The Years of Indira Gandhi,” Journal of Asian and African Studies xxii (1987), 135. 5. Henry Hart, ed., Indira Gandhi’s India (Boulder: Westview Press, 1976), 242. Yogendra K. Malik, “Indira Gandhi: Personality, Political Power and Party Politics,” Journal of Asian and African Studies xxii (1987), 141, 143. That both her temperament explains her recourse to “dictatorial power” and that she returned to power in 1980 to save her son Sanjay are the theses of Nayantara Saghal’s Indira Gandhi’s Emergence and Style (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 1978) and Mary C. Carras, Indira Gandhi: In the Crucible of Leadership: A Political Biography (Boston: Beacon Press, 1979), 25, 40, 60. Her aunt, Vijaya Pandit, believed that Indira’s upbringing with an absent father and frequently ailing mother bred in her a sense of insecu- rity. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, The Scope of Happiness: A Personal Memoir (London: 1979), 21.Cited in Adams, 69. 6. Saghal, 163–164. Bhatia, 119. Yogendra K. Malik, India: The Years of Indira Gandhi (New York: Brill Academic Press, 1988), 3–4, 22. Adams, 68. 7. Indira Gandhi, My Truth (Delhi: Vision Books, 1982), 51. Jayakar, 90–91. Indira Gandhi, What I Am. In Conversation with Pupul Jayakar 250 ● Notes

(Delhi: Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust, 1986), 17–18. Yogendra K. Malik, India: The Years of Indira Gandhi, 22. 8. Vinod Mehta, The Sanjay Story: From Anand Bhava to Amethi (Bombay: Jaica, 1978), 8. 9. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 50. 10. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 69. Gupte, 109. Mehta, 14–16, 18. 11. Bumiller, 158. Gupte, 239–240. Frank, 253. Adams, 154. 12. Frank, 203, 251. Saghal, 161, 165. Sen, 43, 45, 49. Shashi Tharoor, India, from Midnight to the Millennium (New York: Arcade, 1997), 31. 13. Mehta, 133. 14. Jayakar, 107. Gupte, 235–236, 238. 15. Gupte, 261. Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India (New York, Oxford: Oxford U. Press, 2000), 371. 16. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 86, 96, 102. 17. Saghal, 166. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 90. 18. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 95–96, Her line, “In India our private enterprise is usually more private than enterprising,” long resonated. Cited in Shashi Tharoor, The Elephant, the Tiger, and the Cell Phone. Reflections on India. The Emerging 21st Century Power (New York: Arcade Publishers, 2007), 427–442. 19. Frank, 289–290. For Desai’s own account of his fundamentalist social out- look, see Moraji Desai, The Story of My Life (Madras: Macmillan of India, 1974). 20. Mohandas Gandhi’s Harijans, or “Children of God,” left beneficiaries unhappy, “for were we not all children of God.” Today, they prefer to be known as Dalits, meaning “Oppressed.” Wolpert, 310. 21. Jayakar, 135. 22. Wolpert, 378. Bumiller, 160. 23. Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi. A Personal and Political Biography (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991), 100. Frank, 303. 24. Ram Avtgar Sharma, Indira Gandhi’s Leadership (New Delhi: Raaj Prakashan, 1986), 184. Haksar cited in Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi. The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 436. 25. Wolpert, 382. 26. Arnold Blumberg, ed., Great Leaders, Great Tyrants. Contemporary Views of World Rulers who Made History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), 89. Wolpert, 383. 27. Malhotra, 124. Tharoor, The Elephant, 31. 28. A.K. Damodaran, ed., Indian Foreign Policy. The Indira Gandhi Years (New Delhi: S. Chand, 1974), 76. Frank, 308. 29. Wolpert, 386. 30. Malhotra, 128–129. Desai, quoted in Sharma, 12. 31. Jayakar, 159–161. Frank, 328. Notes ● 251

32. Dahr, 147. 33. Kissinger quoted in Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power (New York:, 1987), cited in Adams, 208. 34. Surgit Mansingh, “India and the Superpowers, 1966–1984,” in Y.K. Malik, D.K. Vajpeyi, eds., India: The Years of Indira Gandhi (London, New York: E.J. Brill, 1988), 146. Nixon, cited in Guha, 460. 35. Malhotra, 141. William Richter, “Mrs. Gandhi’s Neighborhood: Indira Gandhi’s Foreign Policies toward Neighboring countries,” in Malik, Vajpeyi, 130. 36. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 120, 133–134, 155, 170. Surgit Mansingh, India’s Search for Power: Indira Gandhi’s Foreign Policies (Beverly Hills and New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1984), 26. 37. Blumenthal, 90. Adams, 217. Khwaja Ahmad , Indira Gandhi: The Last Post (Bombay: Popular Prakasman, 1985), 12. Frank, 321–322. 38. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 147. Wolpert, 395. 39. Tharoor, The Elephant, 247. 40. Tharoor, From Midnight, 249. 41. R. Natarajan, “Science, Technology and Mrs. Gandhi,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 22 (1987), 232–233, 243, 247. The New York Times, February 2, 1984. 42. Tharoor, The Elephant, 353. 43. Sarin, 86. Frank, 360–361. Barooh was presumably unaare of a similar accolade made by Rudolf Hess regarding Hitler and Germany. 44. Mansingh, 43.

10 Indira Gandhi: Termination 1. Frank, 369. 2. Jayakar, 201. Government engineers had also erected rostrums at her elec- tion rallies. 3. Wolpert, 396, 397. 4. Mehta, 77, 78. 5. Abbas, 19. Frank, 372, 373. 6. Malhotra, 171. 7. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 88, 169. 8. Dhar, 223. 9. Jayakar, 206, 217. 10. Mehta, 17. Dhar, 311. Jayakar, 222. 11. Malhotra, 177–178. Abbas, 105–106. 12. Jayakar, 191–192, 223–224. Mehta, 51. 13. Mehta, 46–47, 176, 178. 14. Malhotra, 169, 170. Adams, 223. 15. Desai and Fernandes, quoted in Ram Avtar Sharma, Indira Gandhi’s Leadership (New Delhi: Prakasham, 1986), 12, 71. Malhotra, 170, 171. 252 ● Notes

16. R.V.R. Rao, “Mrs. Indira Gandhi and India’s Constitutional Structures. An Era of Erosion,” in Malik and Vajpeyi, 23. Dahr, 224–228, 231. 17. Wolpert, 398. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 161–162. Shashi Tharoor, India. From Midnight to the Milennium, 210, 225. 18. Dahr, 251–253, 262. 19. Rao, 31, 32. Malhotra, 173, 176. 20. Dahr, 304. Frank, 383. 21. Malhotra, 176. 22. Dahr, 265–266. 23. Wolpert, 400. 24. Frank, 388. A sympathetic journalist and future biographer listed exam- ples of those who “liked” the Emergency, ranging from taxi drivers who received low interest rate loans from the nationalized banks to purchase their vehicles to tribal students (especially girls) who received free educa- tion in their ashrams. Abbas, 37–38. 25. Tharoor, From Midnight, 232–233. 26. Wolpert, 402–403. 27. Mehta, 82–85. 28. Dahr,, 317, 329–330. Desai, quoted in Sharma, 12. 29. Frank, 390–392. 30. Mehta, 100–103. 31. Mehta, 91. Pankaj Ishra, “Mother India,” New York Review of Books, October 18, 2001, 26. 32. Mehta, 109, 114–115. Frank, 405. 33. Malhotra, 180. Mehta, 123. James G. Chadney, “Family Planning: India’s Achilles Heel?” Journal of Asian and African Studies 22 (1987), 218, 223–227. 34. Mehta, 120. 35. Dahr, 340–341. Mehta, 130. 36. Dahr, 343. Malhotra, 181. 37. This is the view of Adams, 235. 38. Dhar, 344. 346–347, 349–350. 39. Jaykar, 245. Dhar, 350. 40. Rao, 39. Malhotra, 192. Frank, 410, Dhar, 350. Mehta, 106. 41. Indira Gandhi, My Truth, 166. Malhotra, 193. 42. Dahr, 351. 43. Dahr, 352. Wolpert, 404. 44. Mehta, 169–172. Malhotra, 195. Frank, 411, 413. 45. Malhotra, 196. Dhar, 355. Mehta, x. 46. Mehta, xi. Dhar, 356–357. Malhotra, 198. Frank, 414. 47. Dhar, 111. 48. Mehta, 131. V.S. Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization (New York: Knopf, 1977), 20, cited in Wolpert, 405. Notes ● 253

11 Indira Gandhi: Interment 1. Malhotra, 183, 199. Jayakar, 254, 259, 260. 2. Jayakar, 251, 253. Malhotra, 200. 3. Jayakar, 254. Frank, 416. 4. Jayakar, 258. Frank, 418. 5. Frank, 418. 6. Jayakar, 261. 7. Malhotra, 201. 8. Abbas, 47. Malhotra, 204. Jayakar, 262. 9. Jayakar, 264. 10. Jayakar, 266. 11. Dahr, P.N. Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press), 263. Carras, 217, 219, 230. 12. Nayana Currimbhoy, Indira Gandhi (New York: Grolier, 1985), 91. 13. See Note 1. 14. Jayakar, 266–268. Malhotra, 211–212. Currimbhoy, 87. Frank, 424. 15. Jayakar, 268, 270–271. 16. Frank, 426, 427. 17. Bumiller, 150. Jayakar, 280. 18. Malik, “Indira Gandhi,” 152. 19. Malhotra, 208. 20. Malhotra, 201. 21. Frank, 429–430. 22. Wolpert, 408. 23. Frank, 432–433. 24. India Today, November 16–30, 1978, cited in Jayakar, 283. 25. Abbas, 54. 26. Jayakar, 288, 289. Abbas, 254–257. 27. Frank, 436. 28. Jayakar, 289, 294. 29. Jayakar, 297, 298. Adams, 247. 30. Malhotra, 207, 213. Malik, Indira Gandhi, 149. 31. Frank, 438. 32. Wolpert, 408. 33. Jayakar, 300.

12 Indira Gandhi: Resurrection 1. Ali Siddiqui, Son of India (Delhi, 1982), cited in Adams, 248. 2. Carras, 235. 3. Malhotra, 213. 4. Jayakar, 305. 254 ● Notes

5. Dhar, 373–374. 6. Jayakar, 313. Malik, Indira Gandhi, 149, 150. 7. Jayakar, 314–316. Frank, 444. 8. Malhotra, 225. Tharoor, From Midnight, 37. 9. Dahr, 305. Malhotra, 180. Frank, 398–399. 10. Bumiller, 162. 11. Wolpert, 410. 12. Jayakar, 426. 13. Cited in Frank, 451. 14. Guha, 545. 15. Malhotra, 237–239. 16. Pankaj Mishra, “Mrs. India,” New York Review of Books, October 18, 2001, 26. Malhotra, 240. 17. Saghal, 170. 18. Malhotra, 247. Bombay would not have its name changed until a more conservative government came to power. 19. Jayakar, 318–319. 20. Tharoor, From Midnight, 32. 21. Malhotra, 219, 265. 22. Malik, Indira Gandhi, 27. 23. Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Princeton, 1965, 302–303. Wolpert, 417. 24. Pranay Gupte, Mother India. A Political Biography of Indira Gandhi (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1992), 301. 25. Tharoor, From Midnight, 37. Malik, Indira Gandhi, 151. 26. Wolpert, 417. Frank, 456. 27. Malhotra, 289. 28. Frank, 483. Adams, 274. 29. Malhotra, 303. Frank, 485. Abbas, 7, 106. 30. Jayakar, 365. 31. Malhotra, 17, Jayakar, 370. Wolpert, 419. 32. Bumiller, 151.

Conclusions 1. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History. Abridgement of vols. 1– V1 by D.C. Somervell (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1947), 217. 2. There is no published memoir, nor did I find a diary or journal in the Palme papers in the Arbetarrörelsens Arkiv (Labor Movement Archives) in Stockholm. Trudeau’s (abbreviated) memoirs appeared after his final term in office. 3. The Christian Science Monitor, March 18, 1987. 4. Nayantara, Indira Gandhi: Her Road to Power, 1982, p. 37. 5. Certainly, this was true for Churchill, De Gaulle, Perón, and Rabin. Notes ● 255

6. Toynbee, 217. 7. The topic is discussed in Disaster Ritual: Explorations of an Emerging Ritual, by P. Post, R.L. Grimes, A. Nugteren, H. Zondag (Dudley, MA: Peeters Publishers, 2003). 8. This was very much the case, too, after the of Yitzhak Rabin. 9. JFK, held in unusually high esteem, is an exception. Peter Esaisson, Donald Granberg, “Attitudes toward a Fallen Leader, Evaluations of Palme before and after the Assassination” British Journal of Political Science 26, no. 3 (July, 1996), 438. Works Cited

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Sarin, L.N. Indira Gandhi: A Political Biography. New Delhi: S. Chand, 1974. Sen, Ela. Indira Gandhi: A Biography. London: Peter Owen, 1973. Sharma, Ram Avtgar. Indira Gandhi’s Leadership. New Delhi: Raaj Prakashan, 1986. Tharoor, Shashi. India, from Midnight to the Millennium. New York: Arcade, 1997. _____. The Elephant, The Tiger, and the Cell Phone. Reflections on India. The Emerging 21st Century Power. New York: Arcade, 2007. Vajpeyi, Dhirendra K., and Y.K. Malik. “India: The Years of Indira Gandhi,” Journal of Asian and African Studies XXII (1987). Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. New York and Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000.

CONCLUSION Esaisson, Peter and Donald Granberg. “Attitudes Toward a Fallen Leader, Evaluations of Palme Before and After the Assassination,” British Journal of Political Science 26, no.3. July, 1966. Post, P., R.L. Grimes, A. Nugteren, and H. Zondag. Disaster Ritual: Explorations of an Emerging Ritual. Dudley, MA: Peeters Publ., 2003. Toynbee, Arnold J. A Study of History. Abridgement of Vols. 1- VI by D.C. Somervell. New York and London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1947. Index

Olof Palme: “Moral Duty Is Discontent on a Large Scale”

Ahlmark, Per, 39, 45 Dalsjö, Robert, 15, 19, 38, 69 Allende, Salvador, 27 Andersson, Sten, 36, 64 Edenman, Ragnar, 2 Arafat, Yassir, 65 Erlander, Tage, 11, 12, 16; relationship Arbetarrörelsens Arkiv (Labor with Palme, 1, 2, 6, 14, 10, 15; and Movement Archives), 40 secret military ties to the , 4, 14, 19, 33; death of, 67. See Bahr, Egon, 52 also Palme, Olof: as Minister Bergman, Ingmar, 33 Bildt, Carl, 61 Fälldin, Thorbjörn, 24, 29, 39, 59; as Bohman, Gösta, 37, 39, 44, 47; prime minister, 36, 44, 45, 48, 53 criticism of Palme, 15, 23, 24, 27 Farmers (Agrarian) Party. See Center Brandt, Willy, 18, 22, 24, 42, 43, Party 51, 69 Brandt (North-South) Commission, Green Party, 30 40, 42 Branting, Hjalmar, 27, 40, 42 Hansson, Per Albin, 9 Harrington, Michael, 17–18 Carlsson, Ingvar, 36, 40, 55, 65, Holmér, Hans, 70 69, 233 Center Party, 8, 25, 29, 30, 47 Independent Commission on Communist Party, 7, 27, 57 Disarmament and Security Issues Conservative Party, 7, 23, 57, 64. The (Palme Commission), 51, 61, 62, 240 name was later changed to the n.18 . Aside from the Social Democrats, Swedish political Kissinger, Henry, 22, 43 parties have changed names one or Kreisky, Bruno, 24, 42, 49 more times. Krönmark, Eric, 38

Dagens Nyheter (newspaper), 15, 17, 23 Larsson, Sven-Eric, 27 266 ● Index

Liberal Party (Folkpartiet), 7–8, 30, 57. , 30; refusal to See also Ohlin, Bertil divulge U.S. guarantee, 19, 38; on Lindgren, Astrid, 33 neutrality, 12, 18, 63–65; and Ljung, Lennart, 63 nuclear energy, 12, 25, 29, 32, LO (Landsorganisationen, Swedish 45–46; reaction to 1976 defeat, 35; Confederation of Trade Unions), 30, resignation, 34; record as prime 32, 56, 66 minister, 1967–1976, 33; strategy Lundkvist, Artur, 7 after electoral defeat, 36; as Lundvall, Bengt, 19 opposition leader, 227; on Brandt (North-South) Commission, 40; as Meidner (Rudolf) Plan, 12, 30–32, chair of Independent Commission 46–47, 55–56, 59–60 on Disarmament and Security Issues Mercouri, Melina, 15 (Palme Commission), 51–53; and Moberg, Vilhelm, 6–7 national liberation movements, 25, Moderate Party. See Conservative Party 40–43, 49. See also Palme, Olof: and Möller, Gustav, 22 Vietnam; travels of, 17, 27, 40–41, Moores, Simon, 5 67; as UN mediator, 12, 49–50; and Mosey, Chris, 39, 45 apartheid, 40–42, 49; debates with Myrdahl, Alva, 20, 43 Fälldin, 24, 33–34; and Socialist International (SI), 12, 42–43, 51; Nilsson, Gunnar, 34, 57 return to office, 12, 57–58; and Nixon, Richard, 17, 22–23 devaluation of krona, 58; and wage earner funds, 29, 32, and budget Ohlin, Bertil, 11, 12, 13 deficits, 58–59; and Palestine, 65; and immigration into Sweden, Palme, Lisbet, 35, 41 65–66; and the , 15, Palme, Olof; childhood and education, 26, 49, 64, 66; allows “lifeline” to 4; as secretary of Student Union, 2, die out, 62–63; assassination and 3; joins SAP, 3; briefed on funeral of, 68–70, 241 n. 30; American-Swedish guarantee treaty, comparisons with Obasanjo and 5; influences on, 6, 9; criticisms of, Gandhi, 227–233. See also Social 3, 13, 23, 67, 108; works for Democratic Party (SAP): and Erlander, 2, 5; as minister, 5, 9–11; Meidner Plan; Sweden: U.S. secret speeches of, 11, 12, 16–17, 21–23, guarantee on neutrality 30, 39, 40, 51; becomes prime Peterson, Thage, 32, 36, 40, 57 minister, 16; and miners’ strike, 17; and European Community, 17, 65; Reagan, Ronald, 50, 66 and foreign policy (Europe), 18, Richard, Serge, 14, 46 25–27, 61–62; views on socialism, , 16, 27 5–7, 20, 24, 39, 42, 49; views on governing, 23–24, 39; and Vietnam, Schori, Pierre, 43 11, 12–16, 17, 21–23, 27; and Social Democratic Party (SAP), 8, Richard Nixon, 17, 22; and U.S. 10–11, 17–19, 26, 36; and Meidner draft evaders, 21; and Plan, 32; and penal reform, 26; and Index ● 267

nuclear energy, 29, 30; and Vietnam, and Soviet submarines, 54, 61; and 13; and austerity, 67 the UN, 26–27; and Vietnam, Socialist International (SI), 41, 42 11–14 Soviet Union, 16, 49, 61, 64, 66, Synnergren, Stig, 19, 38 68, 102 Strang, Gunnar, 47 Three Mile Island, 48, 48 Sweden; elections in: 9 (1932); 20 Thunborg, Anders, 63, 68 (1970); 24–25 (1973); 27, 30, 32–34 (1976); 47 (1979); 54, 57 (l982); Ullsten, Ola, 45 neutrality policy, 4–6, 15–16, Undén, Östen, 43 18–20, 38, 63–65; disarmament and USSR. See Soviet Union human rights, 26–27; and nuclear energy, 48; openness of government, Vietnam, 11–15, 17 3, 18, 68; U.S. secret guarantee on neutrality, 4–6, 15–16, 18–20, 38, Waldheim, Kurt, 50 63–65; and sexual revolution, 9–10; Wedén, Sven, 13, 15

Olusegun Obasanjo: “Look At What Has Become of This Country”

Abacha, Sani, 119, 120, 121, 122, 127, Babangida, Ibrahim, 107–109, 110, 128 117, 118, 134 Abiola, Moshood, 71, 117–118, 120, Banjo, Victor, 76 124 Botha, P.W., 112 Abubakar, Atiku, 130, 133, 139 Buhari, Muhammad, 106, 107–108 Abuja, 83, 135 Achebe, Chinua, 105, 111–112, Carter, Jimmy, 94, 123 125–126 Constitution (of Second Republic), 88, 97 Africa News (journal), 116, 132 Crowder, Michael, 111 African Leadership Forum, 104, 114, 115, 116 De Cuellar, Javier Perez, 115, 116 Alliance for Democracy (AD), 129, Danjuma, Yakubu, 81, 128 130, 134 All People’s Party (APP), 130, 134 Ekwueme, Alex, 133 Amnesty International, 126, Eminent Persons Group, 112, 114 127–128 Angola, 93, 94–95 Falae, Olu, 130, 133, 134, 135 Anikulapo-Kuti, Fela, 72, 98, 248 n. Falola, Toyin, 105 14 Fraser, Malcolm, 113 Aubakar, Adulsalami, 127, 128–129 Awolowo, Obafemi, 97–101 Gowon, Yakubu, 76, 79, 80, 92 268 ● Index

Igbos, 76, 77, 131 successors, 106; criticism of Babangida and Buhari, 110, 117; Joseph, Richard, 109 nomination as secretary-general of UN, 116–117; agrees to annulment Kissinger, Henry, 94 of Abiola victory, 118; preference for strong executive and one party Mandela, Nelson, 113, 123, 129 system, 88, 110–112, 138–139; Muhammed, Murtala, 81–84, 85, 86, opposes Abacha regime, 119–120; 99, 110 arrest of, 122–123; imprisonment, 124, 126; awards and prizes, 126; National Party of Nigeria (NPN), 100, release from prison, 127; pre- and 105 post election travel, 72, 129, 136; New York Review of Books, 129–130, runs for presidency (1998–1999), 134 130–131; as president (1999–2007), Nigeria, ethnic and linguistic diversity, 135–140; reelection in 2003, 139; 74–75, 131; Delta region, 121, 122, legacy, 224–228; comparisons with 138; expelled from Commonwealth, Palme and Gandhi, 227–233 122; sanctions on, 122 Obasanjo, Stella, 124, 126 Nkrumah, Kwame, 94, 112 Ojo, Onukaba Adinoyi, 79, 86 Nwankwo, Arthur, 110, 111 Ojukwu, Odomegwu, 76

Obasanjo, Oluremi (Akinlawon), 74, People’s Democratic Party (PDP), 130, 76, 78, 79 135, 140 Obasanjo, Olusegun, childhood and Popular Movement for the Liberation education, 72–74; regard for army, of Angola (MPLA), 94 76, 80, 91; and Biafran War, 76–78; Power, Jonathan, 127 grows cynical, 78; view of democracy, 80, 86–88; as minister, Saro Wiwa, Ken, 78, 122 80, 130; and 1975 coup, 81–82; in Shagari, Shehu, 97–98, 101, 106 Muhammed government, 81–84; Shonekan, Ernest, 118–119 disclaims Yoruba favoritism, 84, 87; Soyinka, Wole, 72, 104–105, 109, 118, as military head of state, 1976– 125, 130 1979, 85–95; governing style, Suberu, Rotimi T., 140 86–87; drafts Constitution, 88; domestic reforms, 88–91; and Thatcher, Margaret, 95, 112, 113 national unity, 90–91; and national Trans-Africa, 123 liberation movements, 94–95, 112– Transparency International, 123, 125 114; view of agriculture, 88, 136; and religion, 92; and foreign policy, United Party of Nigeria (UPN), 101 79–80, 93–95; role in 1979 election, 96–99; resignation (1979), Yar’Adua, Shehu, 119, 122, 130 101; as farmer, 101–102, 103; on Yar’Adua, Umaru, 140 international commissions, 114, 245 Yorubas, 74, 98, 124, 131, 132, 135 n. 31; early refusal to condemn Young, Andrew, 128 Index ● 269

Indira Gandhi: “Like a Tigress”

Akal Takht. See Golden Temple imprisonment, 148, 149; as Nehru’s hostess, 149–150, 151; on Congress Bangladesh. See Gandhi, Indira; Pakistan Party executive, 150; Barooah, Dev Kanta, 165 of, 150, 156, Bhindranwale, Jarnail, 211, 220–221 163–164, 215; as minister of Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali, 159, 206–207 information, 151; political philosophy Brahmachari, Dhirendra, 212 of, 151, 152, 158; as prime minister (1966 –1971), 146, 153 –158; seeks Carras, Mary, 175, 203 U.S. aid, 154; devalues rupee, 154, Central Bureau of Intelligence (CBI), 155; critical of , 155; 193, 194 turns to left, 156, 160, 161; splits Communist Party of India, 150, 161, Congress Party, 157, 200; and Ten 173, 182 Point Program, 156; abolition of Congress Party, 146, 157, 210 maharajas privy purses, 158, 159; election of 1971, 158–159; appeals for Desai, Morarji, 151, 143; ambition of, recognition of Bangladesh, 159–160; 150; accepts Shastri, 150; religious relations with United States, 159– views, 152; opposition to Indira, 167, 160, 217; victory over Pakistan 169, 185; imprisonment, 172; as (1971), 160–161; and Soviet Union, prime minister, 189, 199–201; 161, 215, 216; and centralization, resignation, 207; Emergency, 233, 163–164; high tech legacy, 164; 259, 271–274, 277–282, 285–293, nuclear policy, 163; and Five Year 298 n. 24 Plan, 161–162; style of governing, Dhar, P.N., opposes Emergency, 173, 163–165; relations with JP 174; criticism of Indira, 178, 210; on (Narayan), 168; found guilty of Indira-Sanjay relationship, 182, 213; campaign malpractice, 169–170; on Indira’s decision to hold election, decides against stepping down, 187; as biographer, 150–151, 238, 170–171; declares State of 239 Emergency, 13, 171; explanation for Dhawan, R.K., 171, 195 Emergency, 171–173, 176–177; reliance on Sanjay, 11, 173–174, 180– Emergency, 146, 170–173, 176–179, 182; and responses to Emergency, 188, 252 n. 24. See also Gandhi, 177; and Twenty Point Program, 178; Indira and extension of Emergency rule, 178; has Constitution amended, 179; Fernandes, George, 176, 202, 205, 207 postpones parliamentary election, Frank, Katherine, 155, 162 179–180; and charges of nepotism, 180; confronts Sanjay, 185; calls off Gandhi, Feroze, 148–149, 150 Emergency, 184–185; supports new Gandhi, Indira, childhood and elections, 185; and 1977 election, education, 146–148, 249 n. 5; early 185–188; fears for Sanjay, 191, 192; 270 ● Index

promotional tours, 194–195, 199, Gandhi, Sonia, 146, 175, 214, 226 202; criticism of Janata, 195–196; Golden Temple, 221. See also Sikh arrested by CBI, 146, 197–198; and Green Revolution, 157, 164 Shah Commission, 196–197, 198–199; harassed by Janata Haksar, P.N., 156 government, 198; wins 1978 bye- Harijans (Untouchables), 195, 215, 250 election, 202–204; expelled from n. 20 Parliament, 204; second arrest and imprisonment, 205; exploits Janata India, wars with Pakistan (1965), 152; discord, 205–206, 207; and 1980 (1971), 146, 159–160; diversity of, election, 209–210; forms new 162, 164, 218; Constitution, 165; government (1980), 210–211; elections (1967), 155: (1971), becomes more superstitious, 212; and 158–159: (1977), 186–187: (1980), Sanjay’s death, 213; style of 207: (1986), 225; trade unions government after 1980, 213; and and strikes, 166, 167; and Soviet technology, 216; and neutrality, 217; Union, 179, 181, 192; family and Islamic fundamentalism, 216, planning, 181–185; women in 218; and Hindu nationalism, 218, Parliament, 225. See also Gandhi, 220; fatalism of, 222, 223; Indira: turns to left; Gandhi, assassination of, 222–223; Sanjay comparisons with Palme and Obasanjo, 227–233. See also Janata Morcha (People’s Front), 168, Emergency 170, 187, 192; harassment of Gandhi Gandhi, Maneka, 190, 214–215 family, 193, 194; Hindu orthodoxy Gandhi, Mohandas (Mahatma), 146, of, 195; infighting in, 194, 202, 205; 147, 149, 194, 204 prosecution of Indira Gandhi, 209 Gandhi, Priyanka, 191, 226 Jayakar, Pupul, 148–149, 173, 174–175, Gandhi, Rahul, 191, 226 191, 206 Gandhi, Rajiv, 146, 147, 151; opposes Emergency, 173; blames Sanjay for Kamaraj, Kumaraswami, 151, 153 Indira’s fall, 188; marries Sonia Khan, Ayub, 152 Maino, 191; elected to Parliament, Khan, Yahya, 159 214; as prime minister, 224, 225–226, Kissinger, Henry, 160 233; assassination of, 226 Kosygin, Aleksi, 152 Gandhi, Sanjay, ix, 149, 151–152, 191; influence on Indira, 170–171, 213; Lok Sabha, 155, 200 and car project, 162, 173–174, 181, 204; and Congress Youth Party, Malhotra, Inder, 174, 175, 176,177, 180–182; and slum clearance, 182; 194, 201, 214 and family planning, 182–184; and 1977 election, 187–188; arrest and Naipaul, V.S., 189 imprisonment, 200; indicted and Narain, Raj, 159, 169, 206, 207 fined, 206; and 1980 election, 210, Narayan, Jayaprakash (“JP”), 212; death of, 213 background, 168, 169; creation of Index ● 271

Janata, 166, 168; aims at paralyzing Rushdie, Salman, 194 government, 169; and Indira’s refusal to step down, 171, 177; Shah Commission, 193, 196, 197–198, imprisonment of, 171–172; paroled, 200 179; and resurrection of Janata, 187; Shastri, Lal Bahadur, 151–152 calls on Indira after her resignation, Sikhs/Sikhism, 210, 218, 223–224 193; death, 195 Singh, Charan, 193, 195, 206, 207 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 146–147, 148, Singh, Sarwan, 200 150, 151 Singh, Zail, 220, 224 Nehru, Kamala, 147 State of Emergency. See Emergency Nehru, Molital, 147, 148 Syndicate, 150, 156–157, 228 Nixon, Richard, 159, 161 Tashkent Summit, 152 Pakistan, 157. See also India, wars with Teen Murti, 149 Pakistan Tharoor, Shashi, 163, 164–165, 179, 213 Pandit, Vijaya, 150, 187 Vajpayee, Behari, 169, 193, 207 Rahman, Sheikh Mujibur, 159, 180 Rajya Sabha, 158, 176 Wolpert, Stanley, 180 Ram, Jagjivan, 187–188, 193, 195 Reddy, Sanjiva, 156, 207 Zia ul-Haq, General, 206