How It Works Issue 9

NEW THE MAGAZINE THAT FEEDS MINDS INSIDE

INTERVIEW DR YAN WONG TM FROM BBC’S BANG SCIENCE ■ ENVIRONMENT ■ TECHNOLOGY ■ TRANSPORT HISTORY ■ SPACE GOES THE THEORY HEART VOLCANIC BYPASSES ERUPTIONS How modern surgeons Discover the explosive save lives everyday BREAK THE 200MB BARRIER! power beneath Earth SUPERFAST BROADBAND LEARN REVEALED! THE NEXT-GENERATION ABOUT NETWORKS THAT DELIVER ■ CASSINI PROBE WARP-SPEED INTERNET ■ RAINING ANIMALS ■ PLANET MERCURY ■ BATTLE OF BRITAIN THE WORLD’S ■ PLACEBO EFFECT ■ LEANING TOWER OF PISA DEADLIEST ■ THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CHOPPER ■ ANDROID VS iPHONE Inside the Apache ■ AVALANCHES 919 AH-64D Longbow FACTS AND 9

ANSWERS 0

INSIDE £3.99 4 0 0 2 3 7 1 4 0 ISSN 2041-7322 2 7 7 ISSUE NINE ISSUE RACE TO 9 HUMAN SOLAR ROLLER 1,000MPH ALLERGIES© Imagine PublishingFLARES Ltd COASTERS Awesome engineering Why dust,No unauthorisedhair and pollen copyingHow massive or distribution explosions on Heart-stopping secrets of behind the land speed record make us sneeze the Sun affect our planet the world’s wildest rides www.howitworksdaily.com

001_HIW_009.indd 1 27/5/10 16:34:18 © Imagine Publishing Ltd No unauthorised copying or distribution Get in touch Have YOU got a question you want answered by the How It Works team? Get in touch by… Email: [email protected] Web: www.howitworksdaily.com ISSUE NINE Snail mail: How It Works Imagine Publishing, 33 Richmond Hill The magazine that feeds minds! Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ ”FEED YOUR MIND!” Welcome to How It Meet the experts The sections explained Works issue 9, and the newest and “Written by experts to be enjoyed The huge amount of info in each most accessible by everyone” is how we like to roll, issue of How It Works is organised so meet the people that work so into these sections science and technology hard to bring you each issue… HISTORY ENVIRONMENT magazine is back The natural world Questions answered Nick Parkin with another Weapons of the Wild West explained on how things worked in the past helping of Nick has a Masters in TRANSPORT nutritious oceanography and philosophy of Be it road, rail, mind. He’s no cowboy but he was air or sea entertainment to feed knowledge- quick on the draw when it came to you’ll find hungry minds everywhere. writing about the weapons of the out about Wild West this issue. it here Editing this magazine could be Aneel Bhangu described as something of a roller Heart bypass coaster, a particularly exciting one with Aneel is a trainee colorectal TECHNOLOGY many more highs than lows, and maybe surgeon in Birmingham, training The wonders of in both cancer surgery and care of modern gadgetry it was the experience of the last eight emergency and trauma patients. and engineering issues that led us to offer the in-depth He is also the author of three SCIENCE explained medical textbooks. explanation of the white-knuckle rides Explaining the Vivienne Raper applications of SPACE that can be found on page 14. If you’ve Geysers science in the From exploration to the solar ever wondered just how you’re being contemporary world system to deep space Vivienne is our go-to gal for earth propelled around a track at breakneck sciences, she gained her PHD by speeds the answers lie just a few page studying polar ice-fields with lasers and radar. This issue we Editor’s pick turns away. asked her to explain geysers and Speed is a recurring theme this issue the results can be seen on page 36. It’s tricky trying to pick a favourite from so many cool and while out-of-control buses carrying Dr Bridget McDermott topics but my choice this issue comes from the History Greek warships section. It’s the 70th anniversary of the Battle of bombs aren’t quite within our remit, the

Ancient military technology is the Britain so head to page 74 to discover the machines world land speed record is defi nitely specialist subject for our resident and tactics that defeated the Luftwaffe back in 1940. right up our salt-fl at. While the actual history expert so she was right at home with her assignment on the record attempts are a few years away yet Trireme, the warship that helped we thought it was high time to take a build the mighty Greek empire. look at the contenders who hope to Tom Harris Human nervous system break the awesome 1,000mph limit and their amazing vehicles, so get up to A familiar face who has been with us since issue 1, Tom was one of speed on page 54. the original writers at If roller coasters and rocket cars don’t howstuffworks.com where he headed up an award-winning offer enough blokey excitement then content team. we’ve raised the stakes even further with a rundown of the fi ve most explosive substances on earth, an With thanks to explanation of the Apache gunship How It Works would like to thank the helicopter and a look at why volcanoes following companies and organisations for What you’re saying about How It Works their help in creating this issue erupt. For less testosterone-fuelled Just wanted to say – on like WHOAAA!!!!! – information, you can also fi nd out how behalf of the team – how Miguel Reyes our nervous systems react, why the much we love the magazine! Thanks for putting together tower at Pisa leans and how mankind is – James Walshe, Kerrang! such a great mag, keep it up. searching for new Earths. Radio & Q Radio – Jennifer Ford I would also like to say that Loved the mega yachts your magazine is simply feature! – Dave Carstairs AWESOME!!! And I mean Dave Harfi eld Editor in Chief © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 003

003_HIW_009.indd 3 1/6/10 16:38:00 54 ISSUE NINE Race for 1,000mph ■ The teams from Britain, Australia and the US compete The magazine that feeds minds! for the 1,000mph crown 06Global Eye A selection of jaw-dropping images and news from the realms of science, technology, nature, space and transport

74 The Battle of Britain ■ Learn the story of Britain’s decisive victory 32 Explosions Sections ■ Discover the awesome power behind the most explosive Technology substances on Earth 14 Roller coasters A look behind the amazing engineering that creates some of the wildest rides on Earth 44 18 Milking machines Volcanic eruptions 18 Bulletproof glass ■ Why they erupt and what 19 Touch-sensitive lights happens when they do? 19 Powercube transformers 20 Android vs iPhone 22 Superfast broadband Understanding the technology behind the next generation networks that fly at 200Mbps Science 26 The nervous system The network that relays touch, sensation and pain 28 Allergies 28 The placebo effect 29 Heart bypasses Go to pg 92 for some great deals © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 004 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

004-005_HIW_009.indd 4 1/6/10 15:41:33 30 Frostbite 31 Fire 32 Explosions Regulars The most explosive substances on Earth revealed and tested 12 How It Works Environment interview 36 Geysers How It Works talks to Dr Yan Wong from BBC’s Bang Goes 38 Crocodile jaws The Theory fame Why crocodiles jaws can be held shut with an elastic band 38 Worms 39 Avalanches 48 Understanding what causes these Apache AH-64D Longbow deadly flows of snow ■ The technology behind the world’s 40 Hummingbirds deadliest helicopter 40 Raining animals 41 Rubies, sapphires and emeralds 43 Fog 43 Petrifaction 64 Because 44 Volcanic eruptions enquiring Search for a new Earth Awesome explosions from beneath the minds want ■ How NASA scientists are looking Earth revealed to know… for a planet just like ours 80 Expert Transport answers Experts from the National 48 Apache AH-64D Longbow Science Museum and the On-board and inside the world’s International Year of deadliest chopper Biodiversity 50 Spark plugs Dr Robert Bloomﬁ eld 51 Hybrid drive buses Director IYB-UK 53 Wankel rotary engines With a PhD in Genetics, Bob leads 54 Race to 1,000mph the panel of experts Meet the contenders for the land speed from International Year record and the men who plan on of Biodiversity. making history Dan Plane Science Museum Explainer Space Dan performs shows at the museum about 58 Planet Mercury subjects as varied as We take a look inside the smallest planet structures, bubbles 14 and blood. in the solar system and reveal why size Roller coasters isn’t everything… Dominique Sleet ■ The amazing Science Museum Explainer engineering behind 60 Night and day Dominique studied the most amazing 61 Io: The volcanic moon Natural Sciences white-knuckle rides 62 Solar ﬂ ares before becoming a museum explainer. 63 The Cassini probe 64 Search for a new Earth Find out how close NASA is to finding a planet like our own, and discover where it is looking for it History For connoisseurs of kit and savants of stuff 86 The latest 68 Greek warships Inside a Greek Trireme, the ships that reviews made Athens great Pocket digital radios go head-to-head this month 70 Evolution of the bicycle 70 First TV 94 How to make 71 Leaning Tower of Pisa Turn an Every wondered why this landmark Altoids tilts to one side? Well, we have all the tin into answers for you a handy torch 72 Weapons of the Wild West 74 The Battle of Britain 96 How It Works Learn how the RAF defeated the – Inbox Go to pg 92 for some great deals Luftwaffe back in 1940 and the impact it Your chance to have your say on had on the war the magazine and what we do © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 005

004-005_HIW_009.indd 5 1/6/10 15:42:09 We say goodbye Sadly, after contributing to issue 7’s article on optical illusions, Professor Richard Gregory passed away on 17 May at the age of 87. Gregory, who was Emeritus Professor of A fresh look at the world Neuropsychology at the University of Bristol, was respected world wide for his work in the field, with his writing, lecturing and public speaking unparalleled over the past 60 years. Opportunity How It Works would like to thank him again for the expert guidance he lent to us when researching the optical breaks Mars illusions article. Opportunity’s six years on Mars have brought some record ground-breaking data NASA bot exceeds record for longest mission on Mars n 20 May NASA’s Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Opportunity, one of two research O robots sent to the red planet in 2003, became the longest successful Martian mission. The last surface mission to Mars to last this long was NASA’s stationary lander the Viking 1, which spent six years and 116 days on the surface between 1976 and 1982. Although the other MER, Spirit, began work on the planet before the record-breaking Opportunity, Spirit has been out of action since becoming lodged on difficult terrain a year ago and full communication has been lost since 22 March this year when her batteries finally went flat. However, if and when solar panels can recharge her batteries, in turn enabling the rover to resume comms and research, Spirit’s mission will automatically take over as the longest on record. Although the recharging of batteries is entirely dependent on their tilt towards the limited winter sun, NASA scientists are hopeful that the rover’s normal service could resume. “Opportunity, and likely Spirit, surpassing the Viking 1 Lander longevity record is truly remarkable, considering these rovers were designed for only a 90-day mission on the surface of Mars,” said MERs’ project manager John Callas. The work carried out by the rovers has been invaluable to our understanding of Mars. For instance, evidence of clay minerals support the idea that water once flowed over the surface. And according to Steve Squyres, the principal investigator for Opportunity and Spirit, “the clay minerals… speak to a time when the chemistry was much friendlier to life than the environments that formed the minerals Opportunity has seen so far. We want to get there to learn their context. Was there flowing water? Were there steam vents? Hot springs? We want to find out.” And if these rovers continue to exceed all Nothing’s been able to stop NASA hopes Spirit will once expectations there’s every chance we will. Opportunity in its tracks… again become functional All images © NASA © images All

17 June: How It Works issue 9 goes on sale, but what else 1885 This day in history happened on this day in history? A 151-foot tall gift from Mumtaz French British troops France, the 1631 Mahal, the 1714 astronomer 1775 battle the globally iconic wife of Mughal emporer César-Francois Cassini de American Continental Army Statue of Shah Jahan dies during Thury, grandson of during the famous Battle of Liberty arrives childbirth. The Taj Mahal is Giovanni Domenico Bunker Hill during the in New York a dedication to her. Cassini, is born. American Revolutionary War. City.

008-009_HIW_009.indd 8 1/6/10 12:40:17 This Month...

© syncardia.com © MONTH IN FACTS Short, concentrated bursts of facts and figures from the last month in news 2,307 Heart in days n The Opportunity rover surpassed the Viking 1 Lander’s Mars mission longevity record of a bag 2,307 days on 20 May 2010.

The Freedom Driver has enabled “I know we’ve made a No ordinary backpack – bunch of mistakes, but the first American with a totally the Freedom Driver is a pioneering piece of kit my hope at the end of this artificial heart to leave hospital is that the service ends up n artificial heart recipient has To enable Okeke to leave hospital and powered by two batteries but can also be in a better place” become the first American to regain his freedom while he awaits a donor plugged into a wall or car socket. A display n A be fitted with a battery-driven heart, a more portable alternative was screen also reveals the user’s beats per Facebook cofounder Mark device that supports his prosthetic required, and thanks to SynCardia minute, fill volume and cardiac output. Zuckerberg confirms the social heart. 12 years ago 43-year-old Systems’ Freedom Driver, Okeke has now While Okeke’s doctors maintain that if networking site’s privacy settings Charles Okeke’s own heart was left his hospital ward and returned home. he doesn’t find a suitable donor he could will receive a major an overhaul. irreversibly damaged by a blood clot. Okeke is the first American to trial the use the Freedom Driver for the rest of his He received a transplant, which, ten Freedom Driver, which is connected to his life, the device currently costs $125,000 years later, his body rejected. Unable artificial heart by tubes. The device, which with yearly maintenance costs of around to receive a second transplant, Okeke has now been approved by the FDA, $18,000, so the system certainly doesn’t spent two years in hospital attached weighs just 13.5 pounds and can fit into come cheap. Still, you can’t put a price to a life-saving 400lbs machine. either a backpack or shoulder bag. It’s on freedom. 50 n The ESA’s Ariane 5 heavy-lift Clear skies ahead launch vehicle made its 50th flight A super-green plane designed by MIT burns 70 per cent less fuel when it launched from French team of developers run by MIT Guiana on 21 May. The Double Bubble gets its name from have designed a commercial the extra-wide fuselage that resembles two bubbles stuck together A plane that uses 70 per cent less We spend almost fuel than today’s airliners. The team pitched the design to NASA in a a day online bid to win a contract to develop and evaluate every month concepts for cleaner aircraft over the next n The UK Online Measurement 25 years. The D series ‘Double Bubble’ takes company’s research shows British the traditional tube-and-wing fuselage but internet users spend 22 hours 15 adds a second tube for extra space and lift. minutes online every month. The engines use a technique called Boundary Layer Ingestion, which takes in slow-moving air in the wake of the fuselage. Slimmer wings and a smaller tail also help $500 reduce the amount of drag and fuel burned. D series planes could replace Boeing’s domestic flights 737s. With the go-ahead million and funding from NASA, MIT could change n BP is funding research up to the

© MIT/Aurora Flight Sciences Flight MIT/Aurora © the shape of air travel by 2035. value of $500 million towards studying the impact of the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. An IRA 1898 1939 1958 1972 1974 bomb The birthday of artist MC Escher, In Versailles, Playland’s flagship Five members of the explodes at the whose many optical illusions – murderer Eugen attraction the Wooden White House are Houses of Parliament such as never-ending staircases – Weidmann Roller Coaster opened arrested at 2:30am for damaging the confuddled audiences becomes the last today in 1958. For all attempting to bug the government everywhere. To learn about the person to be you need to know Democratic National building’s secrets of optical illusions, why publicly about roller coasters, Committee’s HQ at the Westminster Hall not revisit issue 7 where we have beheaded in turn to page 14 of this Watergate hotel and and injuring 11 four pages on the subject. France. very issue. office complex. people. © BP © © Imagine Publishing Ltd www.howitworksDAILY.com | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 009

008-009_HIW_009.indd 9 1/6/10 12:40:31 A fresh look at the world Apple vs Flash cont. wo weeks after Apple CEO Steve Jobs openly attacked Adobe over After an open letter Tthe proprietary nature of its Flash from Steve Jobs was technology – a multimedia platform that is used to add animation, video and released by Apple, interactivity to webpages – its cofounders hit back with an open letter Adobe launches of their own and a very targeted advertising campaign advertisement campaign. Currently, Adobe Flash is banned on and reacts with Apple’s iPod, iPhone and iPad due to, as counter statement commented by Jobs, poor performance and security issues when translated to run on touch-screen smartphones and handheld Dr Charles M devices. Jobs, commenting on the reliability, Geschke Chairman of the security and performance of Flash said that, Board at Adobe “Flash is the number one reason why Macs crash and we don’t want to reduce the reliability and security of our iPhones, iPods and iPads by adding Flash. We have routinely asked Adobe to show us Flash performing well on a mobile device [and] we think it will eventually ship, but we’re glad we didn’t hold our breath.” Firing back, however, Adobe founders Chuck Geschke and John Warnock responded to Jobs saying: “No company – no matter how big or how creative – should dictate what you can create, how you create it, or what you can experience on the web. We believe that Apple, by taking the approach [to ban Flash], has taken a step that could undermine this next chapter of the web – the chapter in which mobile devices outnumber computers, any individual can be a publisher, and content is The Apple iPad. Could it be © AP © accessed anywhere and at any time.” the ultimate Flash-killer?

What’s on the radar of excitement? Take a look at this visual guide to what the team love most this issue… Roller coasters 10 Dave Helen Ed in Chief Deputy Editor Solar ﬂ ares Superfast On a personal level, this is one of The world is moving faster in so broadband 8 the most exciting issues we’ve many ways and issue 9 is done. I love the Battle Of Britain testament to this. From the fast- 6 feature and the Apache AH-64D paced thrills of roller coasters to Longbow cutaway is amazing. I’m advances in broadband speeds, also really pleased with the feature and of course the race to break the 4 on the world land speed record 1,000mph record I’m loving the Battle of Britain Android vs iPhone and the race to 1,000mph. speedy features this issue. 2 Rob Jon 0 Staff Writer Senior Sub Editor I love it when humans push the For me, nothing displays the 2 boundaries of what was thought incredible power of the natural impossible just because they can, world quite like a volcano. As Search for a new Earth Explosions stepping forth into unknown we’ve seen recently, they can bring 4 territory and risking it all in the countries to a standstill, and are a name of progress. For that reason spectacular sight to behold. 6 the race to 1,000mph has to win it They’ve also given us some great for me this issue. films, such as Dante’s Peak… 8 Race to 1,000mph Volcanoes 10 Rob’s excitedness seems to have gone nuclear this month with a massive ten-point jump over last issue. And while Helen’s excitement dipped, Dave got excited by pretty much everything in the issue! Apache © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 010 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

010-011_HIW_009.indd 10 1/6/10 16:40:31 The Lockheed P38 Lightning was used extensively by the Americans www.howitworksdaily.com during the Second World War TV

The How It Works site is regularly updated with the web’s most amazing videos

Atlantis docks for the last time © Tighar / Barcroft media Barcroft Tighar/ © ■ Due to NASA’s retirement of the Space Shuttle programme, Atlantis Lost fi ghter plane makes its last ever visit to the ISS. to be salvaged After 60 years submerged under sand off the coast of Britain, a Air Multiplier Lockheed P38 Lightning lost during World War II is to be saved technology he International Group for training exercises in the late Forties breaking and disintegrating into dust when ■ Following on from our feature Historic Aircraft Recovery where its engines cut-out and had it is fi nally moved. on Dyson’s new bladeless fan last T (TIGHAR), a group who been long-presumed lost. When fi nally removed from its current month, this quick video shows discovered a rare World War II plane The TIGHAR team have announced that location – which is being kept secret from you the process in real-time. buried under sand and sea on a UK they plan to raise the P38 from its watery the general public to prevent looting and beach, are to shortly raise it from its grave by using a state-of-the-art technique potential damage, as well as the potential current resting place. The Lockheed involving submerging the aircraft in an dangers its intact fuel tanks might have – P38 Lightning – an American-built electrifi ed solution. This will prevent the it is to be gifted to the British Museum, fi ghter bomber – was lost during plane – which is highly rusted – from where it will be on public display. Star ejected from Golden Eagle hunts ■ Watch as a Golden Eagle hunts cluster at massive speed goats by dragging them off the high cliffs they inhabit, before picking A star in the distant 30 Doradus nebula that is 90 ight now a massive runaway the carcasses up and fl ying away. times more massive than our own Sun has been star is careering away from its Rstellar nursery at more than ejected from its stellar nursery at 250,000mph 250,000mph. The star is only 1-2 million years old and NASA scientists believe it may have travelled up to © NASA © 375 light-years from its suspected birthplace of R136. Nolan Walborn of the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore and a member of the COS team that observed Slow-motion water the runaway star commented: “These balloon face explosion results are of great interest because such ■ Enjoy the results of a water dynamical processes in very dense, balloon and man’s face meeting massive clusters have been predicted with a great deal of kinetic energy. theoretically for some time, but this is the fi rst direct observation of the process in such a region.” “It is generally accepted that R136 is suffi ciently young that the cluster’s most massive stars have not yet exploded as supernovae,” said Danny Lennon of the Space Telescope Science Institute.

010-011_HIW_009.indd 11 1/6/10 16:40:53 Dr Wong is a man A fresh look at the world on a mission Dr Yan Wong Putting science theories to the test in the hip BBC show Bang Goes The Theory, scientist and Oxford- educated author Dr Yan Wong spoke to us about how and why he thinks making science fun and applying its use to the real world is so important great – more chance for me to enjoy trying to understand it. HIW: We’re hoping you’re a fan of gadgets, Amusingly, I did manage to slice into my and if so is there one particular gadget or thumb with a knife just before going into a shark piece of kit that you wouldn’t like to live tank to talk about snorkels. But they were only your daily life without? small, well-fed sharks, and it’s a bit of a myth YW: I’m afraid that I might disappoint you, as about blood being particularly important: I’m I’m not a real gadget freak. I do use my laptop a told they can detect all sorts of bodily lot – too much probably. It’s a cliché, but the excretions (sweat etc) too. I’m actually slightly internet really has revolutionised human disappointed that I haven’t had the chance to do knowledge, and that’s what science is all about. any really scary or hazardous experiments. Since I don’t have a car, my bikes are pretty “ Anything involving magnets seems Fingers crossed for the next series. indispensable too. HIW: In an interview you mentioned two HIW: What is next on your to-do list? magical – try dropping one down particular teachers that encouraged your YW: Right now: going to pick up my daughter a copper or aluminium pipe: that curiosity in biology. How did these and taking her to my parents’ house in London, individuals inspire you, and have you ever where I’ll try to fi x my mum’s garden trellis! In amazes me every time I see it” had the opportunity to say thank you? the long term – more TV experience, writing an YW: My GCSE teacher made the class fi gure introduction to statistics, and getting more How It Works: Please tell us a little about scribbling down equations. But I actually think things out for themselves, rather than referring involved in interesting research. your role in Bang Goes The Theory and it’s a mistake to think of scientists like that. They to a textbook all the time. My main A-level what you want to pass on to viewers. are just everyday people who have the immense teacher gave up a lot of his time to push me HIW: And fi nally, are you the brainiest Yan Wong: Well, I’m naturally quite a chatty good fortune to be paid to think about – and beyond the limits of the syllabus, forcing me to member of Bang Goes The Theory? person, and I’m also quite curious about play with – the world around them. understand the subject, rather than just YW: I think most people have about the same anything and everything. I guess that’s why I memorise what was needed for the exam. I did amount of raw neurological processing power. have the role in the series of fi nding members of HIW: Which of your many exciting return to thank them after my undergraduate When it’s channelled by education in certain the public and discussing some of the science experiments on Bang Goes The Theory has degree, and it’s funny you should mention it ways it’s seen as brainy, but I’m not really sure behind things that they see and do. It’s a brilliant been your favourite to pass on to viewers? now, because I’m in the process of contacting it’s a very useful classifi cation. So I don’t usually role to have, because awakening that curiosity And which has been the scariest – how do them again now. think of anyone as more or less brainy than in people just makes everything so much more you manage to avoid the slightly more anyone else. interesting. That’s really what I’d like to pass on: hazardous experiments? HIW: You say you’d like to “stamp your the idea that investigating the world around us YW: For the simple ones you can try at home, I mark” on the world around you, do you A new way of toasting Ryvita is one of the most stimulating things that you like those that seem almost magic. I have plan to do this as a continuation of the can do as a human. recently fi lmed one on how to supercool water show and sharing your love for science and – that’s pretty stunning. And anything involving your knack for inspiring others to learn, or HIW: You’ve become a very popular face magnets seems magical – try dropping one do you have plans for more research and on the science education scene. You down a copper or aluminium pipe: that amazes self-discovery for yourself which you can describe yourself as a ‘boffi n’, what does me every time I see it. Actually, I only found out then pass down to new generations? this term mean to you? rather recently that electromagnetism is a YW: Both, I hope! I’d certainly like to keep YW: I think I said that other people might fantastic simple demonstration of the special mentally active with a lot more research than describe me as a boffi n. I don’t really think theory of relativity. On the other hand, I’m managing to do at the moment. That might about what to call myself. I’m just me! The word ferromagnetism (like you get in a permanent improve when my young daughter starts going ‘boffi n’ to me conjures up that clichéd image of magnet) is a lot more complicated, and I’m not to school. At the moment I do quite a lot of the

someone in a white lab coat, or absentmindedly sure I have properly grasped it yet; but that’s child care – which I enjoy too. All Images © BBC

Protégé It’s complicated… Author Teacher DR YAN As an undergraduate at An evolutionary biologist, Yan gained a PhD in For three years Yan worked as a Yan has lectured on a Oxford University, Yan computational and mathematical modelling of self- researcher and co-author on Richard number of subjects WONG studied under the famous incompatibility systems in plants – as far as we Dawkins’ book about evolutionary including evolution, British science writer understand this relates to learning about the theories of biology The Ancestor’s Tale, which genetics and ecology at FACTS Richard Dawkins. plant evolution and reproduction. was published in 2004. Leeds University. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 012 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

012_HIW_009.indd 12 1/6/10 12:42:19 © Imagine Publishing Ltd No unauthorised copying or distribution Computing Electronics Gadgets Engineering Communication Domestic Entertainment Medical General TECHNOLOGY categories explained Roller coasters

Oblivion is one of 1. Corkscrew Alton Towers’ Among the most famous main attractions roller coaster elements – trains enter the corkscrew and are twisted through 360º to emerge travelling in a different direction.

3. Zero gravity roll Riders experience 0g – gravity is cancelled out by opposing forces so This month in there is a feeling of weightlessness. Technology It is often felt on uphill 360º twists. Thrill-seekers should check out our guide to roller coasters and how they get our hearts pounding. Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © Meanwhile, those demanding 6. Train 5. Brake run highly efficient download Two or more cars linked up are These are sections of track, speeds should also take a called a train. The position of usually at the end, that look at our superfast the car in a train dictates the incorporate a braking device to broadband article to find out effects on the riders. slow the roller coaster. These can be skids, a fin on the car or, how this side of the more recently, magnetic eddy communications industry is current brakes. developing. We also pitted iPhone versus Nexus in the ultimate smartphone showdown, took a look at milking machines, and discovered what makes bulletproof glass so tough.

18 Milking machines

20 Nexus vs iPhone 7. Dive loop A dive loop is a type of roller coaster inversion wher the Roller track twists upwards and to the side, and then dives toward the ground in a half- coasters vertical loop 22 Superfast broadband They strike fear into many, but we still love them! Here, we TECHNOLOGY detail the engineering achievement that is the roller coaster 14 Roller coasters Some of the world’s most forward-looking Today, they incorporate solutions that are at the leading edge engineering is actually in operation right now, in of scientiﬁ c development. This means they are able to accelerate 18 Bullet-resistant glass the unexpected setting of the world’s theme as fast as a drag racer and let passengers experience G-forces 18 Milking machines parks. From the pioneering 18th Century way in excess of a Formula 1 race car. 19 Touch-sensitive lights ‘Russian Mountains’, people have been hooked They do all this in complete safety, having passed the very 19 Powercube transformers on the frightful thrill of a roller coaster – and ever since, the strictest engineering standards. People travel for miles to ride 20 Android vs iPhone challenge has been to make an even bigger, even better, even on the latest roller coaster – they’ll even cross continents just to 22 Superfast broadband more terrifying one. experience the latest thrill. But why? Here, we explain all… © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 014 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

014-017_HIW_009.indd 14 1/6/10 16:18:16 Ferrari World, Abu Dhabi Kingda Ka, New Jersey Steel Dragon 2000, Colossus, Ring Racer, Nagashima, Japan Thorpe Park, UK Nurburgring, Germany 5 This will be the world’s fastest This ‘Strata coaster’ is the TOP 1 roller coaster when it opens 2 daddy of all roller coasters. It For sheer length of thrill, this A combination of loop, double Running parallel to the famed later this year – it will hit a top holds the record for tallest 3 one tops the lot with a running 4 corkscrew, heartline roll, 5 German racetrack, this goes FACTS speed of nearly 150mph and (456ft), biggest drop (418ft) length of 8,133ft. Here’s cobra roll and quad heartline from 0-135mph in 2.5 MOST THRILLING riders will even have to wear and is also the fastest hoping you don’t discover you roll hand this ride the record seconds! That’s way beyond ROLLER COASTERS safety goggles. currently operating coaster. hate it after the ﬁ rst twist… for number of inversions. any road car.

DID YOU KNOW? American LaMarcus Adna Thompson is considered the ‘father of the roller coaster’

4. Lift hill The lift hill is the first rising section of How roller track containing the drive mechanism to raise the roller coaster to the summit. coasters roll Roller coaster trains are unpowered. They rely on an initial application of acceleration force, then combine stored potential energy and gravitational forces to continue along the track. This is why they rise and fall as they twist and turn. There are various methods of Smile for launching a roller coaster. the camera…

© 2010 Merlin Entertainments Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © Traditionally, a lift hill is used – the train is pulled up a steep section of track. It is released at the top, where gravity transfers potential energy into kinetic energy, accelerating the train. Launches can be via a chain lift that locks onto the underneath of the train, or a motorised drive tyre system, or a simple cable lift. There is also the catapult launch lift: the train is accelerated very fast by an engine or a dropped weight. Newer roller coasters use motors for launching. These generate intense acceleration on a fl at section of track. Linear induction motors use electromagnetic force to pull the train along the track. They are very controllable with modern electronics. Some rides now have induction motors at points along the track, negating the need to store all the energy at the lift hill – giving designers more opportunities to create new sensations. Hydraulic launch systems are also starting to become more popular. Careful calculation means a roller coaster releases roughly enough energy to complete the course. At the end, a brake run halts the train – this compensates for different velocities caused by 2. Headchopper varying forces due to changing passenger loads. © Alex Pang Alex © Designers build the layout tightly so they ‘appear’ to risk chopping passengers’ heads off as they The Stealth ride at Tower Park approach! The reality is there’s isn’t for the faint-hearted ample clearance, but it’s a big part of the thrill. Anatomy of a roller coaster Roller coasters comprise many elements, each Computer models can analyse the forces that with its own specifi c physical characteristics. will be produced by each twist and turn, Designers give a ride character by applying an ensuring they are kept within specifi c understanding of physics to build up a boundaries. Roller coasters may look like a sequence of thrills. These are all interrelated random snake of track, but the reality is years and mean the experience of every ride is of scientifi c calculations to provide just the

exciting and unique. right effects. Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 015

014-017_HIW_009.indd 15 1/6/10 16:18:58 “ Because of frictional and other losses, each subsequent incline will TECHNOLOGY be shorter than the one before”

Roller coasters Acceleration force Pure acceleration is a change in velocity over time – represented by Newton’s famous formula F=ma. Rate of acceleration is therefore dependent on both the weight of The physics Gravity the train and the force applied. of the ride (weight) The science that gets roller Apparent coasters going weight All roller coasters begin with an acceleration force. This is to overcome inertia – the resistance to change in velocity. It is quantiﬁ ed by the mass of the train, which Acceleration Apparent weight depends on the individual load. Full trains will have more force Applying acceleration or gravity inertia than unladen ones. However, by applying more forces changes our sensation of force during acceleration, they also store more potential weight. It is different to actual weight – less apparent weight energy to offset this. Designers work to reduce other makes our bodies feel ‘lighter’. sources of inertia such as friction-reducing low rolling resistance wheels. The aim of acceleration is to store sufﬁ cient potential energy at the top of the crest for transferral into driving kinetic energy to take the train to the next ascent. Because of frictional and other losses, each subsequent incline will be shorter than the one before – not all the kinetic energy can be recovered into potential energy. Gravity is fundamental to roller coasters – designers manipulate the effect of attraction between two masses to subject strong forces on the body. Weightlessness, for example, is caused by centrifugal forces cancelling out Gravity (weight) gravity forces. Centrifugal force feels like an outward force Weight is a measurement of the force exerted on a body by away from the centre of rotation when turning a corner. gravity towards the centre of the It’s as if the body is being pressed down into the train, but earth. ‘2g’ means equivalent to is actually the reverse: an external force is being supplied twice the force of gravity. by the train towards the centre of rotation.

Need for speed The roller coaster is accelerated to the ground G makes it great faster than gravity – this The aim of a roller coaster is to subject forces on the An intolerance of side forces is why many roller causes negative G-force that presses you back into the seat. body people do not normally experience. These coaster corners are banked. This reduces the G- have to be within safe medical limits, and to do this forces on passengers to around 1.5g, helping protect designers consider physiology. The body is more necks. It is unable to deal with high side forces so able to tolerate vertical forces rather than horizontal careful consideration must be given here to not ones. This is particularly the case for compression injure people. forces. Many roller coasters therefore compress Overall, though, a roller coaster is the only thing passengers ﬁ rmly into their seats, with forces up to this side of a race car or space shuttle where you can +6g, but won’t let them ‘ﬂ oat’ out too severely – the feel what such incredible forces are like. Are your effects of a negative 2g force will still be strongly felt! body and your constitution up to it?

Summit approach The approach to a summit appears to be about to launch you into the air as no track is visible in front!

Loop Serious G-force is felt during the loop, along with disorientation as the track disappears over your head. © 2010 Merlin Entertainments Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 016 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

014-017_HIW_009.indd 16 1/6/10 16:32:31 THE STATS FASTEST 149.1mph TALLEST 456ft LONGEST8,133ft ROLLER COASTERS BIGGEST DROP 418ft MOST INVERSIONS10 DROP ANGLE97

DID YOU KNOW? A human intolerance to side forces is why many corners and bends are banked Train to retain Keeping you on the right track Roller coaster trains themselves are quite simple – they are not Train carriages are connected by a ﬂ exible joint that powered so do not have to account for drive mechanisms. They securely attaches despite the extreme angles, twists and turns do, however, have to incorporate a method of picking up drive that can occur between the two trains. Carriages themselves from the roller coaster itself – either through connection to a are usually steel structures, with classic roller coasters using launch track or chain lift, or via power from induction motors. wooden trains. There is much redundancy built into the connection between train and track. There are a series of wheels which run on the sides and underneath of the track as well as the usual top-running wheels. Side wheels drive it and wheels below stop it moving up off the track. The top wheels carry the load of the passengers. In combination, the wheels lock the train securely on the track. Side wheels Wheels to the side and wheels below Learn more prevent the train from being derailed. The Roller Coaster Database is a great source of top stats (http:// rcdb.com/). Fan sites include Ultimate Roller Coaster (http://

© 2010 Merlin Merlin 2010 © Group Entertainments www.ultimateroller coaster. com/) and ThrillNetwork (http:// www.thrillnetwork.com/). Discovery also airs special programmes on roller coasters and has a great roller coaster builder resource on its website (http://dsc.discovery.com/ games/coasters/interactive. html). The industry body’s IAAPA Top wheels (http://www.iaapa.org/) and The wheels above BlooLoop (http://www.blooloop. the track support com/index.aspx) provides news the weight of the for the theme park industry. passengers. Feeling hot? The twists of Thorpe Park’s Nemesis Inferno demand over-the- shoulder restraints. © 2010 Merlin Entertainments Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 © Belts for the fans Two types of restraint are common belts are often fi tted too – for – lap bars and over-shoulder redundancy, and for measurement: restraints. Older roller coasters use they’re sized to fi t the largest lap bars – fl oor-mounted padded allowed person, no larger! © 2010 Merlin bars that swing down above the Entertainments Group passenger’s legs and lock at either Hold on tight side of the carriage. This double Colossus is the UK’s only locking means if one side fails, the quadruple corkscrew. other will still restrain people. Roller coaster connoisseurs like them for the greater freedom but they are not as safe. Most roller coasters now use over-shoulder bars. These are U- shaped padded bars that swing down to lock over the passengers’ shoulders. They hold securely and also mean occupants cannot fl y out of their seat: an essential for

inversion rides. Secondary strap Group Entertainments Merlin 2010 ©

014-017_HIW_009.indd 17 1/6/10 18:06:21 “ The polycarbonate layer behind it forces the glass to shatter internally TECHNOLOGY rather than outwards” Bulletproof glass / Milking machines

Mouthpiece Mouthpiece chamber Cluster unit Consisting of four teat 3. Milk phase cups, a claw, a long 4. Rest phase When air is drawn out milk hose and a long When air is pumped of the pulsation pulse pipe, the cluster into the pulsation chamber inside the chamber inside the teat unit draws milk from cup, a vacuum (suction) teat cup, the lining is created around the the cow into the main collapses, teat. The pressure pipe system. massaging the teat difference opens the and closing the teat teat canal and draws canal. the milk out. © Science Photo Library Photo Science © Teat cup lining Pulsation chamber

1. Teat cups Outer teat cup Short milk pipe Bulletproof Each cluster consists of four teat cups themselves each made 5. Long milk pipe A short milk hose connected glass explained up of a metal shell, a to the teat cup directs milk rubber lining and a short away from the cow to the milk pipe. Shattering the science claw where it’s transported – together with the milk from behind what makes the other cows – to the main breakable unbreakable 6. Claw milking pipeline. Beneath the teat cups is the Bullet-resistant glass works by absorbing a claw, which connects the short bullet’s kinetic (movement) energy and pulse pipe and milk pipes to the dissipating it across a larger area. Multiple main system’s long air pipes layers of toughened glass are reinforced with and long milk pipes. Here air is alternated layers of polycarbonate – a tough but fl exible added to the milk to help it fl ow through the system. Milk Milking station transparent plastic which retains the see-through receiver properties of glass. As a bullet strikes the fi rst glass layer, Vacuum line the polycarbonate layer behind it forces the glass to shatter internally rather than outwards. This process absorbs some of the bullet’s kinetic energy. 2. Pulsator (not shown) The high velocity impact also fl attens the bullet’s head. The pulsator is the valve on a pipe Imagine trying to pierce through a sheet of cotton with the that’s connected to the claw and adjusts the air pressure in the top end of a pencil. It would be very diffi cult compared to pulsation chamber. The pulsator is using the sharp pointed end. The same principle applies attached to a main air pipeline here. The fl at-headed bullet struggles to penetrate the layer that feeds into the claw. of polycarbonate. As the bullet travels through each layer of Courtesy of Greenoak glass and polycarbonate, the process is repeated until it no greenoak.uk.com) 7. Milk pump (not shown) Equipment Ltd (www. longer has the speed and shape to exit the fi nal layer. A motor-driven milk pump Portable removes the collected milk from milking unit The layers of the main pipeline and transports Milk line it to the receiver tank for chilling Vacuum pump bulletproof glass and processing. Cooling tank Anti-scratch coating Polyester Polyvinyl butyral Glass Polyurethane Milking machines Polycarbonate Polyurethane How to get milk from a cow Glass The milk is extracted using a chamber is devoid of air (milk phase) a vacuum Polyvinyl butyral vacuum applied to the cow’s teats. is created, which gently draws milk from the Ceramic paint (dot matrix) Milk stored in the udder is drawn teat. When the chamber is fi lled with air (rest Glass into a system of pipes leading to a phase) the lining of the teat cup collapses and receiver tank where the milk is collected massages the teat. Continued repetition of before being passed to the cooling tank. these phases not only aids milk production by A ‘cluster’ of four teat cups – each consisting mimicking the action of a suckling calf, it also DID YOU KNOW? of a stainless steel shell, a fl exible rubber lining promotes blood circulation. One-way bullet-resistant glass is often used in military and a short pulse pipe – are attached to the To help the milk fl ow away through the situations. While protecting against incoming bullets, teats. Between the outer shell and lining is a pipeline, once out of the cow the milk is mixed shots can still be returned unaffected. pulsation chamber that collapses with the with air added by a claw – the claw connects addition of air from a pulsator. When the the teat cups to the milk and pulse tubes. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 018 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

018_HIW_009.indd 18 1/6/10 12:44:41 Don’t let your brain go hungry

Online: www.howitworksdaily.co.uk SUBSCRIBE NOW! Phone: 0844 815 5944 to the magazine that feeds minds

DID YOU KNOW? Touch-sensitive lamps that change brightness per touch work by rapidly switching the bulb on and off

4. Primary coil 5. Secondary coil 3. Coiled wire The primary coil With less turns, the Concentrically wrapped, Inside a receives 110-240 volts secondary coil outputs a each wire is insulated from of alternating current current with a lower each other so the current powercube (AC). It will consist of voltage than the original follows the longest path, How the transformer many more turns than input. creating a larger converts the volts the secondary coil. electromagnetic ﬁ eld.

2. Plug pack The insulated plug pack protects people from the dangerous voltage inside.

How do touch- sensitive lamps 7. Metal core work? 1. Plastic bobbin 6. Diodes (not shown) The metal core increases the The plastic bobbin secures the coils Two diodes convert the output of the secondary primary coil’s electromagnetic fi eld How your body’s in place and ensures they remain coil into direct current (DC). Diodes only allow and acts as a magnetic pathway to separated from each other. electric current to fl ow in one direction. the secondary coil. own conductivity can light up a room Everything, including people, has a certain level of How powercube capacitance; the ability to retain an electrical charge. In standby mode, the lamp’s circuitry sends a weak electrical current to its transformers work external metal layer until its capacitance is full. This fl ow of current remains a How 240 volts is converted into a safe constant value until a person touches the power supply for home gadgets metal surface. The human body can conduct electricity quite well so Look around your home and you will probably fi nd several electrons freely fl ow from the lamp’s transformers connected to laptops, charging phones and powering surface into his or her body. alarm clocks. Transformers convert relatively high domestic voltages As a result, the capacitance is into lower voltages suitable for home appliances. increased and a higher current is Inside is a single core of metal. Wrapped around it are two separate coils of wire required to electrify both the lamp and – a primary coil and a secondary coil. The primary coil receives the 110-240 volt the person. A circuit detects the increase mains alternating current (AC) power supply. This generates an electromagnetic in current and sends a signal to a ‘binary fi eld. An electromagnetic fi eld will always generate an electric current in a wire fl ip fl op’ switch. This ‘fl ips’ its output within its proximity – a process called electromagnetic induction. signal between off and on each time the The primary coil’s electromagnetic fi eld induces an electric current of a lower lamp is tapped, switching the bulb off voltage in the secondary coil. How much lower depends on the ratio of turns and on. The ‘fl ip fl op’ switch ‘remembers’ between each coil. If the primary coil had 1,000 turns and the secondary coil had the last status of the bulb so it can react 500 turns, the output voltage would be halved. Finally, two diodes convert the Here’s one that we accordingly after each touch. output into direct current (DC) for use in home appliances. broke earlier! © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 019

019_HIW_009.indd 19 1/6/10 16:43:32 “ Android is clearly heavily The Statistics Apple iPhone TECHNOLOGY inﬂ uenced by the iPhone” Dimensions: 115mm x 62mm x 12.3mm Weight: iPhone vs Android 135g (n/a without battery) Display: 3.5-inch touch screen Processor/speed: 600MHz Camera: 3.2MP Memory: 256MB RAM Ports: iPhone connector Battery: N/A Extras: GPS and compass, iPhone vs accelerometer, iTunes store Android Google’s Android and Apple’s iPhone are taking mobile phones into evermore exciting areas. But what are their differences, and which is the best?

When Apple unveiled the iPhone in iPhone 2007 little did anyone know just how explained revolutionary it would be. Three years Needing no introduction, on and the device has established itself the iPhone’s success lies as perhaps the most defi ning in functionality and simple electronic gadget of its generation, and it has a whole design. Its hardware new troop of big-name rivals looking to get a slice of makes it one of the fastest the market. Biggest among these is the Android OS. An handhelds available today OS (operating system) is the software on a computer with 600MHz of processing that manages the way different programs use its power and 256MB of RAM in hardware. Android is just such an operating system the latest 3GS model and similar to how Windows fulfi ls this task on a PC, Android manages the tasks on a smartphone. Maps Like Android the iPhone has Google Developed by internet search giant Google, the OS Maps installed, although it doesn’t recently surpassed iPhone sales for the very fi rst time have the same turn-by-turn in the US. navigation that Google-based Android is heavily infl uenced by the iPhone – its devices have. user interface is built around touch screen input, but it Apps has signifi cant differences too. The key to the iPhone The iPhone has well over 150,000 is its apps – tiny programs that can add almost apps available in the App Store, unlimited functionality to the phone. While Android covering just about every function has apps there aren’t as many (around 50,000 you could imagine a phone doing – compared to the near 200,000 for iPhone). Instead and a few more besides! Android is a more web-based OS, using an always-on iPod internet connection over 3G or Wi-Fi to constantly The iPod is at the heart of the iPhone experience. It is as powerful and download data from the web, from Facebook updates seamless as any dedicated iPod, and to sports scores. Instead of having its data confi ned to backed by up to 32GB of storage. individual apps it supports widgets, tiny icons that go on the home screen and display the data held within Home its associated app. A widget for the BBC News app, for The only button on the front of the iPhone has multiple functions assigned example, shows a constant stream of news headlines to it. Tap once to return to the home as soon as you turn your phone on. It makes the screen, or tap twice to uncover other Android OS feel like a very dynamic system. app-specific functions. © Apple © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 020 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

020-021_HIW_009.indd 20 1/6/10 16:46:15 FASTEST 1. HTC Desire CHEAPEST 2. T-Mobile NEWEST 3. HTC Evo 4G Head Powered by a 1GHz Pulse Mini This is where the processor, this rather The Pulse Mini runs the smartphone is heading: four- to Head impressive Android-based Android OS, but is priced at inch screen, super-fast 4G smartphone is as capable just £99 on a pay as you go network connectivity – an ANDROID as a desktop PC from only a deal in the UK. Perfect for incredibly powerful device PHONES few years ago. smartphone newcomers. coming to the States soon.

DID YOU KNOW? Current 3G smartphones are able to download data at up to 7.2Mbps over a phone network

The Statistics Buyer’s Nexus One guide Dimensions: 119mm x 59.8mm x 11.5mm Which OS is Weight: 130g (100g without battery) right for you? Display: 3.7-inch touch screen Processor/speed: 1GHz Snapdragon processor Camera: Five megapixels, auto focus, LED ﬂ ash, location tagging from AGPS receiver Memory: 512MB Flash, 4GB microSD card (expandable to 32GB) Ports: 3.5mm stereo headphone jack with four contacts for inline voice and remote control While the iPhone OS is only available on iPhone Battery: Removable 1400mAh devices from Apple, Android OS comes in many Extras: GPS and compass, accelerometer, light sensor that different forms including in popular handsets changes screen brightness to such as the HTC Desire, Motorola DROID, and Sony conserve power, personalised Ericsson Xperia X10. As a result, when choosing to laser engraving (up to 50 buy one or the other it is not simply a case of either characters on the back of Android or iPhone, but between the different the phone) Android handsets as well. They all look pretty much the same – rectangular in shape with a large screen and minimal buttons on the front, although a couple of Android handsets also come with slide- out Qwerty keyboards that make typing much easier. This is often seen as a must-have for those wishing to use the phone for work. What the iPhone offers ahead of Android is the full iPod experience, with seamless integration with iTunes Nexus One delivering the easiest and quickest way of getting explained music and videos onto any phone. Released in January, the LOOKING FOR Great music performance Nexus One is an Android- GO FOR: iPhone powered smartphone from Google. It features a 1GHz processor and a five LOOKING FOR Free satnav megapixel camera. It’s GO FOR: Nexus available on T-Mobile and AT&T networks in the US LOOKING FOR Loads of apps and Vodafone in the UK GO FOR: iPhone Search Google’s own search engine is LOOKING FOR Ease of use inevitably a key feature of the GO FOR: iPhone Android OS, opening its results in the desktop-quality web browser. LOOKING FOR Social networking Satnav GO FOR: Nexus In the US and the UK Google’s popular Google Maps application LOOKING FOR Powerful web browsing also provides full, free turn-by-turn satellite navigation, along with GO FOR: Nexus voice directions. Widgets Verdict… Widgets show a summary of what a The iPhone certainly comes out on top in relation full app is doing – giving previews of to the number of apps available and general weather, news, emails and any other entertainment, but for the mobile web Android is data-based activities. the way to go. Gmail The Nexus One Gmail app provides Learn more the full Google Mail experience. It Smartphone Essentials is a monthly magazine dedicated to the uses a push service, meaning your latest in the world of mobile devices. With a strong focus on mails are ‘pushed’ to your phone iPhone and Android, the mag is the best place to discover the as soon as they are sent, much like latest apps and accessories (www.smartphonedaily.co.uk). © Google text messages. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 021

020-021_HIW_009.indd 21 1/6/10 16:47:03 WWW Dominant Modal VIP Victorian 5 The man credited with The prevalent language of Currently, in the UK the fastest The fi rst switched telephone Many copper-based TOP 1 inventing the internet is Sir Tim 2 communication on the 3 commercial fi bre optic line 4 network arrived in Britain in 5 communication lines in the UK Berners-Lee, a British computer internet is English, followed by broadband connection is an 1879 when The Telephone can trace their origins back to FACTS scientist and professor at the Chinese and Spanish. This is ‘up to 50MB’ connection. The Company Ltd opened its fi rst Victorian and Edwardian Massachusetts Institute of despite 42 per cent of total lines are available in selected exchange in London. It served times, especially in built-up TECHNOLOGY INTERNET Technology. users being based in Asia. areas only. just eight subscribers. areas around major cities. Superfast broadband

HOW IS FIBRE OPTIC BROADBAND USHERING IN A NEW ERA OF COMMUNICATION?

Superfast

broadbandRemember dial-up internet? Most of us became more necessary, can you imagine using way in ‘fi bre-to-the-home’ broadband lines. However do and it’s not so very long ago that iTunes or YouTube on a 56K modem? Neither could the many western nations such as America, Sweden and speeds of 56K were considered fast service providers who now vie for our attention, trying Romania are following close behind. Over the next few when it came to accessing the delights to fi nd the balance between faster connections and pages we’ll be explaining fi bre optics, the amazing of the world wide web. And while it lower prices. technology behind the new generation of internet may have been fi ne for checking GeoCities pages and Currently the fastest speed on offer in the UK and US connections, so read on to fi nd out just how it works, bulletin boards, as our demands and uses of the and most of Europe lie somewhere between 2MB and where you can fi nd it and why some countries are internet became more complex so higher speeds 10MB while China, South Korea and Japan lead the faster than others. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 022 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

022-025_HIW_009.indd 22 1/6/10 17:03:55 WWW Dominant Modal VIP Victorian 5 The man credited with The prevalent language of Currently, in the UK the fastest The fi rst switched telephone Many copper-based TOP 1 inventing the internet is Sir Tim 2 communication on the 3 commercial fi bre optic line 4 network arrived in Britain in 5 communication lines in the UK Berners-Lee, a British computer internet is English, followed by broadband connection is an 1879 when The Telephone can trace their origins back to FACTS scientist and professor at the Chinese and Spanish. This is ‘up to 50MB’ connection. The Company Ltd opened its fi rst Victorian and Edwardian Massachusetts Institute of despite 42 per cent of total lines are available in selected exchange in London. It served times, especially in built-up INTERNET Technology. users being based in Asia. areas only. just eight subscribers. areas around major cities.

DID YOU KNOW? Currently all new undersea cables are made of optical ﬁ bres

A laser bouncing down a Perspex rod demonstrating the total internal reflection of light in an optical fibre Broadband now In most countries, broadband is delivered down copper telephone wire, which suffers from speed, range and breadth restrictions. The wire, which is prevalent across most networks, often dates from the early 20th or even late 19th Century and carries information through electric pulses. This is problematic in terms of maintaining speed at long ranges as all electrical transmissions are subject to high electrical resistance, and information effectiveness is compromised. In addition, electrical A standard transceiver used to send Refl ection Exit transmission lines suffer when tightly packed from and receive data Light enters the Perspex line and is Data leaves the other end at crosstalk – a phenomenon by which a signal reflected throughout. the speed of light. transmitted on one circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an undesired effect in another circuit or channel. In short, the system is an Superfast broadband explained ageing one, unable to meet today’s demands. The brand new breed of superfast A fi bre optic line is an excellent medium Delivery broadband connections is made possible for communication purposes as it holds A diagram illustrating by switching from copper telephone wires numerous advantageous properties over how broadband to new fi bre optic cables. Fibre optic the existing copper-based wiring architectures vary broadband essentially works by networks. Most notable is its long-distance depending on the transmitting data as pulses of light from data delivery speed, a factor made distance between the optical fibre end-point, an exchange throughout an optical fi bre – possible because light propagates through existing copper-based a cable consisting of a light-carrying glass fi bre with little attenuation and, obviously, network and the user. The core, light-refl ecting cladding (to ensure at the speed of light. Further, each fi bre building on the left is the total light retention) and protective buffer optic cable can carry many independent communications coating – before then receiving and channels of information, each using a exchange; that on the right is representative of one of decoding that information at the far end different wavelength of light, so the sheer the buildings served by it. with a transceiver. amount of data is increased also. FTTN (Fibre-to-the-node) The last mile Optical fibre is terminated The term ‘the last mile’ refers to the fi nal at a node multiple miles leg of delivering broadband from the user’s residence, FTTN with the connection from it Optical fi bres Metallic cables communications from a provider to a to the premises being user. In reality, the last mile may in fact copper-based. be considerably further than a mile, FTTC >1000ft (300m) with many miles separating the two. (Fibre-to-the-cabinet) This is because at this late stage any Similar to FTTN, this main cable must be fanned out and split configuration sees any to service numerous separate clients, optical fibre terminated at a often living far apart. This is time- street cabinet closer to the FTTC user’s house. The consuming and carries a large expense, connection from it, though, however, if the ‘last mile’ is too great a Superfast is still copper. <1000ft (300m) distance, then the cable infrastructure is rendered useless as it cannot sustain FTTB information fl ow due to speed loss. (Fibre-to-the-building) Used in apartment and To address these connectivity issues office blocks, this sees the many operators share and splice optical cable stop at the FTTB networks to reach customers, with boundary of the structure, cabling varying in type and length the final connection being depending on where the user is based. delivered by other means. This has the obvious drawback that broadband FTTH while initially a line from a provider (Fibre-to-the-home) may be fi bre optic (carrying data faster Here an optical fibre line and further with less speed loss), at the enters the user’s premises users’ end, in the ‘last mile’, it may be like a regular copper FTTH fanned out onto an old, pre-existing connection. No copper copper line, which as aforementioned in connections are necessary in the ‘last mile’ and speed this article, sustains high-speeds poorly, is vastly increased. especially over large distances. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 023

022-025_HIW_009.indd 23 1/6/10 17:04:50 Don’t let your brain go hungry

“ More and more countries are rolling-out Online: www.howitworksdaily.co.uk SUBSCRIBE NOW! TECHNOLOGY extensive optical networks” Phone: 0844 815 5944 to the magazine that feeds minds Superfast broadband

An underground fibre optic splice Sweden enclosure opened for splicing Denmark Netherlands Latvia Romania Japan Switzerland South Korea Czech Republic Hong Kong 11.7

8.6 Korea South 7.2 7.6 6.2 Hong Kong Hong 6.1 Japan 1. South Korea – 11.7 Mbps

5.3 Romania 2. Hong Kong – 8.6 Mbps Latvia 5.2 5.2 Sweden 3. Japan – 7.6 Mbps 5.1 4. Romania – 7.2 Mbps 5. Latvia – 6.2 Mbps Netherlands Denmark 6. Sweden – 6.1 Mbps Switzerland Czech Republic Czech 7. Netherlands – 5.3 Mbps 8. Czech Republic – 5.2 Mbps 9. Denmark – 5.2 Mbps 10. Switzerland – 5.1 Mbps Needs page number... United States THE TOP 10 REGIONS WITH THE FASTEST 22of America AVERAGE SPEED 26Great *The United States is ranked 22nd, with the average broadband connection speed of 3.8Mbps, while Britain is ranked even lower at 26th with an average of 3.5Mbps Britain © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 024 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

022-025_HIW_009.indd 24 1/6/10 17:07:44 Don’t let your brain go hungry

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DID YOU KNOW? The government of Estonia passed a law declaring internet access a fundamental human right of its citizenry

Why are some countries faster Top five fastest places than others? 20,000 If you’ve been looking at the speeds on 19,000 offer in Asian countries and 18,000 for broadband experiencing an extreme case of 17,000 broadband envy then you might be wondering just why the services on offer 16,000 in South Korea, Hong Kong and even 15,000 Sweden are better than those in the US 14,000 or UK. Part of the answer lies in fi nancial 13,000 outlay; Japan, South Korea and Sweden have all made signifi cant investment in 12,000 fi bre optic networks. 11,000 Urban density plays its part in the 10,000 disparity too. Much of the population in South Korea live in very dense 9,000 apartment complexes. Most of the 8,000 superfast broadband service has been 7,000 delivered by fi bre optic connections into 6,000 the basements of buildings like these, 5,000 then to the individual apartments by fast © Dhaluza © DSL. So while the fastest broadband 4,000 connection in the world currently 3,000 resides in the UK (see below) this is 2,000 unlikely to see domestic role-out soon due to the prohibitive nature of 1,000 upgrading the existing network. KBPS 0

Region: United States Region: United States Region: South Korea Region: United States Region: Great Britain City: Berkeley, CA Town: Chapel Hill, NC City: Masan CDP: Stanford, CA City: Oxford, England KBPS: 18,730 KBPS: 17,483 KBPS: 14,969 KBPS: 16,956 KBPS: 14,463 What can superfast broadband be used for? New devices are making the most of increased bandwidth The fastest Cloud computing, online gaming, digital instantly streamed live over the internet with Cloud computing downloads and live streaming of television no waiting or downloading. Gaming services Where content is stored online and accessed broadband in and fi lms are but a selection of the possible like Steam allow for titles to be bought online, remotely from hardware the world services fi bre optic broadband can be utilised then downloaded and played instantly devices – will be advanced From the 20 March 2010, the title of for. Indeed, already a host of applications and without the buyer ever needing to leave the with widespread superfast world’s fastest broadband supplier was services are being set-up to exploit the house. Online gaming is also quicker and broadband. awarded to Virgin Media after it benefi ts fi bre optic broadband brings. users experience lower ping rates and demonstrated its 200Mbps service trials NetFlix, for example, allows for an reduced lag. at Earls Court, London. That speed is four unprecedented selection of titles – both from times faster than its current top-end the current season of television, classical fi lm 50Mbps connection and twice that of the archives and new Hollywood releases – to be already reported 100Mbps connection due at the end of 2010. Virgin achieved this record speed by using the DOCSIS 3 (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specifi cation) international telecommunications standard that allows for high-speed data transfer over an existing hybrid fi bre coaxial infrastructure. Despite the epic speed, the service is not currently commercially available, however, and an early estimate has put it being introduced, depending on demand, in mid 2012. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 025

022-025_HIW_009.indd 25 1/6/10 17:09:00 World’s largest neuron No nervous system Getting a head Gotta sing! Conscious breathers 5 TOP The giant squid axon, which is Sponges are the only multi- Most animals have evolved During the spring, a ﬂ ood For whales and dolphins, 1 almost a metre long and can be 2 cellular animals without 3 cephalisation, an efﬁ cient 4 of testosterone greatly 5 breathing isn’t part of the FACTS up to a millimetre thick, helps neurons. They don’t really clustering of neural structures expands the song areas of automatic nervous system. propel a squid forward (it do much, so they don’t (usually a brain) near sensors a male bird’s brain so it is They have to do it consciously, NERVOUS propelled early nervous system actually have much need for and feeding organs at one end able to handle complex which means they can never research too). a nervous system. of the body (a head). mating calls. go to sleep completely. Biology Chemistry Physics General SCIENCE categories explained SYSTEM The human nervous system Your nervous

1. Cerebellum Latin for “little brain,” the cerebellum This month in co-ordinates and fi ne-tunes skilled movements, based on incoming sensory Science system information. It’s also involved in It’s a well established rule in maintaining balance and posture. Hollywood that the cool guys Lovely as you may be, you are really just an in movies never look at 2. Facial nerve organisation of not especially talented cells Branching sensory fi bres run to the explosions. They just walk taste buds and the front of the tongue, away from them while Like any organisation, neurotransmitters can travel to while motor nerves connected to your lighting a cigarette, cocking a your success depends on receptors on dendrites of an adjoining salivary glands and muscles form facial handgun or putting on communication between neuron, across a small gap called a expressions. sunglasses. Individuals who your individual synapse. Depending on the type of 3. Vagus nerve aren’t in the movies or aren’t members. In a sense, you neurotransmitter and receptor, the A critical nerve running from the brain to particularly cool usually love actually are this communication, since it signal may excite the adjoining neuron the neck, throat, chest and abdomen, the looking at a good explosion is the magic that makes you a single, to fi re an electrical charge down its own vagus is key to controlling your heart rate, swallowing, digestion and respiration. so if you fall into this clever creature. Your built-in axon, or the signal may inhibit the category turn to page 32 and communications network, known as the neuron from fi ring. The complex 4. Ganglion find out why things blow up. nervous system, perceives the outside connections and signal patterns among Bundles of tightly packed neurons that We’ve also compiled a list of world, keeps all body parts working in the hundreds of billions of neurons in serve as key connection hubs in the body’s complex network of nerves. the most explosive harmony, and forms the thoughts and your brain form thoughts, memories and substances on Earth for your memories that make you unique. all other mental activities. information and enjoyment. 5. Spinal cord The nervous system comprises Similarly, axons that extend out from A bundle of long axons hundreds of billions of specialised cells your brain and spinal column into your that run from the brain called neurons. A typical neuron body can release neurotransmitters to to the lower spinal column, forming the key consists of a compact cell body, trigger muscle movement and organ connection between the protruding fi laments called dendrites, activity. This is how your brain controls brain and body. and a long single fi bre called an axon. the rest of your body. Neurons also carry The axon can transmit signals to other signals from the body back to the brain. neurons and to muscle cells, while the You perceive sights, sounds, smells and 6. Radial nerve A nerve that carries 28 Allergies dendrite can receive signals from other taste when sensory cells in your eyes, muscle motor neurons and sensory cells. A neuron’s mouth, nose and ears excite nearby commands that axon may extend across the brain or neurons. The neurons send an electrical move your elbow, body and branch off hundreds of times. signal up to the brain, which interprets wrist and fi ngers. When something excites a neuron, the them. Sensory neurons near your skin cell body will send an electrical charge and other parts of the body fi re an down the length of an axon, triggering electric signal in response to pressure, axon terminals to release chemicals which your brain perceives as the called neurotransmitters. These sense of touch. 29 Heart bypass

Hitting a nerve: the 7. Ulnar nerve not so funny bone A key nerve Most of the larger nerves in your involved in bending your body are insulated by muscle, We’ve never found fi ngers and bones and tissue. The big it that funny! wrist. 31 Fire exception is the ulnar nerve, which runs down your arm, by way of your elbow. The nerve SCIENCE carries motor commands to your Know 26 Nervous system ring and pinkie fi ngers and relays 28 Allergies sensory information back to the your nerves It would be impossible to give due 28 Placebos central nervous system. If you bang your elbow, the humerus credit to all the interconnected 29 Heart bypass bone bumps the nerve, jarring the neurons, nerves, and supporting 30 Frostbite axons inside, which your brain cells that make up your nervous 31 How fi re works interprets as a tingling sensation. system, but we can point out some 32 Explosions of the most valuable players… © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 026 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

026-027_HIW_009.indd 26 1/6/10 12:47:20 World’s largest neuron No nervous system Getting a head Gotta sing! Conscious breathers 5 TOP The giant squid axon, which is Sponges are the only multi- Most animals have evolved During the spring, a ﬂ ood For whales and dolphins, 1 almost a metre long and can be 2 cellular animals without 3 cephalisation, an efﬁ cient 4 of testosterone greatly 5 breathing isn’t part of the FACTS up to a millimetre thick, helps neurons. They don’t really clustering of neural structures expands the song areas of automatic nervous system. propel a squid forward (it do much, so they don’t (usually a brain) near sensors a male bird’s brain so it is They have to do it consciously, NERVOUS propelled early nervous system actually have much need for and feeding organs at one end able to handle complex which means they can never SYSTEM research too). a nervous system. of the body (a head). mating calls. go to sleep completely.

DID YOU KNOW? Laid out ﬂ at and end-to-end, all the nerves in your body would wrap 2½ times around the planet

4. Nerve 1. Axon Anatomy fascicle The neural fi bre that carries electrical A bundle of signals representing motor commands Your built-in autopilot axons. and sensory information. of a nerve Your automatic nervous system (ANS) works behind the scenes to Nerves are sturdy enough to 2. Myelin sheath keep your body running smoothly. The ANS is part of your protect your sensitive axons from Fatty insulation that keeps peripheral nervous system, made up of sensory nerve fi bres that axons from short-circuiting. Your nervous damage, but fl exible enough to constantly relay information about the state of your body and the snake around your body parts… 5. Blood motor nerves that relay commands from the brain and spinal cord to vessels various glands, the involuntary smooth muscles in organs and blood Supply of vessels, and the cardiac muscles that control your heart. blood that provides The ANS’ chief function is homeostasis – adjusting bodily neurons processes to maintain internal stability. The ANS does this through system with energy. two opposing, yet complimentary sub-systems: the sympathetic division and parasympathetic division. The sympathetic division is like the accelerator in your car. The motor neurons excite your body, by increasing your heart rate and producing stress hormones, among other things. The parasympathetic division is like the brakes. The motor neurons can relax your body, by doing things like 3. Perineurium 6. Epineurium decreasing heart rate, constricting the trachea and bronchial tubes, Sheath of connective tissue Outer connective tissue that and relaxing the bladder sphincter. that protects each fascicle. protects the nerve.

11. Common peroneal nerve What nerve! Connects to muscles in Your neurons are fragile cells, and your lower leg, which for the most part can’t be replaced lift your foot. if they get damaged. So, instead of bare axons running through your body, we have nerves. A nerve is like an electrical cable, housing thousands (or millions) of axons in a protective sheath of tissue. Nerves extend out from your brain and spinal column, known as the central nervous system, to the rest of your body. There are 12 pairs of nerves extending from the brain and 31 pairs extending from the spinal cord. The nerves branch off in your body, forming a network called the peripheral nervous system. The afferent division of the peripheral nervous system relays signals from sensory neurons back to the central nervous system, while the efferent division relays instructions from the central nervous system to 10. Sciatic nerve muscles and glands. Your longest nerve, which Most nerves carry carries motor signals to both types of muscles that bend your leg. signals. 9. Femoral nerve 8. Lumbar plexus A key nerve with many smaller A plexus is a point where many spinal nerve branches that carry motor nerves intersect. The lumbar plexus is commands to leg muscles, as the meeting point for nerves controlling well as sensory information from the abdomen, lower back, and legs. the thigh and lower leg. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 027

026-027_HIW_009.indd 27 1/6/10 12:47:43 “ Ultimately, placebos will not cure SCIENCE physical conditions” Allergies / Placebos

3. Parts of the brain Another victim of The areas involved are the left Heroes’ Sylar… Head dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, to Head the pregenual rostral right How do anterior cingulate, the right ALLERGIES anterior insular cortex and the left nucleus accumbens. allergies MOST COMMON affect us? 1. Allergic rhinitis Hay fever is seen to be becoming (hay fever) Facts: This common allergy is a more common, but how and reaction to pollens and other airborne particles. It causes why do allergens cause our sneezing and itchiness of the eyes. bodies to react? COMMON Allergic reactions occur in response to speciﬁ c environmental stimuli (called allergens), such as pollen, dust, bee stings and food, and the reaction displayed in individuals is normally due to an immune system disorder. Most allergies are mild, but some can be severe and even fatal depending on the reaction 2. Peanut allergy and treatment received following exposure to the allergen. Facts: This food allergy can cause Allergies are actually caused by the immune system being a range of reactions from rashes 1. Increased activity hypersensitive to elements within the environment, rather and mild swelling to causing the The red areas show the throat to close, potentially parts of the brain activated than – as many people suppose – it being under active. Large suffocating the individual. during the placebo effect. 2. Chemical response numbers of antibodies are produced in response to the The increased activity is due to allergen, which then cause an over-reaction in the immune RARE the release of endorphins, the system when the individual next comes into contact with the body’s natural painkillers. allergen – so creating the allergic reaction.

1. Allergen This is the environmental substance that is absorbed into the body, which Placebos – do the body then reacts to. 3. Red meat allergy Facts: This extremely rare allergy has attracted much interest they work? recently due to a number of cases in Stockholm. Chest pain and breathing issues are said to be What are placebos, how do they caused by this allergy. actually work, and can they 2. Mast cell really cure disease? This is the cell where IgE receptors are situated. The placebo commonly state that the so- effect occurs called placebo effect is when a patient actually only seen because with a condition patients want to please the responds positively to a doctors or testers, and that in treatment that doesn’t have truth placebos have no effect 3. IgE antibodies any medical value. It is at all. These are formed in response to the thought to alleviate Ultimately, placebos will initial contact with the allergen. They conditions due to the patient not cure physical conditions attach to mast cells. believing they are being – they can only affect the treated, and psychologically individual’s mental state, 4. Histamines (and they start to feel better. which may be seen to then other chemicals) It is thought that the aid physical and mental These are released when the allergen improvements often seen recovery. With some patients is present and cause the symptoms with placebos might be due and some illnesses, a of the allergic reaction. to conditioned responses (for placebo is potentially a example, taking medicines very powerful mental and makes you feel better, psychological tool for use in 5. IgE receptors therefore you feel better a number of cases, but often Antibodies attach to these, and the cell reacts by releasing histamines and because you’re taking is not a valid replacement other chemicals when the individual medicine). However, sceptics for treatment. comes into contact with the allergen. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 028 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

028_HIW_009.indd 28 1/6/10 12:49:49 Risk scores How much does it cost? How much blood? Beating heart bypass New techniques 5 Using complex mathematical The op is free on the NHS but On average, the heart beats 70 A bypass can be performed New techniques include using TOP 1 models, each individual patient 2 in the private sector it would 3 times per minute (about 4 without stopping the heart, 5 mini-incisions into the chest is given a risk of dying from the cost £16,000-£20,000 100,000 times per day) which using a special retractor. In a and also the use of robots. FACTS operation, allowing them to ($23,300-$29,000). The price pumps fi ve litres of blood per few places, surgery has been Small cameras are also used to HEART make a decision about how varies with the risks and if it’s minute. Five per cent fl ows performed this way on harvest the new vessels for the BYPASS risky the operation is. the fi rst surgery or a re-do. through the coronary arteries. patients who are awake. bypass grafts.

DID YOU KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXThe heart has four separate chambers, four valves to control blood ﬂ ow and two main coronary arteries

3. Bypassing the heart Heart bypass Blood is removed by pumping it out of the body, What happens in surgery? oxygen is added to it in a bypass machine and the blood pumped back in. Bypass This allows oxygenated graft blood to continually fl ow while the heart is stopped. Aorta 1. The problem 4. Stopping Fatty plaques narrow and the heart eventually block the The aorta, the main coronary arteries, vessel out of the preventing oxygen-rich heart, is clamped. blood fl owing to the The heart is then heart muscle. cooled and stopped using a potassium- rich solution. Plaque blockage 6. Restarting the heart Coronary Once the new vessels artery have been secured, the aorta is unclamped which washes the 2. Getting to potassium-rich solution the heart Bypass from the heart. The The chest is opened patient is warmed and through a cut down the grafts the heart restarts. middle of the breastbone The body has certain (sternum). A special bone vessels which it can do saw is used to cut through the sternum, without, and these act as 5. Attaching the which doesn’t damage conduits for bypass new vessels the heart below. The new vessels are tested surgery. Commonly and then sewn into place. used, the long saphenous The opening is sewn to one vein runs from the ankle of the large arteries 7. Closing to the groin. A shallow carrying oxygen-rich blood. the chest incision allows the vein to The end of the bypass graft After making sure there is sewn beyond the fatty is no bleeding, thin metal be dissected away from plaque, allowing blood to wires are used to hold the its surrounding tissue. freely fl ow to the affected two halves of the Other vessels often used heart muscles. sternum back together. include small arteries from behind the rib cage (internal mammary artery) or the arms (radial artery). How heart Stopping the heart Cardiopulmonary bypass (where a machine takes bypasses work over the heart’s pumping action and the gas When too little blood is getting to the muscles of the heart, a exchange function of the lungs) is established to surgeon can bypass the blockages using the body’s own vessels provide oxygenated Although the heart pumps of oxygen – angina. If a vessel becomes The surgeon uses healthy vessels from blood to the rest of the oxygenated blood around the completely blocked, no blood gets other parts of the patient’s body to body. Next, the heart is body, the heart’s muscular through, causing a heart attack where bypass the blockage, allowing a new stopped. This is achieved walls need their own blood the heart muscle dies. route for blood to fl ow. This delivers using a potassium-rich supply. Oxygen-rich blood is delivered to The fi rst way to treat this type of higher volumes of the oxygen-rich blood solution, pumped down these tissues via small vessels on its coronary artery disease is with to the heart muscles beyond the the coronary arteries. surface – the coronary arteries. These medicines. Secondly, angioplasty can be blockage, preventing the pain. This stops the heart arteries can get narrowed or blocked up used, where narrowings within the Most bypasses are performed by contracting. The surgeon with cholesterol causing fatty plaques arteries are stretched using a balloon, stopping the heart and using a heart- can now carefully attach which slow blood fl ow. At times of with or without placing a stent to keep lung bypass machine to deliver the fresh vessels to exercise, not enough blood gets to the the vessel open. Finally, a heart bypass oxygenated blood to the body. The new bypass the blockages. heart muscles, leading to pain due to lack operation is an option for some patients. vessels are then sewn into place. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 029

029_HIW_009.indd 29 1/6/10 12:51:26 © Winky, 2005 SCIENCE Frostbite Why do people get frostbite? A common hazard for polar explorers and climbers, severe frostbite can cause the loss of ﬁ ngers or toes Frostbite is damage caused when body tissues Frostbite is treated by slowly warming the affected area to Severe consequences freeze in subzero temperatures. The ﬁ ngers, face prevent further, irreversible damage. Severely frostbitten Second-degree frostbite can cause the skin to and toes – the extremities – are most commonly tissue may have to be amputated. Frostbite can happen to blister, although it will heal after a month or so. affected. The body keeps the essential organs anyone, but climbers, skiers and others who spend long More severe frostbite can result in the warm by narrowing blood vessels in the extremities, periods outdoors are especially susceptible. extremities being amputated. sending blood deeper into the body. Frostbite starts if little warm blood reaches the extremities for a long time. Ice crystals can form and kill cells. When blood vessels “Severely frostbitten tissue damaged by ice crystals widen to keep the extremities working, blood can leak out or clot, killing more cells. may have to be amputated”

www.howitworksdaily.com -*2&,&?.3* 9-&9+**)8 >4:72.3)E Explaining everything you ever wanted to know about the world we live in, covering: TECHNOLOGY Gadgets, computers, engineering SPACE Solar system, astronomy, travel ENVIRONMENT Plants, animals, geography TRANSPORT Road, rail, sea & air travel SCIENCE Biology, physics & chemistry $$ $" © Imagine Publishing Ltd HISTORY The past explained No unauthorisedwww.imagineshop.co.uk copying or distribution ;&.1&'1*+742&11,44)3*<8&,*398B8:5*72&70*98B &73*8@4'1*&3)431.3*&9<<

030_HIW_009.indd 30 5/11/10 13:00:48 HIW_eMag_1/2_hse ad.indd 1 27/10/10 14:13:44 White hot Collateral damage Flash! Aha! Zero-G Troy Story 5 Dazzling white fl ames are Despite only claiming a The temperature where an In zero gravity fl ames become Fire has always been used for TOP 1 on average three times the 2 recorded six deaths, the 3 ignitable liquid vaporises to 4 spherical and blue, and burn 5 its destructive capabilities, temperature of their much Fire of London in 1666 form an ignitable mixture in air more effi ciently. This is due to including in Homer’s account of FACTS more standard red consumed more than 13,200 is called its fl ash point. At this decreased convection and an the Siege of Troy by Greek counterparts, and can reach a houses, 87 parish churches point, the vapour can cease to increased amount of soot soldiers, who snuck into Troy FIRE rather scorching 1,500°C. and St. Paul’s Cathedral. burn as well once ignited. being completely oxidised. before burning it to the ground.

DID YOU KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXThe typical temperature of a lit cigarette’s main body is 550°C

Bambi’s life was just going down in fl ames… How does fi re work? What is fi re and what are the chemical processes that underlie it? Fire is the result of the rapid oxidisation Without this type of hindrance however, in a released through transient intermediate reactions of a material undertaking the chemical combustion reaction a compound (usually types of in the burning process and it can lead to a variety of process of combustion, a sequence of organic hydrocarbons) reacts with an oxidising differing fl ame colours depending on its black body exothermic chemical reactions between element, such as hydrogen, before causing and (an idealised object that absorbs and re-emits fuel and an oxidant. This process releases heat, light propagating a chain reaction that, provided the radiation in a characteristic pattern called a and various by-products such as soot and ash. If the input variables don’t change, will stabilise itself and spectrum) radiation as well as its spectral band. The fl ame – the visible portion of the fi re – reaches a burn continuously emitting a fl ame. dominant colour of a fl ame changes with its temperature hot enough to ionise its gases, plasma The visible fl ame of any fi re is the mixture of temperature and – in general – the clearer the fl ame may also be produced in the process. reacting gases and solids emitting both light and the hotter and more effi cient its combustion and To best understand the chemical processes that heat. This light is caused when excess energy is chemical processes are. underlie fi re, it is best to view the process as a tetrahedron. The fi re tetrahedron, comprising of the A small campfi re Oxidiser Hydrocarbon Fires commonly start Most fuels are, but are four elements you need in order for fi re – oxygen, is fuelled by an abundance of with an oxidiser not limited to, organic heat, fuel and a chain reaction – helps visualise the combustible such as oxygen hydrocarbons. present. processes involved. material – in this All fi res, if they are to be maintained, require the case twigs and aforementioned four elements, starting with a branches combustible fuel (wood, for example) then adding an oxidiser to it (such as oxygen) before then exposing it to a source of heat greater than that of the fuel/ oxidiser’s fl ash point (the point where it will ignite in air), and ending with a chain reaction of continuous combustion. Take any one of these factors away and fi re simply cannot exist and will choke and be extinguished. A good example of this in practise can be seen in the retardant chemical Halon, which when exposed to a fi re, slows the combustion’s chemical reactions to the point where a chain Sustainable Fires can only be maintained reaction cannot be maintained and the fi re when the combustion process ultimately ceases to burn. © Marcus Oba releases further heat energy. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 031

031_HIW_009.indd 31 1/6/10 17:41:58 “ Low-angle high-velocity shards can shred human tissue, render vehicle SCIENCE armour and level structures” Explosives

EXPLOSIVES Man has created many different types of explosives over the past 1,000 years, deploying them in warfare, industry and society

Explosions are characterised by three An explosive’s detonation velocity is the rapidity of we use it for fi res). Nitroglycerin (the chemical base of factors: a rapid increase in volume, the the expansion of its volume (gases mainly) post explosives such as dynamite) produces fi ve times less generation of high temperatures and an detonation. Typically, the greater the detonation heat as coal but has the necessary rapidity in extreme release of energy. In addition velocity the higher up the relative effectiveness (RE) liberation for an explosion to be caused. to this, every explosion generates a table the explosive is placed, with a direct correlation Finally, almost all explosions are subject to shock wave that varies depending on the explosive between velocity, pressure and generated heat. So, fragmentation – the accumulation and projection of substance’s detonation velocity. generally, the greater the velocity the greater the heat particles as a result of its detonation. Fragmentation is The four main properties of explosions are force, and damage produced. proportional to the explosion’s generated shock velocity, heat and fragmentation. The force of any Heat, generated by and also the cause of an waves and detonation velocity, with supersonic shock explosion is the physical impact it has on its explosion’s high-pressures, is its ability to liberate its waves (those travelling faster then the speed of sound) immediate environment, something often increased exothermic material’s elements at a certain producing considerably more fragmentation than through a warhead’s shaped charge. An explosion’s temperature. Coal, for example, is very good at subsonic varieties. Fragmentation increases an force when magnifi ed in a shaped charge can gauge liberating its material’s elements at a high explosion’s potency ten-fold as low-angle high- impact craters, tear through the armour of military temperature in an exothermic reaction, albeit at such velocity shards can shred human tissue, render vehicles and puncture buildings. a slow rate that it cannot be used as an explosive (why vehicle armour and level structures.

The history 800AD 1300AD 1846AD Ancient Chinese: The ancient European gunpowder: By the 1300s, Nitroglycerine: More of explosives Chinese are credited with the the knowledge of the East had reached powerful than black powder, creation of early explosives – Europe and a new era of explosive nitroglycerine paved the way Chart the rise of man-made which were crude black powders warfare ensued, relegating suits of for the creation of dynamite explosives over the centuries – used in rockets and fireworks. medieval armour to museums. and other explosives. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 032 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

032-035_HIW_009.indd 32 1/6/10 12:56:20 Gunpowder plot Dr Dolittle RE Melting Impact 5 In 1605, Guy Fawkes attempted Sir Ranulph Fiennes was The power of military TNT melts at 80°C (176°F), far The explosive C-4 has a TOP 1 to blow up the House of Lords 2 expelled from the SAS for 3 explosions is measured by 4 below the temperature at 5 massive detonation velocity of with 36 barrels of gunpowder. attempting to blow up a damn its relative effectiveness factor which it spontaneously 8,040m/s (18,000mph). This FACTS He failed, however in a re- in protest of Hollywood’s (RE). TNT is the base for all detonates, allowing it to be is due to its 91 per cent RDX enactment in 2005, a replica Doctor Dolittle ﬁ lm recording scores, which has an RE factor easily poured and combined (an explosive nitroamine) EXPLOSIVES House was destroyed. in the village of Castle Coomb. of 1.00. with other explosives. make-up.

DID YOU KNOW? Despite octanitrocubane’s massive explosive power, it is shock-insensitive and not easily detonated

This Schlieren photograph shows a reconstruction of a bomb exploding Why are explosions deadly? beneath the passenger seat of an aircraft. Capable of breaking the physical threshold of Notice how the blast generates circular shock waves of heat and light energy that human tissue, explosions claim many lives radiate vertically within the cabin Explosions are deadly for a variety of the detonation is equally as deadly. reasons. The basis of any explosion is The shock wave created by an the rapid burning and decomposition explosion carries tremendous of a material, a process that creates a amounts of energy and can easily large amount of heat, pressure and project objects of such light weight gas in a short amount of time. All hundreds of feet. Fragmentation – the A Schlieren these factors can have an effect on shattering of explosive casing and photograph of a ﬁ recracker humans, as their physical thresholds material in an explosion’s immediate explosion to withstand the various forces and vicinity – too, in supersonic detailing the chemicals in play is easily broken. explosions, can cause severing and cloud of gas, For example, the heat generated by puncturing to human tissue. In particles and an explosion of HMX (a nitroamine addition, the force of any explosion is blast wave that high explosive) reaches thousands of often increased if it is a consequence are generated degrees Celsius in a matter of the detonation of an explosive of seconds, something that device. This is because many the skin of a human – warheads, mortars, rockets, shells which would be subjected and bombs have shaped charges, as to third-degree burns – demonstrated in the example of C-4, a could not withstand, with type of plastic explosive based on the skin tissues and cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine structures being (RDX). C-4 is deadly as it can be destroyed. moulded into various shapes to

This image shows the shock waves from Gunpowder the passage of the supersonic bullet and the muzzle blast, as well as a white cloud Since its invention by the of propellant gas ancient Chinese, gunpowder has been one of the most used explosives on Earth Gunpowder, unlike other modern explosives, is classifi ed as a low explosive – an explosive that undertakes subsonic combustion – as it defl agrates slowly. For this reason, despite its creation over 1,000 years ago, it was still used as the explosive mechanism in guns all over the world up until the Explosions are characterised by three An explosive’s detonation velocity is the rapidity of we use it for fi res). Nitroglycerin (the chemical base of 20th Century, providing enough energy to propel a factors: a rapid increase in volume, the the expansion of its volume (gases mainly) post explosives such as dynamite) produces fi ve times less bullet out of a muzzle, but not enough to break the generation of high temperatures and an detonation. Typically, the greater the detonation heat as coal but has the necessary rapidity in weapon and injure the user (of course, backfi res and extreme release of energy. In addition velocity the higher up the relative effectiveness (RE) liberation for an explosion to be caused. jams lead to bad injuries). to this, every explosion generates a table the explosive is placed, with a direct correlation Finally, almost all explosions are subject to Modern rifl e cartridges – the combination of a shock wave that varies depending on the explosive between velocity, pressure and generated heat. So, fragmentation – the accumulation and projection of bullet, case, powder and primer – such as the one substance’s detonation velocity. generally, the greater the velocity the greater the heat particles as a result of its detonation. Fragmentation is fi red in the accompanying image, use smokeless The four main properties of explosions are force, and damage produced. proportional to the explosion’s generated shock powders (they are not actually smokeless, however, velocity, heat and fragmentation. The force of any Heat, generated by and also the cause of an waves and detonation velocity, with supersonic shock just considerably less so than conventional black explosion is the physical impact it has on its explosion’s high-pressures, is its ability to liberate its waves (those travelling faster then the speed of sound) powder), as their combustion effi ciency is greatly immediate environment, something often increased exothermic material’s elements at a certain producing considerably more fragmentation than increased, allowing rounds to be fi red with less through a warhead’s shaped charge. An explosion’s temperature. Coal, for example, is very good at subsonic varieties. Fragmentation increases an explosive. Further, smokeless powder does not leave force when magnifi ed in a shaped charge can gauge liberating its material’s elements at a high explosion’s potency ten-fold as low-angle high- heavy fouling (unwanted residue materials) within impact craters, tear through the armour of military temperature in an exothermic reaction, albeit at such velocity shards can shred human tissue, render the weapon, allowing for semi and full automatic vehicles and puncture buildings. a slow rate that it cannot be used as an explosive (why vehicle armour and level structures. rifl es to operate cleanly and effi ciently. Library Photo Science ©

1863AD 1950AD 2000AD Trinitrotoluene: Trinitrotoluene or C-4: A common type of plastic Octanitrocubane: With TNT for short, was created by German explosive due to its easy performance roughly 25 per cent chemist Joseph Wilbrand in 1863. It is handling, C-4 is based on the greater than HMX, this is currently now used as the modern benchmark explosive RDX and provides considered the most powerful non- for all other explosives. massive, yet refined, damage. nuclear explosive on the planet. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 033

032-035_HIW_009.indd 33 1/6/10 12:58:51 “ HMX is only used for specialist Head military purposes, such as a to Head SCIENCE nuclear bomb detonator” Explosives You were only supposed to blow the doors off!

Trinitrotoluene Dynamite C-4 Semtex The ﬁ rst real breakthrough for Based on nitroglycerin, dynamite Based on the explosive RDX, C-4 is the Another brand of plastic explosives explosives post gunpowder, has 60 per cent greater energy most famous plastic explosive used used mainly in commercial and trinitrotoluene is one of the most density than TNT. It was created in today. It is easily moulded into any industrial applications, Semtex is a commonly used explosives on Earth. 1867 by renowned German chemist shape (excellent for shaped charges) mix of RDX and PETN. It is brick- It was formed in 1863 and has an RE Alfred Nobel and has an RE factor and has a high detonation velocity. It orange in colour and has an RE factor factor of 1.00. of 1.50. has an RE factor of 1.34. of 1.66. Molecular formula: Molecular formula: Molecular formula: Molecular formula:

C6H2(NO2)3CH3 C3H5N3O9 C3H6N6O6 C5H8N4O12

1 .5 /5 2 /5 2 .5 /5 3 /5 Small explosion. Modest explosion. Large explosion. Great explosion. Detonation velocity Detonation velocity Detonation velocity Detonation velocity of 6,900m/s. of 7,700m/s. of 8,040m/s. of 8,420m/s.

032-035_HIW_009.indd 34 1/6/10 18:25:24 BIG 1. Grand Slam BIGGER 2. T-12 BIGGEST 3. GBU-43/B Head A British evolution of the Designed by the US, the The Mother of All Bombs T-12, the Grand Slam was T-12 was a bomb employed (MOAB) is a bomb to Head a 10,000kg earthquake to create an earthquake developed by the US. It has BIGGEST NON- bomb used to eliminate effect. It had a thick nose a blast yield of 11 tons of NUCLEAR BOMBS strategic targets during section so it could penetrate mixed RDX, TNT and World War II. deep into the Earth. powdered aluminium.

DID YOU KNOW? In 1910 TNT was exempted from the UK’s Explosives Act 1875 due to its large shock insensitivity An Italian Job-style visual You were only supposed guide to the six most Explosions powerful non-nuclear in nature explosives on the planet Explosions are not always man- to blow the doors off! made, with many natural examples visible over the Earth and in space Organic – Many explosions are screaming out through space at a caused by plants and trees when velocity up to 30,000km/s – that is subjected to hot and volatile ten per cent the speed of light – in a conditions. For example, the vast shock wave. Supernovas can Eucalyptus tree – which is be caused in a variety of different predominantly found in Australia, ways, however the most common is New Guinea and Indonesia – is when the core of an aging star HMX Octanitrocubane often prone to spontaneous ceases to generate nuclear fusion, Related to RDX but much more The most explosive chemical combustion in periods of sustained collapsing in on itself under the explosive, HMX is a nitroamine high structure on Earth, Octanitrocubane heat and dry conditions. This is effects of gravity and expelling its explosive. Diffi cult to manufacture, it has 25 per cent greater performance caused by the tree’s high oil content outer layers as it releases its is only used for specialist military than HMX. It was synthesised at the (ie Eucalyptus oil) that rises above gravitational potential energy. purposes, such as a nuclear bomb University of Chicago in 1999 and has the bush as vapour when heated During its short explosion (due to its detonator. It has an RE factor of 1.70. an RE factor of 2.70. suffi ciently creating a characteristic size this would last several weeks haze in dense forested areas. This or months) the amount of radiation Molecular formula: Molecular formula: oil, in both liquid and vapour forms, of a supernova can total the entire C4H8N8O8 C8(NO2)8 is incredibly fl ammable and if amount it has ever radiated over its environmental pressure and heat whole life span. reach critical levels, is prone to combust suddenly. This factor is severely exacerbated when a forest fi re passes into Eucalyptus-heavy areas, as the resulting explosions and general fl ammability of the tree’s bark carries and generates fi re quickly. Volcanic – Maybe the most

obvious example of a natural Cupoladeesco © explosion, volcanoes cause explosions when magma, which has risen to the Earth’s surface, releases large amounts of accumulated dissolved gases into the atmosphere. This reduction in pressure above ground causes the gas to be separated from the magma and rapidly increase in

volume, sending massive clouds of NASA © volcanic dust and particles spiralling into the atmosphere. Further, if a volcano’s resulting magma ﬂ ow reaches a water source, such as the ocean, then further steam-based explosions may be caused when the high-temperature ﬂ ow meets the cold water, rupturing sections of coastline. Stellar – The largest natural explosion currently known in the universe is that of a supernova, the / / resulting explosion that follows a 4 5 5 5 dying star. Supernova explosions Massive explosion Epic explosion. Detonation Detonation velocity are ridiculously powerful and send velocity of 9,100 m/s. of 10,100 m/s. the remnants of the star’s material © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 035

032-035_HIW_009.indd 35 1/6/10 18:26:10 TALLEST 1. Steamboat BEST-KNOWN 2. Old Faithful, BIGGEST EVER 3. Waimangu Head Geyser, Yellowstone Geyser, New Yellowstone It ‘faithfully’ erupts every Zealand to Head Major eruptions can hour or so for up to ﬁ ve The largest geyser ever shoot a column of water minutes, attracting recorded, Waimangu had GEYSERS and steam over 300 feet thousands of onlookers super-eruptions up to 1,509 Animals Climate Geography Geology Plants General every day. ENVIRONMENT categories explained (90m) into the air. feet (460m). Geysers Geysers What drives these spectacular This month in fountains of superheated Environment water and steam? Anyone who was stuck abroad for a week or two while the Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull endlessly spewed ash into the air might find our main Environment feature of added interest this month. We take a look at volcanic eruptions and the awesome power that lies just beneath the Earth’s surface.

38 Crocodile’s jaws

39 Avalanches

44 Volcanic eruptions Geysers form when water through the Earth can provide a constant geyserite. They tend to have one reservoir is superheated by source of water. of water with a single pipe leading from it ENVIRONMENT volcanic activity Most geysers form where there’s a to the surface. ‘Fountain’ or ‘pool’ geysers 36 Geysers underground, but can’t silica-rich rock known as rhyolite. Rising erupt from a large pool of water in a move freely as it hot water dissolves the silica in the series of powerful bursts. They are 38 Crocodile’s jaw circulates towards the surface. Instead, rhyolite and carries it upwards through thought to have a reservoir fed by two 38 Worms pressure builds up until the water natural pipes in the rock where it’s then water sources – descending shallow, cold 39 Avalanches explodes upwards in a giant gush. deposited as a rock called geyserite. The water and hot water rising from below. 40 Hummingbirds Since water needs to encounter hot silica seals the pipe against water As geysers need a rare combination of 40 Raining animals rock, some geyser ﬁ elds are found above pressure and narrows its walls. geological conditions to form, they’re 41 Rubies, sapphires and upwellings of hot rock from deep within Every geyser has a different plumbing found in just a handful of places. There emeralds the Earth. Others are found near crustal and reservoir system, but there are two are around 50 geyser ﬁ elds worldwide 43 Fog plate boundaries where there is volcanic main types. ‘Cone’ or ‘column’ geysers and most have just a few geysers. The 43 Petrifaction activity and broken, fractured rock. like Old Faithful erupt in a steady column biggest – Yellowstone, USA – has almost 44 Volcanoes Rivers, snow or rainwater trickling from a beehive-shaped nozzle of half the world’s geysers. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 036 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

036-037_HIW_009.indd 36 1/6/10 17:13:51 5 TALLESTReal-life Kraken 1. SteamboatDeadly jellyfi sh BEST-KNOWNLiving fossil 2. Old Faithful,See-through BIGGEST head EVER Enormous3. Waimangu appetite TOP Colossal Squid are Earth’s Box jellyfi sh may be the Modern coelacanths are Barreleyed fi sh can rotate The Gulper or Pelican eel has a Head Geyser, Yellowstone Geyser, New 1 largest invertebrates. Rarely Yellowstone2 world’s most poisonous 3 almost identicalIt ‘faithfully’ to fossil erupts every4 their eyes upwards inside a 5Zealand hinged jaw and expanding toFACTS Head seen, they could be up to 15 Major eruptionsmarine can creatures. Their specimens fromhour 65 or million so for up to fi ve transparent dome on their Thestomach largest to geyser swallow ever prey CREATURES metres long, weigh over shoot a columnvenom of canwater kill a human in a years ago. Extremelyminutes, rare, attracting head, most likely so they can recorded,much larger Waimangu than itself, had and GEYSERS 1,000lbs and can have beach and steam matterover 300 of feetminutes if not their bodies exudethousands oils even of onlookers distinguish the silhouettes of super-eruptionsuses its whip-like up totail 1,509 for OF THE DEEP ball-sized eyes. (90m) into treatedthe air. swiftly. when dead. every day. their prey. feetmovement (460m). through the water.

DID YOU KNOW? Yellowstone’s geysers sit above one of Earth’s largest active volcanoes

7. A sudden rush 8. Sky-high water Water pressure mounts below the The colder water above the How geysers bottleneck until it can overcome superheated water is thrown up the weight of overlying, colder into the air as a jet. The pressure water and rush to the surface. lifts, causing the superheated work water to turn into steam. To get geysers, you need four things: a volcanic heat source close to the Earth’s surface, a water supply, a plumbing and reservoir system of hard, ﬁ ssured rock, and Geyserite is a form of a natural pipe that narrows so high water pressures can silica found around a geyser build up in the reservoir below.

1. Water trickles 6. Silica seal underground Silica dissolved from rhyolite – a Snow, rain or river water takes volcanic rock – can slowly build up on hundreds of years to trickle the pipe walls causing a bottleneck.

through fractured rocks to depths Library

of two to three kilometres. Photo Science ©

3. Superheated water 4. Plumbing system 5. High-pressure area 2. Hot rocks The water is heated to very high The heated water circulates upwards For a geyser to form, there must The water comes in contact with hot temperatures, but it can’t boil via a complex, natural system of be a tight spot in the underground rocks surrounding partially molten because of the pressure of the underground pipes and passages. As pipe system. This acts like a giant rock lying only a few kilometres overlying water and rock. This is it does, the overlying pressure pressure cooker. below the Earth’s surface. called superheating. lessens and it can expand and boil. ON THE 5 Hot and steamy MAP 2 Geysers aren’t the only hydrothermal features on Earth. 6 Mudpots, hot springs, fumaroles and hydrothermal vents The world’s biggest can also form when water is heated underground. geyser ﬁ elds 1 However, unlike geysers, the heated water ﬂ ows freely to 1 Yellowstone National the surface rather than erupting in a jet. Park, US Where lots of water reaches the surface, hot springs 2 Kamchatka Peninsula, form. Bacteria living in the hot water can give hot springs Siberia 3 Taupo Volcanic Zone, like Grand Prismatic Spring vivid, beautiful colours. New Zealand Fumaroles – or steam vents – form where all the water is 4 4 El Tatio Geysers, Chile boiled away before reaching the surface. Hydrothermal 5 Iceland 3 vents or ‘smokers’ are like hot springs, but they form in the 6 Umnak Island, Alaska deep ocean near ridges and rifts. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 037

036-037_HIW_009.indd 37 1/6/10 17:14:23 “ The strongest bite of any known creature, producing a force of around ENVIRONMENT 5,000 pounds per square inch” Earthworms / Crocodile jaw Anatomy 101 Upon dissecting an earthworm it’s easy to see the digestive tract wrapped in aoertic arches, Earthworms transporting blood down the body. Worms are well known to us, often spotted in back gardens across the country – but more importantly, can they actually survive if they are cut in two? Earthworms need moisture to survive and consequently commonly live underground in damp soil. They are cylindrical in shape, and their body structure is surprisingly simple with a muscular outside body that lines their digestive tract and circulatory system. This circulatory system is very simple, with only two blood vessels (the dorsal and the ventral) which run Muscular body Digestive tract Ventral This allows movement by stretching out, This stretches throughout the nerve between the anterior and posterior of the creature, pushing the anterior segments forward, individual, and is where food taken with blood being pumped by aoertic arches in the case and then pulling the rest of the body after. in through the mouth is processed. Mouth of the ventral vessel, or moved back to the anterior by the dorsal vessel contracting. However, although simple, earthworms do display distinct segments, which are more specialised towards the anterior (head). Consequently, segments situated further back in the body can be regenerated in many cases, but it is dependant on the type of species and the actual extent of damage. Clitellum Aoertic arches Earthworms are also hermaphrodites, holding both These work like a human heart, pumping the blood male and female sexual organs, however they Dorsal vessel Ventral vessel This brings blood which has been pumped down Blood gets pumped by the aoertic around the earthworm’s body. commonly mate and then store the other individual’s the body back to the front to be oxygenated and arches down the body to supply The number of these present sperm for reproduction. then pumped back down the ventral vessel. oxygen where needed. varies between species.

A crocodile has the strongest bite of any known creature, producing a force of around 5,000 pounds per square inch. The muscles that control this bite down have Crocodile jaw evolved and developed to be extraordinarily strong, Why do crocodiles have the strongest and alongside relative speed over short distances on land and the immensely sharp teeth that crocodiles bite of any creature known, yet are not prominently display, this forms an immense weapon able to open their jaw if we place an for the crocodiles to successfully hunt within a competitive environment. elastic band around it? However, although the jaw muscles used to snap the jaw shut are well developed, the muscles used to Jaw-dropping strength open the jaw are considerably weaker, so much so A crocodile’s bite is immensely powerful, but when it comes to that if the jaw is taped shut or a large rubber band is opening its jaw the muscles put around it, the muscles are not strong enough to are very weak. push up against the force created by these.

He hasn’t lost a game of snap yet!

High strength:

5,000 2 Low lbs inch strength

038_HIW_009.indd 38 1/6/10 14:03:50 The thick of it The white killer Fresh snow = bad news Breath of life Intentional avalanches 5 A large avalanche might Each year, avalanches kill A snow-faring adventurer is If caught under an avalanche, When a lot of snow builds on a TOP 1 release up to 300,000 cubic 2 around 150 people – the 3 most likely to witness an 4 wait for the slide to stop and 5 slope where an avalanche is yards of snow, which is victims are usually males in impressive avalanche during then use your hands to clear likely, small avalanches are FACTS equivalent to something like 20 their twenties who are or just after a storm that has an area in which to breathe, intentionally triggered using football pitches covered with experienced mountaineers or deposited around 30cm of then punch a ﬁ st upwards explosives to prevent one AVALANCHES ten feet of snow. skiers more likely to take risks. fresh snow. and outwards. potentially deadly slide.

DID YOU KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXA noise cannot trigger an avalanche; it’s a myth – a plot device fabricated for ﬁ lms Interview

We spoke to Cam Campbell, Avalanche! public What causes these often deadly snow slides? avalanche Although the potential for an avalanche is present wherever you ﬁ nd a mass of forecaster for snow on a slope, there are three main types of avalanche each dependent on the Canadian several conditions: the type of snow in the snowpack, the temperature, wind, Avalanche the steepness and orientation of the slope, and vegetation (or anchors). Centre, to ﬁ nd out more 1. Trigger How It Works: What are the most common avalanche triggers? This disturbance is where the avalanche begins to fracture and it tends to be high up the slope but can Cam Campbell: The most common still occur anywhere on a mountain. 90 per cent of triggers for all types of avalanches are fatal avalanches are triggered by the victims. 2. Starting zone natural; [including] loading from new The starting zone is the section of the avalanche snow, rain or blowing snow, rapid path at which the avalanche is released sending warming of the snowpack from an unsecured snow downhill. It normally occurs on increase in air temperature or intense a steep slope of between 30 and 50 per cent. solar radiation, falling cornices, or other natural snowpack stressors. […] Most fatal avalanches are human-triggered by the victim or someone in their party.

HIW: How and why are avalanches The avalanche path 3. Track sometimes triggered intentionally? This consists of the starting The track is the main path down which an CC: [Avalanches are triggered avalanche fl ows. The snow will either slide down zone, the track and the intentionally] to reduce the threat of run-out zone. as a sheet or concentrated in gullies. Towards the future uncontrolled avalanches. Any time bottom of a track you may well see large piles of snow, boulders and tree remains. an avalanche is intentionally triggered, strict procedures, such as access closures and spotters are in place to ensure nobody will be adversely affected. Ski resorts or commercial backcountry operations often stabilise slopes by 4. Run-out (debris toe) triggering avalanches before opening to Main types As the slope fl attens out – or meets the public. Intentional triggering can be another slope – the avalanche will achieved safely through remote- of avalanches come to rest. This area is the run-out controlled explosives well away from the Dry (80mph) and consists of a pile of snow and avalanche path, or hand- or helicopter- Occurring below freezing, dry debris picked up along the run. Any deployed explosives above the path. avalanches are usually triggered by unfortunate victims would likely be loading from new snow or blowing found in this area of deposition. The snow. These high-speed slides very end of the deposited snow is consist of air and powdery snow, referred to as the avalanche toe. Survival tips beginning at a single point and The top ten survival tips for gathering speed and mass. As it moves downhill, pressure builds mountaineers and skiers ahead of the mass of snow, creating Take avalanche safety course a powerful blast of air capable of destroying most things in its path. Read avalanche bulletin Choose route or terrain Slab (60-80mph) appropriate for conditions The most common – not to mention Carry and practise using deadly – type of avalanche occurs when a layer of compacted snow safety gear (transceiver, overlies softer snow. When the shovel and probe) weaker snow can no longer support Never travel alone the snow above – or if a passing skier adds to the weight – the hard Avoid common trigger points layer (usually 30-80cm) will fracture such as convexities, thin like a pane of glass and slide away. If areas, or below protruding a victim is in the middle of the slab, rocks or trees they are unlikely to survive. Travel on avalanche prone Wet (10-30mph) slopes one person at a time Wet avalanches move slower than and spot from safe locations their drier relatives and occur as a If caught do everything in result of rain or warmer weather your power to escape the melting the snow. Rain or humidity fl owing mass softens the snowpack, breaking the bonds between water molecules. If burial is imminent, create Although wet avalanches are slower an air pocket in front of your and don’t feature a dust cloud, they face with hands and arms are still highly destructive, capable of dragging boulders and even trees If buried, remain calm and down the mountainside. await rescue © Science Photo Library © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 039

039_HIW_009.indd 39 1/6/10 14:06:39 “ The waterspout can carry items over ENVIRONMENT large distances until it reaches land” Hummingbirds / Raining animals Flight patterns Hummingbird anatomy Hummingbirds enables unique fl ight Like a cross between bird and insect, the hummingbird can beat its wings up to 80 times every second, but how? Hummingbirds are tiny backwards, and even upside down. their unique ‘hands’, which are long fl iers that can fl ap their The reason they can achieve such bones at the end of their arms that wings extremely fast – so exceptional fl ight patterns is that they support the wing. The wing itself is Upwards fast in fact that they can can rotate their wings in a circle, fl exible at the shoulder but not at the Hummingbirds’ extra large hover. Not only that, the hummingbird creating power on the upstroke as well wrist, helping the bird beat them fast supracoracoideus muscles can also fl y up, down, sideways, as the downstroke. Hummingbirds use without any bending. and pectoralis majors contain all-red fi bres 5 TOP Featherweight for sustained use. FACTS champion HUMMINGBIRDS What is it that makes this bird so special? Variety Forward 1 There are around 330 different species of hummingbird – and The shoulder is a ball and most are found in central and socket, which can rotate southern America. 180° in all directions.

A busy day! 2 The average hummingbird can ﬂ it from bloom to bloom and pollinate up to 2,000 ﬂ owers in a period of 24 hours.

Heart of the matter 3 Just like humans, hummingbird hearts have four chambers, enabling very effi cient oxygen transport. The hummingbird’s heart can beat at 500 beats per minute (at rest!). Backwards Hummingbirds fl y with Fast fl appers their bodies held upright. 4 Small hummingbirds can beat their wings 40-80 times per

second, larger species 20-30 Library Photo Science © times and the giant hummingbird beats its wings as Hands Feathers Feet Wings Bill ‘few’ as ten times a second. These very long Hummingbirds Hummingbirds Hummingbirds Hummingbirds bones support the have a huge do have feet, have short ‘upper feed on sweet Feeling peckish? main wing number of which they use arms’ and their nectar that they 5 Hummingbirds have the fastest feathers and allow iridescent feathers for perching and elbow and wrist industriously metabolism of any other the bird to beat its but no down. Their scratching, but joints don’t move. collect through Hovering creature and so consume up to wings extremely tail feathers act as they cannot use The shoulder joint their especially three times their own weight Hummingbirds don’t ﬂ ap quickly without a paddle for them for walking – can rotate 180˚ long tapered bills each day. Time between feeds their wings, they rotate them can be just ten minutes. having to bend steering while they ﬂ y literally and move in all and straw-like, using their unique hands. the wings. airborne. everywhere. directions. hairy tongues.

Forget cats and dogs, it’s Raining fi sh and frogs fi sh and frogs! What is the meteorological phenomenon that causes animals and other objects to rain from the sky? A waterspout is a kind of water not land the animals collected tend whirlwind that often forms to be fi sh and amphibious animals – not to over a large body of water mention other non-organic objects. The during a thunderstorm. At the waterspout can carry these items over heart of the waterspout is a tunnel of low- large distances until it reaches land. At this pressure, which results in a vortex capable point the wind loses energy and releases of sucking up not only water but also the contents of the waterspout over the lightweight creatures near the surface. land – occasionally as a dramatic And because the waterspout is crossing bombardment of fi sh or frogs.

040_HIW_009.indd 40 1/6/10 14:09:36 PRECIOUSPRECIOUS 1. Sapphire MORE PRECIOUS 2. Emerald MOST PRECIOUS 3. Ruby Head Sapphires are commoner Emeralds are rare because Ruby is expensive because and cheaper than other they require chromium few large, deep red stones to Head precious stones. As with deposited near a are actually found. many gemstones, modern hydrothermal vent. This Chromium reddens rubies, PRECIOUS heat treatment can improve means that few emeralds but also cracks them as STONES inferior sapphires. are ﬂ awless. they grow.

DID YOU KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXThe Black Prince’s Ruby and Timur Ruby in the British Crown Jewels are a red gemstone called spinel

1. Table (top) This is the largest facet on a cut gemstone.

2. Crown (short side) The crown is the top part of the gemstone that sits above the girdle.

5. Culet A tiny ﬂ at facet that gemstone-cutters sometimes add at the bottom of a gemstone’s pavilion. 4. Pavilion The bottom part of the gemstone, below the girdle.

Rubies, 3. Girdle The outer edge or the widest part of the gemstone forming a sapphires band around the stone. ON THE and emeralds MAP Their colour and scarcity make these beautiful Where to fi nd precious stones Most rubies and sapphires are mined from gemstones a byword for love and luxury river deposits. They’re concentrated in Rubies, sapphires and heat and pressure in the Earth. are formed when materials rich in placer deposits – heavy sediments left behind when a river slowed suddenly and emeralds are among the They’re rare because exactly the aluminium and with little silicon could no longer carry them. Placers form at world’s most beautiful, right chemicals must be present. and magnesium undergo heat and the base of slopes or in natural hollows. rare and valuable Coveted since antiquity, it wasn’t pressure, perhaps as continents Famous sapphire and ruby deposits are gemstones. Along with diamonds, until the 18th Century that people crash together and mountains form. found in Burma (1), Sri Lanka (2) and they are called the precious stones. realised rubies and sapphires are Emeralds are made of a mineral Thailand (3). In antiquity, emeralds were mined in “Cleopatra’s Mines” in Egypt (4). But amazingly, they are formed by crystals of the same chemical called beryl – beryllium aluminium But today these deposits yield only poor- crystal growth – the same process compound – aluminium oxide – silicate. The bright grass green colour quality emeralds. Since the Spanish that creates table salt or snowfl akes. called corundum. Ruby is corundum comes from traces of chromium and conquered South America, emeralds have When any fl uid cools, chemicals coloured red by traces of chromium. vanadium. They are often formed famously been mined near Muzo, Chivor dissolved in it can be deposited in a Sapphires can be any colour, except when chemicals are dissolved by and Coscuez in Colombia (5). Emeralds are regular structure – a crystal. Precious red, and are coloured by iron, water placed under intense heat and found in Austria (6), Russia (7) and several other countries too. stones are crystals formed under titanium and other elements. They pressure by geological activity.

6 1 Valuing a precious stone 4 Four ‘Cs’ determine a gemstone’s cost: colour, cut, carats and clarity. Gems are more expensive if they have an intense colour and no gas bubbles, liquids or other minerals trapped inside. The skill of the craftsperson who shaped a gem also affects its value: 2 cuts are rated by their precision and how they enhance the gem’s 5 3 sparkle. The carat is a measure of the cut gem’s weight – larger gems are rarer and more valuable.

041_HIW_009.indd 41 1/6/10 14:11:31 © Imagine Publishing Ltd No unauthorised copying or distribution MOST BEAUTIFUL 1. Steam fog MOST DANGEROUS 2. Haze MOST COMMON 3. Radiation fog Head When a quantity of cold Fine particle pollution can The UK’s commonest air ﬂ ows over warmer cause breathing fog forms on clear, still to Head water, the warm air next difﬁ culties, skin, eye and winter and autumn nights to the water rises, cools throat irritation or even when the ground loses ATMOSPHERIC and gives it the appearance heart attacks in heat and then cools the WEATHER of steam. susceptible people. overlying air.

DID YOU KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXFog is classiﬁ ed as reducing visibility to less than 1km, whereas mist reduces visibility from 1-2km

What are fog, mist and haze? Discover how fog lets you walk through the clouds without leaving the ground Fog and mist are ground-level clouds: they are formed of airborne water droplets. Fog is denser than mist – it prevents you seeing further than 1km ahead. In mist, you can see between one and 2km. Haze also makes the air less clear. But unlike mist and fog, it’s caused by airborne particles of soot, salt or dust. Fog and mist form when moist air near the ground cools enough that condensation occurs. Condensation is the mechanism that mists a mirror when you breathe on it. Air contains water vapour – the warmer the air, the more Fog can make driving vapour it can hold. When the warm air in your breath hits extremely hazardous the colder mirror, it cools. The vapour the air can no longer hold condenses out, ie water droplets form on the mirror’s surface. Haze particles can be a precursor to fog because, in fog, water droplets form on particles in the air. DID YOU KNOW?

The ‘Asian brown cloud’ is a wintertime pollution haze over parts of Asia. It’s big enough to see from space. © Milazinkova 2009 © Milazinkova

Soaked up Minerals Dissolved minerals are For petrifaction to absorbed until they fi ll occur the object Petrifaction every pore in the wood. must be soaked in What causes organic matter mineral-rich water. to turn to stone? Petrifaction is a process (known as permineralisation) or of fossilisation that sees completely dissolve the original the solid remains of material and replace it with animals or plants turn minerals (recrystallisation). to stone. The process occurs when Petrifi ed forests around the world organic matter is saturated in – such as the Petrifi ed Forest mineral-rich water – usually silica National Park in Arizona – are full of or the more soluble calcium fossilised trees from the Triassic carbonate. To prevent, say, a log period approximately 200 million Replaced from being decayed by bacteria, it years ago, but the length of time it Recrystallisation occurs must be sealed off from oxygen. takes for an organic object to petrify when minerals dissolve the original material. Then, over time the log will soak depends on such factors as pH and up dissolved minerals until they temperature and could take as little

either ﬁ ll every pore in the wood as 100 years. © Daniel 2004 Schwen © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 043

043_HIW_009.indd 43 1/6/10 14:13:58 044-047_HIW_009.indd 44 explained Volcanoes “ 90 per cent of earthquakes occur along mid-ocean ridge. 60,000km underwater seam called the are slow-bubbling cauldrons along a explosive, violent variety. Instead, they vast majority of volcanoes aren’t the lithosphere, it’s called volcanism, but the manages to break through the thin outward. Wherever rising magma that slowly push magma upward and currents in the Earth’s molten mantle tectonic dance are giant convection troubled water. eternally jostle for position like buoys on plates and seven minor plates that but they are fragmented into seven major know, the continents are indeed solid, or Africa possibly drift? As we now colossal hunk of solid rock such as Asia thought he was crazy. How could a “continental backdrift” in 1912, people Wegener first proposed his theory of the surface. fluid magma that extends 5,000km below a massive sea of impossibly hot, semi- of rock – 75-150km thick – that floats on is called the lithosphere, a fragile crust 90 per cent of it liquid. The Earth’s peel wait for their 15 megatons ofAround fame the world, sleeping giants lie in The engines that power this perpetual When German meteorologist Alfred world’s biggest and deadliestconvergent volcanoes” plate boundaries and so do the 044 | How It Works layer of pulp and juice, dimpled peel is a thick Beneath the thin, giant ripe orange. Imagine the Earth as a ENVIRONMENT Volcanoes zone, where oceanic plates “dive” below The Ring of Fire is a giant subduction activity that encircles the Pacific Ocean. unbroken string of seismic and volcanic prime example is the Ring of Fire, the biggest and deadliest volcanoes. The plate boundaries and so do the world’s earthquakes occur along convergent has to give. An incredible 90 per cent of in the other direction. per year – until they meet a plate moving travelling only three to four centimetres along this magma conveyor belt – begins. The diverging plates are carried are where the Earth’s “moving walkway” boundaries along the mid-ocean ridge underground. The divergent plate set distance and then rolls back emerges from below the floor, travels a walkway in an airport. The walkway the Earth’s crust like a giant moving Earth’s surface. ocean floor covering 60 per cent of the underwater lava cools, it creates new underwater volcanoes. As this by thousands of unknown, unnamed gap between them is constantly refilled and steady convection currents and the pulled away from each other by the slow oceanic plates diverge. The plates are oozing wound in the crust where two When two plates converge, something Forget the orange analogy and think of The mid-ocean ridge is like an open, No unauthorised © Imagine

categories explained copying Publishing volcanoes from subduction zone infamous eruptions came square-kilometre area. – that vaporised everything within a 500- searing hot ﬂuidised gas, debris and ash monstrous pyroclastic surge – a wall of was an explosion that produced a boiling pot of magma below. The result lowering the downward pressure on the the north ﬂank of the mountain, landslide cleared a swath of rock from back the magma. On Mount St. Helens, a a weak point in the cap of rock holding up from below. gaseous, volatile molten materials push building increased pressure as more of solid rock – it pools below the surface, an obstacle – an impenetrable thick layer the surface. If the rising magma reaches viscous magma that rises quickly toward surrounding rock, forming a gaseous, yet elements lower the melting point of furnace of the mantle, these sea-borne When oceanic crust enters the blast carbon dioxide, sodium and potassium. the mantle. into magma in the blazing hot forge of continental plates and are melted back Animals Some of the most famous and And then one day – boom! All it takes is Ocean sediment holds tons of water, or distribution

Ltd Climate

Geography

Geology

Plants WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM

General 1/6/10 14:15:54 5 How many active? Biggest in the world? Can they do good? Eyjafjallajökull Largest in the solar system TOP There is some disagreement on The biggest volcano in the Volcanic slopes left after an The Icelandic volcano that In the wider solar system, 1 what makes a volcano “active” 2 world is Mauna Loa in Hawaii. 3 eruption are very steep, so 4 caused so much disruption to 5 Mars is believed to hold the FACTS but 1,510 volcanoes have Its whole volume is about rare and delicate plants and European ﬂ ights, the crater of honour of housing the largest erupted in the last 10,000 80,000 cubic kilometres. Its animals can set up home there the volcano measures 1.8 volcano – the 17-mile tall VOLCANIC years. There are many more most recent eruption occurred and be protected. Volcanic ash miles to 2.5 miles across Olympus Mons. More on this ERUPTONS volcanoes on the sea bed. on 24 March 1984. is very good for soil. (three to four kilometres). next issue.

DID YOU KNOW? The loudest noise in history was the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, a 180dB explosion heard 3,500km away

Why volcanic eruptions can spark lightning The mesmerising lightning storms that danced among the ash clouds of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull volcano were caused by the same conditions that trigger regular thunderstorms. High in the black clouds of a rainstorm, hail and water droplets whirl and collide, freeing large amounts of electrons. Newly charged positive ions congregate in the upper portion of the clouds while the negative particles drift downward. When the charge separation becomes too great, a spark of lightning releases the pent-up energy, bringing the system back to equilibrium. In a volcanic lightning storm, the same principles are at work. In this case, the colliding particles include ash, water and even hail. Electrical ﬁ elds form within the ash cloud and the frequent and eye-popping lightning strikes (often in vivid purple and orange colours) resolve the charge separations. Another ingredient of volcanic lightning is electrically charged silica particles that are blown airborne from deep in the earth. © Science Photo Library Photo Science © © Science Photo Library Photo Science © © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 045

044-047_HIW_009.indd 45 1/6/10 14:16:11 “ Pyroclastic surges travelling 150 km/h ENVIRONMENT can obliterate a city in seconds” Volcanoes

along the Ring of Fire: Tambora in The hot spot volcanoes of Hawaii, on Indonesia, Pinatubo in the Phillipines, Egmont the other hand, feature highly fl uid Gagxanul in Guatemala, Mount Pelée in The Space Shuttle magma formed from basaltic rock with Martinique, the list of killer volcanoes Atlantis exposed this low silica content. The ‘watery’ quality of goes on. In fact, 400 of the world’s 500 image of the Mount Hawaiian magma allows gas to escape Egmont volcano, known active volcanoes occur along easily. After an initial, relatively calm New Zealand. subduction boundaries. eruption, Hawaiian volcanoes spew But not all famous volcanoes are of fountains of lava forming large river-like the subduction variety. The volcanoes fl ows that creep slowly to the sea. of the Hawaiian Islands are an example The Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa, of something called hot spot volcanism. Kilauea and Mauna Kea are the most Think back to those powerful closely studied volcanoes in the world, convection currents in the mantle that which is why different varieties of lava push magma upward toward the crust. are classifi ed with Hawaiian names. In certain ‘hot spots’ around the entire Pahoehoe is a highly fl uid basaltic lava planet, convection currents are able to Young! that cools with a smooth, ropy surface. Read Cyrus by Survey/photo Geological U.S. © ooze magma to the surface with very Egmont is a young A’a is a thicker lava carrying large little resistance. stratovolcano that chunks of pyroclastic debris like lava Picture the hot spot under the began to form blocks and bombs. The result is a slow, Hawaiian Islands as a giant tube of 70,000 years ago. jagged fl ow that cools with a very rough- toothpaste. Squeeze the tube and the NASA © looking texture. little dollop of paste becomes the fi rst Hawaiian Island, Kauai. Now keep the Lava fl ow crossing a road during volcanic activity on tube in the same place while the ocean Reunion, an island in the plate travels a few hundred kilometres Indian Ocean northwest. Squeeze the tube again and you’ve created the second island, Oahu. Hawaii, the Big Island, is still sitting over that magma pump, fuelling magnifi cent, slow-boiling eruptions that are literally building the island. The intensity and duration of a volcanic eruption depends mostly on the consistency of the magma rising to the surface and the obstacles preventing the magma from reaching the surface. Subduction volcanoes are so ear- poppingly explosive because the magma fuelling them is loaded with gas bubbles and silica from sea fl oor sediments. The high silica content makes the magma more viscous, preventing gas bubbles from easily escaping. The result is like shaking a bottle of soda. When that pressure is released – pop! Types of Eruption type: Magmatic volcanic eruption Oozing, bubbling, spraying, fountaining, splattering, exploding! When magma reaches the surface, it’s sure to be a memorable event. Strombolian Vulcanian Pelean Hawaiian Check out the many Huge gas bubbles rise and explode Caused by the sudden release of a Incredibly deadly, a towering wall The classic Kilauea-style eruption different kinds of at the surface, shooting fast- lava plug, these violent bursts of of rock, debris and lava pour down is where highly fl uid lava cooling projectiles like lava lava can send molten material the slope of a volcano at speeds ‘fountains’ spurt upward from volcanic eruptions. bombs, glassy spatter and ash. several kilometres in the air. upwards of 150km/h. long, narrow fi ssures or vents.

044-047_HIW_009.indd 46 1/6/10 14:17:34 INSTANT KILLER 1. Mount Pelée WORLD CHANGER 2. Tambora SUPERVOLCANO 3. Yellowstone Head On 8 May 1902, a pyroclastic The largest eruption in recorded caldera ﬂ ow travelling at a rate of history, this Indonesian Over 500,000 years ago, an to Head 160km/h incinerated the volcano’s 1815 eruption took at eruption 1,000 times as powerful town of Saint-Pierre, least 71,000 lives, as Mt St Helens blew the lid off DEADLY Martinique, killing all but two approximately 11,000 of those of the western US, creating the ERUPTIONS of its 28,000 residents. NASA © directly from the eruption. NASA © Yellowstone caldera.

DID YOU KNOW? The ash from the 1815 eruption of Tambora created a “year without summer” as far away as New York

Colima The summit crater dome of Colima shows the pyroclastic ﬂ ows that ran down the slopes during past eruptions.

Mount Redoubt Mount Redoubt, Alaska. The glacier that ﬁ lled the crater is collapsing because of the increase in ground temperature underneath.

When a lava ﬂ ow meets water, you get some lovely rounded formations called pillow lava, but if freshly emerging magma meets water, the results are far A colourful stromboli eruption

more explosive. A phreatic or ‘steam Meyer Wolfgang © © MattiPaavola © blast’ eruption discharges large rock fragments and ash, but little lava. The monstrous ash cloud that grounded Volcanoes fl ights across Europe for weeks was the around the product of magma meeting glacial ice. world… The ash from such an eruption isn’t the soft, fl uffy stuff that gets in your eyes when you have a campfi re. Volcanic ash particles are hard, jagged fragments of rock, minerals and glass that can be up to 2mm in diameter. The effect of a large-scale volcanic eruption is both local and global, immediate and long-term. Pyroclastic surges travelling 150km/h can obliterate JW illo an entire city in a matter of seconds, while a massive ash storm can block the Sun’s rays so thoroughly that the Earth’s surface temperature lowers for months, Mid atlantic if not years. The 1815 eruption of ridge Tambora in Indonesia spewed so much ash into the global atmosphere that it Volcanoes created a “year without a summer”, complete with June snow storms in Plate boudaries © Science Photo Library Photo Science © New York. Learn more Phreatomagmatic Phreatic In the Discovery Channel’s online video archives, you can watch 20 informative video clips from TV documentaries such as Ultimate Guide To Volcanoes, including rare footage of a pyroclastic fl ow http:// dsc.discovery.com/videos/ volcano-video. For a video featuring our old friend Professor Iain Stewart (interviewed back in issue 6), check out HIWTV for a clip from NatGeo, which reveals how volcanoes brought Earth out of the Ice Age.

Surtseyan Submarine Subglacial Phreatic When a boiling underwater Over 75 per cent of the magma When magma surfaces When emerging magma meets a volcano breaks the ocean surface, that reaches the surface underneath a sheet of glacial ice, body of water, the superheated the result is an explosive originates along the mid-ocean the combination can trigger a water instantly vaporises, creating hydromagmatic reaction. ridges that circle the planet. lahar, a mud and debris ﬂ ow. a monumental ‘steam blast’.

044-047_HIW_009.indd 47 1/6/10 14:18:23 Extreme vehicles Extreme Air Rail Road Sea vehicles Future General TRANSPORT categories explained AH-64D Apache Longbow AH-64D Apache Longbow The latest iteration of the combat-tested Apache gunship, the AH-64D Longbow This month in Transport is a powerhouse of performance, Very much a testosterone- bringing massive damage and based Transport section this month. Cast your eyes to the fl exibility to the theatre of war right for an amazing breakdown of one of the Emerging as the next generation of deadliest aircraft in the skies multi-mission attack helicopter, the today, and find out just what AH-64D Apache Longbow is changing 5. Cockpit makes it such a formidable the face of warfare today. Currently in With room for two, the Apache’s cockpit allows operation in Iraq and Afghanistan, and used by excellent battlefield visibility with wide viewing beast. Alternatively you angles. It is fitted with cutting-edge communication, could read up on the armed forces all over the world, its military weapon and navigational systems. contenders for the land performance is well-recognised and has proved speed world record and find itself both combat-ready and reliable over the last out what a 1,000mph car 13 years of service. looks like. More sedate The AH-64D Apache Longbow is the latest topics include hybrid buses, a iteration of the Apache class of gunship as produced look at the Wankel rotary by Boeing. Differentiating it from earlier models, the engine and a closer AH-64D Longbow is now fi tted with a fi re-control examination of spark plugs. radar above its four-blade composite main rotor. 6. Composite rotor blades This allows it longer-range weapons accuracy, The AH-64D Longbow is fitted with a cloaked object detection (both moving and new composite four-blade main rotor, stationary), classifi cation and threat-prioritisation allowing for increased payload, climb rate and cruise speed over of up to 128 targets in less than 60 seconds and earlier variants. greater situational awareness, real-time management of the combat arena and digital transmission of target locations. 8. Radome Married to these advanced systems is an Through the systems within, 50 Spark plugs armament to make the most armoured target this provides the Longbow with combat information on its rethink their strategy. Topping this list of surroundings and enemies, destruction is the Apache’s Hellfi re missiles – such as target azimuth, dedicated laser-guided anti-armour missiles that elevation, range and velocity. make short work of tanks, bunkers and artillery. This allows it to quickly and The Longbow is also fi tted with a brace of 70mm efficiently calculate a firing solution to best hit its targets. rockets, which can be fi red off in quick succession and provide awesome power and fl exibility when “Say hello to my up against numerous targets. Lastly, mounted on its little friend” 51 Hybrid drive buses underside is the AH-64D’s 30mm M230 chain gun. Holding 1,200 30mm high-incendiary rounds, and controlled remotely by the pilot through his helmet – allowing hands-free targeting and tracking – the M230 chain gun is capable of laying down a phenomenal amount of damage and is ideal for clearing enemy soldiers on the ground. As of 2008 onwards, the AH-64D has also been upgraded to include increased digitisation, a joint 54 Race for 1,000mph tactical radio system, enhanced engines and drive systems, capability to control UAVs (unmanned 2. 30mm TRANSPORT aerial vehicles) – which have been used extensively automatic cannon in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars – and improved Firing large, highly incendiary 48 Apache Longbow landing gear. Currently, the Apache AH-64D rounds (the Apache carries 50 Spark plugs Longbow is operated by America, Egypt, Greece, 1,200 units), the 30mm 51 Hybrid buses automatic cannon is a multi- Israel, Japan, Kuwait, Netherlands, China, purpose chain gun capable of 53 Wankel rotary engine Singapore and the United Arab Emirates, with ripping through man and 54 Race for 1,000mph many other countries operating earlier variants. machine with ease. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 048 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

048-049_HIW_009.indd 48 1/6/10 14:21:16 MOST FUTURISTIC CHEESIEST MOST UNBELIEVABLE Head 1. Blue Thunder 2. Fire Birds 3. Airwolf A troubled Vietnam war veteran and pilot Fresh out of the Apache Air Combat A renegade pilot steals a helicopter capable of to Head is forced to battle baddies and the School, gifted but arrogant pilot ﬂ ying halfway around the world on one tank ON-SCREEN government to stop the ‘Blue Thunder’ Nicholas Cage must take down a South and with a top speed that allows it to outrun HELICOPTERS attack helicopter being used for evil deeds. American drugs cartel. jet planes. The TV show ran for 79 episodes!

DID YOU KNOW? The AH-64A was ﬁ rst given the Apache name in late 1981, and went into full-scale production a year later AH-64D Apache Longbow 7. Fuselage 1. T700-GE-701C engines Designed for lightness, Produced by General Electric, the T700 manoeuvrability and stealth, the turboshaft engines allow the AH-64D fuselage is distinctively styled and Longbow a high vertical rate of climb painted in camouflaged colours to (2,175fpm) and max cruise speed (284kph). match its operating environment.

The Statistics AH-64D Apache Longbow Length: 58.17ft (17.73m) Height: 15.24ft (4.64m) Engine: Twin turboshaft T700-GE-701C Max speed: 284kph © Alex Pang Cost: $15.4 million Number produced: 1,174 (Feb 2010) Armament: Hellfi re missiles, 70mm rockets, 30mm M230 chain gun © Lürssen © An Apache AH-64 fi res fl ares in the early morning

A vehicle of modern warfare

3. Laser-guided Hellﬁ re missiles 4. 70mm explosive rockets Multi-platform and multi-target, these laser- Fast firing 2.75-inch rockets allow the Apache to guided modular missiles are excellent at support ground troops in any assault, destroying taking down enemy armour and structures. enemy soldiers, strongholds and vehicles. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 049

048-049_HIW_009.indd 49 1/6/10 14:21:53 “ The spark plug TRANSPORT has a tough life” Spark plugs Terminal The high-tension (HT) lead attaches here and supplies the high voltage necessary. The connection is a push-fit or a screw. Ribs Spark plugs The porcelain is ribbed to increase its surface area between the terminal and metal case, therefore These little detonators set off mini explosions and reducing the chance of electricity are at the heart of almost every petrol engine arcing across it. Outer case Petrol-powered removed from the engine for Made from steel, it is shaped to internal combustion maintenance or replacement. accept a spanner for fitting and engines rely on a mix of There’s usually one spark plug per Insulator removal and acts as the earth air and petrol cylinder, although some engines A porcelain body for the spark. runs the length of exploding, and the resulting force have twin plugs per cylinder. the plug which Thread pushing a piston down. This Little has changed since its contains the The base of the case is threaded happens many times a second – invention in the mid-19th Century, central electrode so that the plug can be screwed and each explosion has to be and the spark plug has a tough life. and insulates it into the engine. A special washer ensures a good seal. ignited somehow. It has to withstand very high from the outer case. This is done by creating an temperatures, contain high Central electrode electrical spark inside the cylinder, voltages, survive repeated Linked to the terminal, the high at just the right moment and in just electrical arcing, contend with Gap voltage reaches this and arcs to the the right place. A high voltage petrol and carbon deposits and act The gap between side electrode. It is usually made from a copper-based alloy. (typically 25,000 volts) arcs across a as a seal to the high pressures the electrodes is critical to correct gap between two metal electrodes inside the cylinder. Finally, though, operation. Typically Ground electrode to create the spark. These its ability to cope with all this fails around 1.5mm it is Attached to the outer case so it goes electrodes are contained within a and the plug is thrown away and preset before the plug straight to earth (the engine body), the spark plug, that can easily be replaced with a new one. is fitted. high voltage arcs across to here.

050_HIW_009.indd 50 5/11/10 13:04:10 HIW_eMag_1/2_hse ad.indd 1 27/10/10 14:13:44 Railpower Technologies Toyota Prius Autorail à Grande Boeing 737-800 Hybrid submarine Capacité 5 Corp. crane Probably the most famous Boeing has designed a fuel Diesel-electric submarines TOP A Vancouver ﬁ rm has designed 2 hybrid, Toyota introduced the This hybrid-electric train runs 4 cell/lithium-ion hybrid to 5 run on battery power when 1 a hybrid diesel-electric crane world to hybrid motoring with 3 in France. This is dual-mode, power an electric motor they are submerged, and FACTS for unloading ships; energy the Prius. The latest version so can run using both diesel- driving a traditional propeller. these batteries are then used to lift containers is boasts some of the lowest CO electric drive, and electric The fuel cell powers the plane recharged by the diesel motor HYBRID 2 TRANSPORT regained when they’re lowered. emissions of any car. energy from a DC motor. during cruising. when it resurfaces.

DID YOU KNOW? HybriDrive allows future green-fuel technologies to be installed to further its eco credentials Hybrid bus 30% greener and with the potential to become fully

zero-emission, the hybrid double-decker has arrived Systems BAE 2010 © Images All The hybrid bus has been in New York Electronics form the heart of BAE’s HybriDrive An electric air conditioning compressor draws no since 1998 and the fl eet has covered over system. Power management of electrical energy is engine power and can run on energy from 150 million miles. Now, aided by a £30m controlled by a propulsion system by the engine. regenerative braking. Acceleration is smooth due to British Government grant, it’s coming to Using fast and fl exible multiplex CAN wiring and the fact there’s no gearbox – the electric motor drives the UK. The Enviro400 bus will be key to delivering extensive on-board diagnostics, it can link all the wheels directly. Any excess energy not used for 300 hybrid buses to UK roads, starting this summer. components and distribute 320kW of electricity. driving is stored in a lithium-ion energy storage It looks like any other double-decker. The key 145kW of electrical energy is produced by a system, for a ‘boost’ during demanding acceleration. components of the HybriDrive technology – starter- generator attached to the diesel engine. It also Under braking, the motor turns into an electrical generator, electric drive motor, propulsion control functions as a starter motor, meaning the diesel regeneration system, further charging the batteries. system and lithium-ion energy storage batteries – is automatically switches off when stationery, yet is Hydrogen fuel cells will eventually replace the integrated into the bus structure; electric power rapidly restarted. Surveys show traffi c in city centres diesel engine, making this a true zero-emission bus connected by cables allows such remote placement. can spend 30 per cent of the time stationary. capable of running independently of fossil fuels.

5. Lithium-ion batteries 8. Little change Computer power Batteries are nanophosphate for the driver lithium-ion units. Nanotechnology Few new driving techniques are needed catches the bus cures low electrical conductivity to operate the HybriDrive bus. The Hybrid The BAE Systems HybriDrive technology is a issues, and phosphate is safe and stationary engine cut-off is fully combination of fi ve components: a high-effi ciency diesel produces a high current. automatic and the driver is presented with familiar vehicle controls. It also power engine plus four electrical-control components. uses pump-standard diesel fuel. Computer logic is used to manage these, prioritising both BAE HybriDrive buses are power and effi ciency. There are many intricacies and hybrid machines subtleties to doing this, made more complicated by propelled by electric having to install it within an existing vehicle – the basic drive. Energy is produced design is similar to regular buses. by a downsized 4.5-litre diesel engine. Operating 4. Pulling power separate to the wheels, of… a bus! engine turnover speed The motor produces 120kW of power continuously, but can be independently can peak at 175kW. It puts controlled: it can run in its out 425Nm of torque ‘sweet spot’ where the continuously, or 650Nm for max pulling power is at four-minute high-load peak effi ciency. The periods. Peak torque is 900Nm. generator converts this mechanical rotation into electrical energy to drive the propulsion motor. For 7. Battery this, it uses a permanent development magnet system, which is potential effi cient but very large (the Battery technology is unit weights 135kg here). progressing fast but it is still in The rotation of the its infancy. The lithium-ion units diesel engine turns a shaft are large in size and the unit linked to the generator. On weighs 340kg. This will quickly reduce in coming years. the shaft are permanent magnets, within two 6. Electrical regeneration rotors. When rotated, The motor is dual-purpose; during deceleration (and magnetic fl ux passes from when the driver applies the brakes), rotation is reversed, one rotor to the other turning it into an electrical generator. This ‘free’ energy is stored in the batteries for later deployment. through a stator. This moving fl ux produces 1. Exhaust 3. Super-effi cient engine electrical power. Coils are Urea from a separate chemical 2. Fuel cell future By running in its optimum speed range, the engine is mounted on the stator, tank is injected into exhaust gases. This As the engine is independent of the up to 70 per cent more effi cient than a conventional and through these bonds to particulates in the exhaust, road wheels, it is easy to replace in engine that runs over a wide range. The capacity is electricity is harvested. reducing nitrogen oxide emissions. the future. also half the size of a normal bus. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 051

051_HIW_009.indd 51 1/6/10 14:25:57 © Imagine Publishing Ltd No unauthorised copying or distribution FASTEST 1. Mazda 787B NEWEST 2. Mazda RX-8 EARLIEST 3. NSU Spider Head 1991 Le Mans winner that Today’s only production This was the ﬁ rst produced 700bhp from a Wankel-engined car, the production car to use a to Head non-turbocharged 2622cc RX-8 produces 230bhp, Wankel engine, back in WANKEL- Wankel engine. The only hits 62mph in 6.4 1964. The 50bhp engine Japanese car to win the seconds and has a top was mounted in the back of ENGINED CARS © 100 yen historic 24-hour race. speed of 146mph. © Berthold Werner the open-top car.

DID YOU KNOW? Felix Wankel developed his engine while working at German car maker NSU, which evolved into Audi The combustion cycle Where you’ll ﬁ nd a Wankel Although there have been various cars with rotary engines over the years, only Mazda has continued to embrace and develop the technology, with its RX-8 sports car being its current Wankel-engined car. Mazda has also had considerable success in motorsport with rotary engines. Wankel engines have been used in aircraft since back in the Sixties and are becoming increasingly popular for aviation use. As well as being potentially safer, they are also more compact (useful when one is mounted at the nose of a 1. Intake 2. Compression plane) and tend to be quieter, When the top-most rotor tip just passes the intake port, air As the chamber with the air/fuel in reaches the spark plug and fuel is drawn into what will become the combustion (there are often two), the mixture is fully compressed and which is also an important chamber. As the rotor continues to turn, the inlet port is ready to be ignited by the spark, which takes place as shown consideration in today’s sealed off and the air/fuel mixture is compressed. on the diagram. environmentally aware world. Small Wankel engines with capacities of around 50cc are used in model aeroplanes. Smaller still, are micro Wankel engines used in micromachines. These are as small as 1mm in diameter and have a capacity of just 0.1cc. At the other end of the scale, massive 41-litre Wankel engines are used for driving compressors for pumping gas along pipelines.

3. Combustion 4. Exhaust The resulting explosion causes an expansion of gases Finally, the exhaust port is opened as the rotor tip passes it, which pushes the rotor around, therefore creating power and the spent gases are forced out of it, as the exhaust that is transferred to the transmission and can propel the chamber reduces in size. Note that the next stage of the vehicle forward. cycle is already in progress. The cylinderless engine The Wankel engine uses a rotary design in place of pistons and cylinders. It’s more effi cient but remains a quirky solution Despite a name guaranteed to make tips of the rotor are always in contact with the walls and fail suddenly – an very important consideration schoolboys snigger, the Wankel engine is of the housing. This effectively makes separate for aircraft. a seriously clever invention. chambers within the housing, in which the stages of On the downside, engineers have struggled to Devised by German engineer Felix combustion take place. maintain good seals between the rotor tips and Wankel in the Fifties, it gets rid of the usual A Wankel engine is smaller, lighter and has less housing, with leakages making the engine less complexities of pistons, cylinders, connecting rods parts than a regular, conventional piston engine. It effi cient. Because of this, a Wankel engine can be and such like, and replaces them with a three-sided is also generally smoother, as there are no pistons expensive to produce and its applications have symmetrical rotor that spins inside a specially fl ying up and down. What’s more, in the event of any remained limited. Furthermore, fuel consumption shaped housing. The design is such that the three kind of mechanical failure, it is less likely to seize up tends to be higher than with a piston engine. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 053

053_HIW_009.indd 53 1/6/10 17:16:46 Historic Mach 1 Blink Phileas Fogg Runway 5 The ﬁ rst land speed record was The speed of sound is 761mph At the speed of sound you The circumference of the To accomplish a 1,000mph “ Predicted resistances from drag are TOP 1 set by Count Gaston de 2 (1,224kph), which in aviation 3 are travelling at 340.3 metres 4 Earth is 24,901 miles. At 5 record-breaking attempt, a Chasseloup-Laubat in Yveslines, terms is referred to as Mach 1. per second, the equivalent of 1,000 miles per hour you runway area of over 14 miles extreme and increase in proportion to FACTS France, on 18 December 1898 To achieve low Earth orbit three times the length of could travel around it in little is necessary, with a massive at – for the time – a rather you’d need to be travelling at Manchester United’s Old more than 24 hours… not bad ten miles needed purely TRANSPORT velocity squared” SPEED dizzying 39mph. the equivalent of Mach 25.4. Trafford football pitch. for a day’s work. for braking. Race to 1,000mph The race to 1,000 mph

Forget the Bugatti Veyron, this is engines are subject to untested speeds at So fast that they will where the real speed lies. altitudes they were never meant to operate in, Awesome conglomerations of and the risk of cataclysmic combustion of fuel transcend the speed engineering prowess, reserves is far from improbable. of sound, three rocket mathematical accuracy, split- Despite this, however, three teams from the second reactions, chiselled experience and far-ﬂ ung corners of the Earth are currently cars are pushing the cutting-edge design theory – brought together in building rival vehicles to undertake this very one of man’s latest and greatest challenges; to mission, to make the impossible, possible. limits of conventional take a land vehicle to the fabled 1,000mph. British, Australian and American, they combine And what a challenge it will be. At this speed specialists in aerodynamics, engineering, physics in their bids everything counts: aerodynamic principles that mathematics and physics, and between them are watertight on paper crumble under the have decades of experience in breaking man- to reach the Holy pressure that physics has on current technology, made barriers. We take a look at these teams and predicted resistances from drag are extreme and the vehicles that will transport them beyond the Grail of motoring increase in proportion to velocity squared, jet limit that they said could never be broken. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 054 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

054-057_HIW_009.indd 54 1/6/10 14:32:04 Historic Mach 1 Blink Phileas Fogg Runway 5 The ﬁ rst land speed record was The speed of sound is 761mph At the speed of sound you The circumference of the To accomplish a 1,000mph TOP 1 set by Count Gaston de 2 (1,224kph), which in aviation 3 are travelling at 340.3 metres 4 Earth is 24,901 miles. At 5 record-breaking attempt, a Chasseloup-Laubat in Yveslines, terms is referred to as Mach 1. per second, the equivalent of 1,000 miles per hour you runway area of over 14 miles FACTS France, on 18 December 1898 To achieve low Earth orbit three times the length of could travel around it in little is necessary, with a massive at – for the time – a rather you’d need to be travelling at Manchester United’s Old more than 24 hours… not bad ten miles needed purely SPEED dizzying 39mph. the equivalent of Mach 25.4. Trafford football pitch. for a day’s work. for braking.

DID YOU KNOW? The current world land speed record is held by the ThrustSSC at a speed of 763.035mph SUCCESSORland speed record: The Statistics World Bloodhound SSC Bloodhound SSC The current world land speed record holders, the Richard Noble and Andy Green with British-based SSC team hope to rewrite their own a model of the Bloodhound SSC legacy with their new Bloodhound rocket car When the ThrustSSC broke the sound barrier back in 1997 on its way to an unprecedented world land speed record of 763mph, many commentators said that it Engine: 1 x MCT V12 800bhp, would never be beaten, that the limitations of physics and human technology had 1 x Falcon HTP rocket, 1 x Eurojet topped out. But then again, they had said that before. The Bloodhound world land EJ200 speed record challenger is the latest design from the SSC team, who despite holding Length: 12.8m (42ft) the record, intend to topple it spectacularly with a 1,000mph run, cementing their Width: 6.4m (21ft) position in the history books. We take a look inside the Bloodhound to see what Weight: 6,422kg (14,160lb) Max speed: 1,050mph+ makes it so special and how it will top 1,000mph.

Jet propulsion Half the thrust of the Bloodhound is provided by a Eurojet EJ200, a sophisticated military turbofan normally found in the An artist’s conception of the Bloodhound engine bay of a Eurofighter Typhoon combat SSC’s cockpit and instrumentation aircraft. The engine has a highly sophisticated engine control and health monitoring system, which will put the mph engine into a safe mode if checks fail. Suspension Essential for handling and stability, the suspension has 100mm of bump and droop travel to observe any undulations in the Earth’s surface. Currently, the vehicle is fitted with a double wishbone front suspension, with a front track of one metre, and a double wishbone rear suspension, with a rear track of 2.39 metres. © Curventa © Cockpit Fitted with electronic panels instead of the conventional needle-and- gauge instrumentation, the cockpit of the Bloodhound is fully digitised and will allow its driver Andy Green to monitor the engines, electrics, hydraulics, aerodynamics, wheel bearings and other areas of the vehicle. Rocket propulsion Originally designed to be purely a rocket-propelled vehicle, the Bloodhound uses a rocket/jet mix of Structure propulsion. The vehicle is fitted with 13 metres long and weighing close a hybrid rocket that uses high-test to seven tons, the structure of the Wheels peroxide (HTP) as its oxidiser and Bloodhound has to deal with Rotating at over 10,000rpm, the synthetic rubber hydroxyl- 220kN of thrust, 2.5+g acceleration the wheels are crafted from terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) and 3+g deceleration. The vehicle pure titanium and can as its primary fuel. is constructed from separate endure 50,000g at 1,000mph. toughened space frames and These solid wheels are to be carbon fibre tubs, and is presently optimised in tread and keel to Intake duct designed to be covered with a allow good lateral grip on salt. To supply continuous air at sufficient quality for composite skin. the jet engine to operate at maximum efficiency, the intake duct has been designed to follow the shape of the intake canopy. The triangular shape helps air flow around the intake bend and minimises air overflow drag caused when the engine cannot process the air fast enough.

054-057_HIW_009.indd 55 1/6/10 14:33:12 “ Four rocket engines deliver a TRANSPORT staggering 62,000 pounds of thrust” Race to 1,000mph

Aussie Invader 5R World Built by the current Australian land speed record holder, the Aussie Invader 5R has land speed record: Tail ﬁ n A carbon fibre vertical been ten years in the making and is a serious stabiliser with an contender for the 1,000mph crown adjustable horizontal fin, CHALLENGER the tail fin is used to keep the car straight and provide rear-end down force.

Interview How It Works talks to the driver of the Aussie Invader Cockpit 5R Rosco McGlashan The 5R’s cockpit is designed to minimise How It Works: What was the the negative effects of extreme g-forces on catalyst to initiate the Aussie the pilot. It is home to the vehicle’s Invader 5R project? instrumentation and oxygen tanks also. Rosco McGlashan: The 5R project was started to build the world’s most powerful and fastest car, the catalyst Rosco McGlashan, known round the world as The Statistics came from 45 years of blood, sweat ‘The Rocket Man’, is attempting his biggest and tears of breaking records. challenge to date. Helped with his team of Aussie Invader 5R dedicated volunteers – a team that currently HIW: The Invader team already holds the Australian land speed record of hold the Australian land speed 643mph – the 1,000mph barrier, the ultimate land record, could you tell us about the record-breaking attempt? speed challenge, is set squarely in his sights with RM: We attempted the Aussie LSR the Aussie Invader 5R. Weighing over eight tons previously held by Donald Campbell at fully fuelled and powered with four rocket 403mph (647kph) back in 1994. We engines that together deliver a staggering 62,000 lifted the record to 500mph (802kph) pounds of thrust (the equivalent of 200,000bhp), Engine: 4 x HTP rocket (62,000 but went on to crash the car in the the 5R is set to propel McGlashan to 1,000mph in pounds of thrust) following year. In 1996 we ran a peak just under 20 seconds. How It Works contacted Length: 18.0m (58.5ft) one way speed of 643mph, however McGlashan and the 5R’s team to see how keeping Pete Taylor, member of the Height: 3m (10ft) we never had the right conditions to Weight: 6,363kg (14,000lb) things simple will ensure victory in the greatest Invader’s team, works on the run our race. Max speed: 1,000mph+ race of all. initial mould for the 5R’s canopy HIW: With the 5R you are looking to break the 1,000mph barrier, Chutes Two independent parachutes: one 150ft stabiliser rope that can how difﬁ cult is that going to be? HTP tank Nose cone RM: Yes, it will be difﬁ cult. The last be deployed over 900mph, and one 7ft chute to be deployed at This tank contains The composite nose record attempt we undertook was sub-500mph speeds. Fuel tank 2,500kg of high test cone is used to impossible for a small dedicated team The Invader is peroxide, which mixes house the 5R’s to achieve using an all-volunteer team fuelled by 400 litres with kerosene derivative batteries and on- working in a shed. This new attempt is of JP5 biofuel, a JP5 biofuel to produce board computer unthinkable, the same conditions but kerosene derivative. 62,000 pounds of thrust. equipment. an older team trying to fund development from more sponsors.

HIW: With teams from across the globe competing in the race to 1,000mph, are there certain design features on the 5R that you think will pip them to the post? RM: The 5R is the perfect car for the LSR: brute power, no moving parts Wheels (for the engine systems) and Nitrogen pressure Nitrogen pressure simplicity. The car is designed around Rocket engines Both front and rear Four hypergolic, self-staring rocket tanks (fuel) hubless wheels are a purpose-built central mainframe and tanks (HTP) engines. Each engine produces 15,500 A second brace of nitrogen- A series of three tanks made from hand- the on-board pressure vessels use the pounds of thrust, which combined filled tanks used to blow filled with nitrogen. forged L77 aluminium wall of the mainframe for strength. allows the Aussie Invader 5R to the 5R’s fuel into the four These are used to blow and are purposely The mainframe uses PVs for strength accelerate from 0-1,000mph in 20 rocket engines, where it the HTP into the four designed for speeds in and rigidness. seconds – the equivalent to 200,000bhp. then mixes with the HTP. rocket engines. excess of 800mph.

054-057_HIW_009.indd 56 1/6/10 14:33:48 AIR 1. SR-71 LAND 2. ThrustSSC WATER 3. XSR48 Head Blackbird Holds the current world Capable of a ferocious The SR-71 has held the land speed record, maximum speed of 90 to Head record as the fastest air reaching an impressive knots, the XSR48 sports breathing manned aircraft 763mph on 15 October the acceleration of a FASTEST in the world since 1976. Its 1997 in the Black Rock supercar but on water VEHICLES speed is rated as Mach 3+. desert, Nevada. instead of on land.

DID YOU KNOW? The North American Eagle is named after the Bald Eagle, a bird of prey with an average body size of 80cm

land speed record: The Statistics WILDCARDWorld North American Eagle North American Engine: 1 x GE J79 Turbojet (52,000 hp) Length: 17.07m (56.0ft) Height: 4m (13ft) Weight: 5,900kg (13,000lb) Eagle Max speed: 808mph+ Hot on the tail of the Bloodhound and the Aussie Invader 5R, a team of dedicated Americans are working to readjust the balance of power with their own 800+ mph challenger, the North American Eagle

Chassis Shadle Rachel © The chassis of the Eagle is taken from a F-104A-10 Starfighter. Interview How It Works talks to the driver of the North American Eagle Ed Shadle HIW: So far, what has been the biggest challenge you have faced on the project? Ed Shadle: The biggest challenge the project has faced is ﬁ nancing and © Rachel Shadle Rachel © logistics. While several sponsors have come on board to support by Wheels providing equipment or donating The Eagle has 100 per cent consultation, the most elusive to aluminium wheels. acquire has been a ﬁ nancial backer Engine that is willing to risk up-front capital for the rewards which come with such The engine is a a high-risk venture. Despite such modified General Electric J79 turbojet. restraints, the team has pressed on, frequently spending their funds to conduct test sessions.

HIW: With the NAE you are looking to break the 800mph barrier, yet rival teams are aiming Powered by a General Electric variation has managed to top for 1,000mph. Could the NAE close in on that speed? of its J79 turbojet engine, and built 400 miles per hour. ES: The two rival teams, or around the chassis of an F-104A-10 Unfortunately, due to contenders, have come along many Starfi ghter, a third land speed challenger the nature of the years after the NAE project began. is emerging from the USA. The North North American When it started in 1998, the owners American Eagle is a joint project between Eagle project – a felt that 800mph was the next an experienced group of American and group made up purely of volunteers and either of its contemporaries and, appropriate level at which to set a goal Canadian engineers, pilots and reliant largely on sponsorship monies to providing they can acquire the requisite for reaching. While the NAE could mechanics to break the current world progress the project – exact dates for funds, are the closest to setting a new potentially get close to the other land speed record of 763mph. Their goal faster runs are presently not possible due world land speed record. That will make teams’ goal, it would take a massive infusion of capital and testing to is 1,300km/h (808mph), a speed that has to the massive fi nancial outlay required Ed Shadle the fastest man on the planet assure that it would be safe to attempt for any land speed attempt. and a fi rst for the NAE team. Whether never yet been achieved on Earth. such a speed. Taking the Eagle to 800+ miles per Further, many questions remain they can top their current target of 808mph and close in on the elusive hour is driver Ed Shadle – a project unanswered, as this is unknown HIW: How important will the manager at IBM – and his team of territory for mankind. These include: 1,000mph is yet to be seen. record be to the NAE team? And experienced and hard-working will the Eagle’s bearings handle the how long do you feel your record volunteers. The NAE project has attracted weight loading and revolutions per will stand? quite a crop too, with bearing minute at such epic speeds, can the ES: The importance of getting the engineering and airframe mechanics aluminium-alloy wheels withstand the land speed record for the NAE team will be equivalent to having from Boeing, a jet engine specialist from tremendous centrifugal force, what successfully gone to the moon and Fort St. John, an owner of a hi-tech about the Eagle’s effect on the Earth’s back. As for how long a record of machine shop and various other surface with its shockwave and 800mph will stand depends entirely members with piloting experience. acoustical absorption, and will Ed Shadle on how quickly the Bloodhound SSC Currently, the Eagle is participating in be able to control such a machine safely? or Aussie Invader 5R projects get a steady and calculated series of test runs Despite this ,however, the North through necessary testing to go and system refi nements – a must when American Eagle is considerably more beyond that speed.

taking a vehicle supersonic – and so far advanced in its project life span than Shadle Rachel © © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 057

054-057_HIW_009.indd 57 1/6/10 16:16:19 Exploration system Solar universe The Astronomy General SPACE categories explained Mercury Mercury Compared to the other planets, we know This month in Space relatively little about the smallest If you were a fan of the planet in our solar system excellent sci-fi drama that was Battlestar Galactica then Although we’ve been observing Mercury from you’re probably familiar with Earth for thousands of years, its close proximity to the search for Earth. While the Sun – about 58 million kilometres, on average – we can’t promise Cylons or has made it diffi cult for astronomers to learn Vipers, we can tell you how much about the planet. The Hubble Space Telescope our own Earth-bound cannot observe it, because turning that close towards scientists are searching the the Sun would damage the telescope’s instruments. surrounding star systems for Most of what we know came from the 1975 a planet similar to our own. Mariner 10 space probe’s fl y-by. The area is relatively small With the naked eye, Mercury can only be but new planets are being seen at dawn or dusk, depending on the discovered all the time and time of year (unless there is a solar eclipse). the search for one that could This is due to the Sun’s glare. Mercury can support life continues apace. also be seen as a small black spot Find out more by heading Surface moving across the Sun at intervals of over to page 64. Mercury’s surface is seven, 13 and 33 years. This is known as covered in tiny minerals a transit of Mercury across the Sun called silicates. and occurs when the planet comes between the Earth and the Sun. Mercury has the shortest year of any planet at 88 Earth days. It also orbits around the Sun faster than any other planet, which is Outer core It’s hypothesised that why it was named after the speedy 61 Io: The volcanic moon Mercury has a liquid Roman messenger god. Conversely, iron outer core. Mercury has the longest day of any planet due to its slow rotation. Because it revolves so quickly around the Sun, yet only rotates on its axis once every 59 Earth days, the time between sunrises on Mercury lasts 176 Earth days. Mercury 62 Solar fl ares also has the most eccentric, or stretched-out, elliptical orbit. Like our Moon, Mercury can be observed going through apparent changes in its shape and size called phases. Atmosphere Inside 64 Search for a new Earth Mercury has a very thin, almost airless atmosphere. SPACE At one time it was believed that the planet didn’t have Mercury an atmosphere at all, but it does contain small A cross-section of 58 Mercury concentrations of the gases helium, hydrogen and oxygen 60 Night and day as well as calcium, potassium and sodium. Because of the smallest planet in Mercury’s size, it does not have a strong enough gravitational pull 61 Io our solar system to keep a stable atmosphere. It is constantly being lost and 62 Solar fl ares replenished via solar wind, impacts and radioactive decay of 63 Cassini probe elements in the crust. 64 Search for a new Earth © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 058 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

058-059_HIW_009.indd 58 1/6/10 17:23:35 Heavily cratered surface Lobate scarps Ultraviolet radiation Magnetic fi eld Exosphere 5 TOP Although telescopes had Mariner 10’s images showed Mariner 10 recorded large The Mariner 10 space Mercury has an atmosphere 1 revealed that Mercury looked 2 that Mercury was also 3 amounts of ultraviolet 4 probe’s instruments picked 5 like the exosphere on Earth – much like our moon, the nearly covered in curved cliffs called radiation near Mercury. It was up a magnetic fi eld on the upper layer of our planet’s FACTS 10,000 images recorded by lobate scarps, which formed eventually determined to atmosphere. Its lightness and Mercury, which is rather Mariner 10 confi rmed that it when the planet’s core cooled come from a nearby star similar to Earth’s own low density allows molecules MERCURY had a heavily cratered surface. and shrank. called 31 Crateris. magnetic fi eld. to escape into space.

DIDDID YOUYOU KNOW?KNOW? XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXAncient Greeks believed that Mercury was two planets: one called Hermes and one called Apollo Terrestrial planet Moon-like surface Like Earth, Mercury is a rocky planet. It comprises about 70 per cent metal The surface of Mercury looks much like plains. The smooth plains were likely and 30 per cent silicate materials. Because Mercury is so dense – almost as the surface of our moon. The largest crater formed by lava ﬂ ows, while inter-crater dense as Earth, although it’s much smaller – it probably has a very large, on Mercury is the Caloris Basin at 1,300 plains may have been formed by lava or by iron-rich core. Scientists believe that Mercury’s core makes up almost half kilometres across. The impact caused lava impacts. The most unusual features are of the planet’s total volume and three-fourths of its total radius. It also eruptions and shockwaves that formed the wrinkles and folds across its plains contains more molten iron than any other major planet in the solar system. hills and furrows around the basin. and craters, caused by the cooling and The core is estimated to have a radius of about 1,800 kilometres, with a Mercury also has two different types of contraction of the planet’s core. mantle about 600 kilometres thick and a crust about 300 kilometres thick. There are a few potential explanations for this large core. Mercury may have had a more substantial crust and mantle that were stripped away by 4. Shockwaves 1. Meteorite impact high temperatures and solar wind from the Sun, or it could have been hit Impacts with large meteorites actually send Mercury has been continually hit shockwaves through the core of the planet by a still-forming planet called a planetesimal. with comets and meteorites. and around its perimeter. The largest of these impacts have effects across the planet.

The Statistics Mercury 2. Crater Some craters are relatively shallow and narrow, but impacts with meteorites leave large craters.

5. Uplifted crust 3. Ejecta © Science Photo Library Photo Science © The shockwaves force the rocky mantle Impacts force debris high into the air on Diameter: 4,879 kilometres to buckle upwards through the crust, Mercury. Falling debris settles around the 23 Mass: 3.3022 × 10 kilograms forming mountains. crater, creating an ejecta blanket. Density: 5.427 grams per cubic centimetre Average surface temperature: 179°C Sizes… Average distance from the Mercury’s diameter is two-fifths Sun: 57,910,000 kilometres that of the Earth, and its mass is Surface gravity: 0.38 g slightly less than Earth’s. Mantle A rocky mantle, much like Earth’s. Caloris Montes Mercury has several mountains known as montes, the tallest and largest of which are the Caloris Montes. This is a series of circular mountain ranges up The transit of Mercury Core 4,879km 12,756.3km A huge iron core to three kilometres in height located on the rim of the Every seven, 13 and 33 years, sits at the heart huge Caloris Basin. The Caloris Montes are massifs, Mercury can be seen as a black of the planet. formed when Mercury’s crust flexed and fractured due spot moving across the Sun. to impact. Temperature extremes While Mercury has an average surface temperature of around 179°C, temperatures on the planet fluctuate wildly depending on the location on the planet, the time of day and how close it is to the Sun in its orbit. At night, surface temperatures can go down to -170°C. During the day, they can reach 450°C. Some scientists believe that ice may exist under the surface of deep craters at Mercury’s poles. Here temperatures are below average because sunlight cannot penetrate. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 059

058-059_HIW_009.indd 59 1/6/10 17:20:41 “ True solar time is based on the apparent motion of the Sun as SPACE we observe it” Day and night Day and night, night and day This seemingly simple phenomenon that we call night and day is anything but simple © NASA © Days and nights around the world Depending on the time of year and where you live, the length of days and nights can vary. These shifts occur during speciﬁ c moments of the year known as equinoxes and solstices. The equinoxes occur around 20 March and again around 22 September. This is What we term ‘night and day’ is a phenomenon further away from it. The tilt of Earth’s axis also means that when the Earth’s axis is tilted neither known as rotation. The Earth rotates around its true solar days are shorter at some times of the year and towards nor away from the Sun. axis, an imaginary line that extends from its longer at others. A mean solar day is an average so that all of Solstices occur around 21 June and 21 North Pole to its South Pole, once every 24 hours. our days are of equal length. This is the time we use to set December, when the Earth’s axis is This axis of our planet is tipped at an angle of about 23.5 our clocks. Sidereal time takes into account how long it most inclined either toward (in June) or degrees from the vertical. takes the Earth to rotate with respect to the apparent away (in December) from the Sun. As the Earth rotates, the part of it illuminated by the Sun movement of the stars instead of the Sun. A sidereal day is Locations around the equator experiences daytime, while the dark part experiences about four minutes shorter than a mean solar day. experience the most even night and night. When the Sun appears above the horizon in the east Astronomers use sidereal time to determine the placement day lengths, with increases in and sinks below it in west, we call this sunrise and sunset. of the stars in the sky at any given time. variation spreading outwards to the But this is an illusion created by the Earth’s counter- Although a rotation of the Earth takes 24 hours, that tropic of Cancer at the northernmost clockwise rotation – because of course the Sun isn’t actually doesn’t mean that daytime and nighttime are each 12 hours point and the tropic of Capricorn at the rising or sinking at all. long. On average, nights are shorter than days. This is due to southernmost point. The differences True solar time is based on the apparent motion of the the Sun’s apparent size in our sky as well as the way that our are the most extreme at the poles. Once Sun as we observe it, as with a sundial. This measurement atmosphere refracts sunlight. The lengths of our days and a year, the North Pole is tilted towards varies from day to day because of the Earth’s elliptical orbit nights depend on our location on the Earth’s surface as well the Sun and experiences a day of 24 – it rotates faster when closer to the Sun and slower when as the time of year. hours of sunlight. During this time, the South Pole has 24 hours of darkness. Rotation axis 1. Arctic Circle The reverse happens six months later. Day and night N Above the Arctic Circle, the region around the North Pole experiences a 24-hour day of The North Pole experiences days of complete explained sunlight during the summer solstice. darkness, and days of complete daylight Sun never This image shows the sets 2. Tropic of Earth’s axis is tilted towards NIGHT Cancer the Sun during the summer, During summer solstice, or northern solstice. This the area around the tropic Long days occurs around 21 June and of Cancer experiences much longer days than changes the lengths of DAY nights due to the extreme nights and days depending SUNLIGHT tilt of the Earth’s axis on where you live. The ﬁ ve Equal days and nights towards the Sun. major circles of latitude 3. Equator mark the shifts in length. The region around the equator is the only Sun never rises place on Earth where days and nights are generally the same length of time 5. Antarctic Circle Short days regardless of the time of year. The Antarctic Circle marks a region that experiences a 24-hour period, 4. Tropic of Capricorn or “day”, of darkness due to the Below the tropic of Capricorn, the region has S

summer solstice. much shorter days than nights. NASA ©

060_HIW_009.indd 60 1/6/10 14:43:31 LONGEST LONGEST BIGGEST VOLCANO LASTING PLUME 1. Prometheus LAVA FLOW 2. Masubi 3. Loki Head The nearly 100-kilometre Fluctus Loki Patera is the dust plume emanating from Originating from the biggest volcano to Head the Prometheus volcano is volcano Masubi, the Masubi depression on Io at thought to have been Fluctus is an active lava more than 200 IO’S continuously erupting since ﬂ ow more than 500 kilometres in diameter VOLCANOES at least 1979. kilometres long. (126 miles).

DID YOU KNOW? Io’s volcanic activity was unknown until images were taken by the Voyager spacecraft in 1979

3. Mountainous Io’s surface is covered Inside Io with over 400 volcanoes Why is Io so volcanic? and 100 mountains. 2. Under pressure The huge gravitational forces expelled upon Io from Jupiter’s other moons cause its interior to expand and contract. Jupiter’s Galilean moons Jupiter has 63 known moons, but its Galilean moons – Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto – are the four largest. Discovered by Galileo in 1620, the Galilean moons 1. Core also rank among the Io’s silicate rock and biggest moons in the solar iron core is put under system. Io is known for its enormous pressure. extreme volcanic activity as well as its unusual silicate rock and iron 4. Surface composition. Europa’s the The surface of the moon smallest of these moons, is covered in huge volcanic vents, paterae and lakes with a smooth surface of of lava. ice and water. It is thought to potentially harbour extraterrestrial life. Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system, with a diameter wider than that of Mercury. Callisto is the second- largest Galilean moon, with a surface that is very old and covered in craters. Its largest crater, Valhalla, is 3,000 kilometres wide.

Io: The volcanic moon The Statistics When it comes to the landscape on Jupiter’s Io moon Io, the only real constant is change We often think of moons in gives Io a colourful surface that looks a lot kilometres. All of this force causes the context of Earth’s moon – like a pizza. pressure and heat to build in Io’s silicate cold, quiet and devoid of So what makes Io so unique? The rock and iron core, ultimately sending activity. While Jupiter’s moon answer is tides, but these tides are much molten material spewing up through Io is roughly the same size as Earth’s stronger than those in Earth’s oceans. Io cracks in the crust. moon, it couldn’t be more different. Io’s experiences tidal heating thanks to the In addition to its numerous volcanic main feature is its volcanic activity. The gravitational forces exerted upon it by features, Io has more than 100 Diameter: 3,636 kilometres moon is covered with more than 400 Jupiter and three of its other moons: mountains, some of which are taller than Mass: 8.93 x 1022 kilograms volcanoes, which constantly spew Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Io is the Mount Everest’s 8.84 kilometres. These Density: 3.5 grams per cubic centimetre plumes of sulphur, sulphur dioxide and innermost of these moons, so it’s mountains may be the result of the Average surface ash as high as 500 kilometres above its constantly in the centre of a tug-of-war constant resurfacing of the moon’s crust temperature: surface. Io is also covered with hundreds between the planet and the other moons. due to all of the volcanic activity. A build- -143°C (130 Kelvin) of kilometres of lava ﬂ ows and lakes, These gravitational forces are so strong up of volcanic material could cause the Core temperature: Estimated at up to 1,726°C (2,000 Kelvin) massive volcanic depressions called that they alternately compress and crust to fall into the mantle, pushing Equatorial surface gravity: paterae, and openings in its crust called expand Io’s interior, causing the surface chunks of it up through faults and 0.183 g

volcanic vents. This non-stop activity to bulge in and out by as much as 100 forming a mountain. © All images NASA © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 061

061_HIW_009.indd 61 1/6/10 14:45:12 “ The number and frequency of solar fl ares correlates to SPACE that of sunspots” Solar fl ares Effects 5 © NASA © TOP FACTS BIGGEST SOLAR FLARES Solar 04/11/03 X28+ 1 This solar fl are was observed by NASA’s GOES satellite system and is the strongest solar fl are recorded to date. It was not directed directly at Earth, but did cause some radio blackouts.

02/04/01 X20.0 2 This fl are was the largest one fl ares observed for decades until 2003. The largest explosions in the It was observed by the Yohkoh spacecraft, which orbited the solar system explained Effects on Earth Sun from 1991 to 2001. A solar fl are is a sudden, high-energy explosion of 28/10/03 X17.2 The occurrence of a solar fl are can have many different energy that extends out to the Sun’s corona, or 3 This fl are was observed by the outermost layer of atmosphere. They are caused by effects on Earth as well as on our space explorations. The SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric hard x-rays emitted from a fl are, as well as bursts of highly Observatory), a spacecraft a build-up of magnetic energy and occur in areas of currently orbiting the Sun. It strong magnetic fi elds around the equator of the Sun. The charged protons called proton storms, can do damage to had an associated coronal number and frequency of solar fl ares correlates to that of both astronauts and spacecraft. Soft x-rays enter Earth’s mass ejection. ionosphere and can disrupt radio communications. sunspots. These temporary dark spots on the surface of the Sun 07/09/05 X17 mark areas of intense magnetic activity. During the solar cycle, Ultraviolet radiation and x-rays also cause the outer 4 This fl are blacked out high- the number of sunspots increases and they concentrate near atmosphere to heat up, creating a drag on satellites in low frequency radio Earth orbit and reducing their life span. communications in both North the equator. The more sunspots there are, the more solar fl ares and South America and caused there are. Corona mass ejections (CMEs) often occur along with solar numerous problems for air traffi c controllers. Solar fl ares happen in three stages, with each stage lasting as fl ares. These ejections of a large amount of plasma can disturb the Earth’s entire magnetic fi eld, known as a short as a few seconds or as long as a few hours depending on 06/03/89 X15.0 the strength of the fl are. During the precursor stage, the energy geomagnetic storm. Geomagnetic storms can damage 5 This fl are caused a geomagnetic begins to release in the form of lower-wavelength, or soft, x- satellites in high Earth orbit as well as power grids, leading storm that ultimately knocked to both communication and power outages. out power to the entire Canadian rays. Next, electrons, protons and ions accelerate nearly to the province of Quebec. speed of light during the impulsive stage. Plasma rapidly heats to anywhere from 10 million to as much as 100 million degrees Kelvin during the impulsive phase. A fl are not only results in a Magnetic reconnection visible fl ash of light, it also emits radiation across the This phenomenon is thought to be electromagnetic spectrum at other wavelengths. These include Solar fl ares responsible for solar flares. When gamma rays, radio waves and x-rays. The fi nal stage is decay, in two opposite magnetic fields are up close brought together, the magnetic which soft x-rays are once again the only emissions detected. lines of force in the Sun rearrange Solar fl ares are classifi ed on a scale of A, B, C, M or X, with Each solar fl are has a and energy is released. each classifi cation being ten times stronger than the previous unique structure, and these one. Within each letter classifi cation there is also a one to nine can be quite complex, but scale; an A2 fl are is twice as strong as an A1 fl are, for example. there are a few basic This depends on their peak x-ray fl ux measurement as structures typical to each. determined by the GOES (geostationary operational Solar fl ares cannot be environmental satellite) system. observed via the naked eye (and viewing the Sun this way at any time isn’t advised), but are observed via electromagnetic emissions recorded by telescopes and spacecraft.

Loop footpoints Post-ﬂ are loops Coronal mass ejection Footpoints appear during the These hot magnetic loops Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are impulsive stage and are areas of remain on the surface of the powerful ejections of plasma that electromagnetic emission. During the Sun after a flare and are sometimes occur with strong solar flare they appear to move due to the observable as white areas on flares, but can also occur during changing state of magnetic energy. soft x-rays. other types of solar activity. © NASA © © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 062 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

062_HIW_009.indd 62 1/6/10 14:54:40 NewMOST moons IMPRESSIVE 1. TheWater-ice Story ofon EnceladusMOST UNUSUALEarth-like Titan2. Towering Ring rhythmsMOST MYSTERIOUS Let3. theMysterious hurricane roar Head5 TOP Cassini’s discovered seven newStellar InBirth 2008, Cassini observed ObservationsInfernos of Titan’s Cassini has discovered a Blob In 2006, Galaxies the ﬁ rst hurricane 1 moons orbiting Saturn. Methone,This image2 showswater-ice young spewing from the 3 surface showStars that areit may born look in these 4 rhythm to two of Saturn’s 5Revealed seen on a planet other than to Head Pallene and Polydeuces were stars in a cosmicsurface cloud of Enceladus. in These much like Earth‘mountains’ did before of the gas and rings. They contain evenly ThisEarth red washydrogen found blob at Saturn’s is 11 FACTS discovered in 2004. The other the Cepheusgeysers constellation, shoot out so far from evolution of life.dust, Titan which has are found in the spaced lines of huge ice South Pole. It measured more billion light years away and SPITZERCASSINI three were found in gaps withinabout 21,000the light tiny years moon that they feed features suchCassiopeia as mountains, constellation particles that look like ripples containsthan a threecolossal galaxies 8,000 trillions IMAGESDISCOVERIES Saturn’s rings. away from Earth.particles into Saturn’s rings. volcanoes, rivers7,000 and light dunes. years away. in a pond. of kilometrestimes brighter wide. than our Sun.

DID YOU KNOW? Concerns about the damage to foreign relations helped the mission survive US budget cuts in 1992 and 1994

Cassini-Huygens is an orbiting spacecraft resulting from collaboration among NASA, Cassini-Huygens the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency The mission launched in 1997 to explore (ASI). The spacecraft Saturn and its many moons comprises two parts: the Cassini orbiter and the 1. High-gain Huygens probe. 2. Radar bay The Statistics antenna Contains three different This spacecraft is the Uses telemetry to sensing instruments that Cassini-Huygens biggest and most elaborate relay information use microwaves to map interplanetary space probe collected by Cassini the surface of Titan. ever built – partly due to the back to Earth. extensive technology needed to conduct more than 25 planned investigations during the mission. Cassini also had to be able to make the long, diffi cult journey to Cassini orbiter weight: 2,125kg Saturn. It took over six years 3. PWSA Huygens probe weight: The plasma wave 5. Fields and for Cassini to enter the 320kg subsystem antenna particles pallet planet’s orbit. On the way to Total dimensions: Seven receives and measures Contains six different metres high x four metres wide Saturn, Cassini conducted the radio waves instruments used to Power: 885 watts fl y-bys of Earth’s moon, the emitting from Saturn study magnetic fi elds, Launch: 15 October 1997 as well as those from plasma fi elds and dust. asteroid 2685 Masursky, Cost: $3.27 billion Venus, as well as several of the planet’s interaction Jupiter’s moons. with Titan. The Huygens probe landed on Titan and began The complex transmitting data on 14 Cassini January 2005 while the 6. Huygens At nearly 6,000 kilograms Cassini orbiter continued on. at launch, the Cassini is the The mission objectives probe (not 4. Remote shown) second-heaviest included conducting studies sensing pallet In addition to the probe exploratory spacecraft of Saturn’s atmosphere, itself, Cassini carried Contains four different built to date. It contains a probe support magnetosphere and rings. instruments, including massive number of equipment (PSE) that The Cassini-Huygens mission cameras, used to make remained attached after components, housing more was also intended to learn observations on the the probe’s departure. than 1,500 electronic parts more about some of Saturn’s electromagnetic spectrum. and over 14km of cable. The satellites. This included Cassini also houses 12 studies of the atmosphere different instruments, and surface of Titan and of while the Hugyens probe the surface of Iapetus, housed six. Saturn’s third-largest moon. While the original mission ended on 30 July 2008, NASA Learn more has extended it because the 8. Radioisotope Cassini orbiter is still thermoelectric For the latest info on the Cassini generator Equinox mission, check out the functioning and in good Cassini has three of NASA website saturn.jpl.nasa. condition. Now renamed 7. Engine these, which provide gov. NASA also has a DVD about Cassini Equinox (which will Cassini has both a power for everything on the Cassini-Huygens mission called Ring World. A free podcast change to Cassini Solstice), main engine and a board as well as its spare engine. altitude thrusters. download is available at http:// the mission is planned to tinyurl.com/36rjwf2. continue until 2017.

took about three hours. As the probe down onto the surface. This atmosphere The Huygens probe passed down through the hazy reﬂ ects back what little sunlight reaches After separating from the Cassini atmosphere, it transmitted radio data to the moon, contributing to its low orbiter, the Huygens probe descended Cassini (which in turn relayed it to average surface temperature of −179°C. via parachute and landed on the surface Earth) as well as nearly 300 images. The surface of Titan is covered with of Titan in what appears to be a This mission revealed that Titan has a dunes along its equator, and both rough dense atmosphere comprising nearly 98 and smooth areas elsewhere. These ﬂ oodplain covered with small chunks of This image of Jupiter taken by ice. The main portion of the probe’s per cent nitrogen gas, with hazy clouds were likely formed by lakes and rivers of Cassini in 2000 is the most mission was the descent itself, which made of methane and ethane that rain liquid methane and ethane. detailed ever seen © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 063

063_HIW_009.indd 63 1/6/10 15:03:35 “ The answer will have huge SPACE implications for humanity” The search for a new Earth

The search for a new Earth Discover how new Hunting ground advances in astronomy are Most of the new planets found have been revealing hundreds of within about 300 light extrasolar planets years from our Sun. Since Galileo pointed a telescope at the alone in this universe, or share it with other life forms, discover life-supporting Earth-sized planets, that are heavens 400 years ago, the discovery of the answer will have huge implications for humanity. light years away, needs far greater precision and exoplanets beyond our own solar system Earth-based techniques introduced in the Nineties, accuracy. To meet this challenge observatories is a goal astronomers have long cherished. using interferometry and coronagraphy, ﬁ nally throughout the world are constantly upgrading their Allied to this is the greater hope of ﬁ nding Earth-like proved that other star systems do have giant technology, but the biggest hopes are pinned on planets capable of supporting life. If it is proved we are extrasolar planetary bodies orbiting them. The race to telescopes launched into outer space. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 064 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

064-067_HIW_009.indd 64 1/6/10 15:05:55 DISCOVERED FIRST 1. 51 Pegasi b BIGGEST 2. WASP-17 TRIPLE SYSTEM 3. HD 188753 Ab This extrasolar planet was Discovered by the This hot Jupiter was the ﬁ rst Head detected in 1995 and UK’s super WASP (Wide to be discovered in a system named Bellerophon. It is a Area Search for Planets), with three suns. It is 149 light to Head hot Jupiter-type planet, 50.1 in August 2009. It is a years away and was light years away from us, in gas giant twice the size discovered by the Keck

EXOPLANETS NASA © the Pegasus constellation. NASA © of Jupiter. NASA © observatory back in 2005.

DID YOU KNOW? The search for exoplanets requires measurements that are fractions of an arcsecond How are we looking? Extrasolar planets are small, distant and hidden in the glare of their parent stars, unable to be seen directly by telescope. Astronomers use four main methods to infer their existence… Doppler shift This is based on analysing the spectrum of the light from a star. The spectrum of a star is as individual to it as a ﬁ ngerprint. When light is refracted through a prism, it creates a spectrum of violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red light. A rainbow naturally produces this effect. The invisible electromagnetic radiation at either end of the spectrum, like x-rays and infrared, can also be analysed by astronomers. As a star moves towards us its light waves shift towards the higher-frequency blue end of the spectrum, and when it moves away they go to the lower frequency red end of the spectrum. This phenomenon is known as Doppler shift. If a star has a nearby large planet, the two will orbit around a common centre of mass. The star The high frequency blue lines indicate will move faster around this centre of mass the approach of the star and the lower frequency bigger and closer the planet. This radial velocity red lines as it goes away. Variations will can be measured, as the spectrum of the star

indicate€434m 12.10%, – presence of an exoplanet © NASA ©

– 8.89%, €319m 8.89%, – will show correspondingly bigger colour shifts. – 16.32%, €586m 16.32%, –

0.001o SCIENCE 2020

Transit method€196m 5.48%, – As a planet passes (transits) in front of its parent star, it will cause 1995

the apparent brightness of the star to be reduced. During the 2010 transit, the spectrum of the light from the planet’s atmosphere can be detected and analysed. Furthermore, when the Sun

EARTH OBSERVATION EARTH 1990 o

TELECOMMUNICATIONS 0.001 transits the planet the photometric intensity of the star can be 2015 2005 compared with the data gathered during the planet’s transit, enabling astronomers to calculate the temperature of the planet. 2000

1 2 3 Star

Planet path Planet BUDGET GENERAL TO ASSOCIATED Astrometric 1 2 Where are 3 Light curve measurement

Brightness The precise position of the star we looking? is recorded and plotted by The search for exoplanets is presently restricted to our Time telescope to detect the slight own Milky Way spiral galaxy, which has a diameter of wobble of a star caused by about 100,000 light years. This is mainly due to the Gravitational microlensing radial velocity, implying the various limitations on the technology and techniques effects of a nearby planet. This technique uses the lensing effect produced when one star used to seek them out. Astrometry is the earliest is in alignment with another star. The gravitational fi eld of the Using astrometric and Doppler shift methods, the method of searching for star nearest the observer magnifi es the light from the star area of search is a range of from 100 to 300 light years. exoplanets that dates back to behind it, and if the foreground star has a planet, it will cause This can be extended by the transit method to 6,000 the use of hand-plotted stars in detectable variations in this lensing effect. Huge numbers of light years and using chronometry, as proposed for the the 18th Century. stars have to be monitored to discover these alignments that TPF-C spacecraft, to 12,000 light years. Gravitational last only a few days or weeks. lensing can fi nd extrasolar planets 25,000 light years away. As these techniques are refi ned, the search range is constantly being extended. Planet One theory is that the galaxy itself has a Goldilocks Zone, so that star systems in the spiral arms or too close to the centre of the galaxy would be too inhospitable for Source star Observer life-supporting planets. If this is true then Earth-like Lens star life-supporting exoplanets will be rarer to fi nd. Milky Way and Sun © NASA © Sun and MilkyWay © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 065

064-067_HIW_009.indd 65 1/6/10 15:06:21 “This early data revealed ﬁ ve exoplanets, named Kepler 4b, SPACE 5b, 6b, 7b and 8b” The search for a new Earth

Goldilocks Zone Habitable zone The simple system that explains 2 why the Earth’s position is perfect for us to survive This term comes from the ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’ story. Goldilocks tested bowls of porridge to ﬁ nd out which one was not too hot or too cold. Earth is inside the 1 Goldilocks Zone that is just right for habitation. If Earth was closer to the Sun, like Mercury and Venus, conditions are too hot for us. If we were further away, like Mars and beyond, conditions are too cold and arid.

Our Sun is a G-dwarf type star, for larger stars like A- sun to relative star of Mass dwarfs the habitable zone is further away, and for cooler stars like M-dwarfs the habitable zone is closer. Life is also 0.5 dependent on the rotation, axial tilt and orbit of Earth that gives us our regular procession of days, seasons and years. If 0 0.1 1 10 40 these factors were too extreme or irregular, the variations in temperature and effects on our climate and ecosystem Radius of orbit relative to Earth’s would not be suitable for us.

Up to May 2010, 385 extrasolar planets have a mass between that of Earth and Jupiter. been discovered. So far not one Earth- So far about 30 of these have been sized planet has been found, the majority detected. A good example is COROT-7 b, What has are hot Jupiters or gas giants. Hot Jupiters which was discovered in 2009 by the have a mass of between 110 to 430 times European COROT (Convection Rotation that of Earth. They are created beyond and planetary Transits) spacecraft. It their parent star before establishing a resides 500 light years away in the Unicorn been found? close orbit around it. Their atmosphere constellation, and orbits a Sun-like G-class consists of hydrogen and helium. star. Unfortunately, it orbits very close to Other types of exoplanets its parent star and its surface could be as are super Earths, hot as 2,600˚C. In addition, it orbits its star which at the rate of 466,030mph; making Earth’s have 67,000mph look sluggish. COROT found its ninth exoplanet in March 2010. Named COROT-9b it is a more temperate planet with a surface temperature of between -20 and 160˚Celsius and has a steady 95-day orbit around its parent star. It is positioned in the Serpens constellation at a distance of a mere 1,500 light years. Also in March 2010, HAT-P-14b was discovered 670 light years away in the Hercules constellation, and 235 light years away in the Andromeda constellation An artist’s impression of HAT-P-16b was reported in the same the COROT spacecraft month. They are hot Jupiter exoplanets but there is a possibility of a smaller exoplanet near HAT-P-14b. NASA’s Kepler space telescope analysed 150,000 stars to detect any exoplanets using the transit method when it started operating in May 2009. This early data revealed ﬁ ve exoplanets, named Kepler 4b, 5b, 6b, 7b and 8b that were conﬁ rmed by ground-based observatories. All of them are in the Cygnus constellation and are hot Jupiter-type exoplanets. It has since obtained data from 156,000 stars that might reveal up to 400 more exoplanets, but it is not planning to release

064-067_HIW_009.indd 66 1/6/10 15:06:40 BIGGEST TWIN 1. W. M. Keck NEW CONTENDER 2. Large A FUTURE GIANT 3. European Head Observatory Binocular Extremely Large to Head The Keck’s twin 10m Telescope (LBT) Telescope (E-ELT) primary mirrors weigh 300 Located on Mount Graham, This will have a 42 metre mirror EXOPLANET- tons each. It is located on Arizona, USA, it has twin and is planned to search for FINDING the top of an extinct 8.4-metre (27.6-foot) © Swinburne Astronomy Productions/ Earth-like exoplanets in the European Southern Observatory, 2010 TELESCOPES NASA © volcano on Hawai’i Island. NASA © primary mirrors. Goldilocks Zone in 2018.

DID YOU KNOW? COROT-7XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX b orbits its star at a speed of 466,030mph Future planet- Interview ﬁ nding missions Wesley Space agencies have proposed the following spacecraft Traub missions to study extrasolar planets Chief scientist, NASA Navigator Program NASA’s Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) Project TPF Coronagraph We caught up with Wesly Traub, the chief Solar coronagraphs were originally used with telescopes to scientist for NASA’s Exoplanet Exploration block out the disc of the Sun to study its corona – this is hot Program, and the project scientist for the plasma emitted by stellar bodies that travels millions of miles beyond its surface. Applied to the search for extrasolar Terrestrial Planet Finder Coronagraph (TPF-C) planets the problem of blocking out the direct light of a star How It Works: What type of for these biomarkers in both poses a much bigger problem. By isolating and studying the outer space missions are needed wavelength ranges because together stellar corona, any planet within this area should be detected to ﬁ nd exoplanets? they give us a more complete picture by the TPF-C spacecraft’s telescope combined with coronagraph detection equipment. Wesley Traub: An astrometric than either one alone. For example, mission is needed to discover planets we can measure oxygen only in the Sunshade around our nearest neighbour stars. visible spectrum, and temperature The conical v-grooved sunshade fans out to insulate the This mission could determine the only in the infrared. telescope from the changing position of the Sun. orbital parameters of each planet and Primary mirror accurately measure its mass. HIW: What is the most important Located at the base of the sunshade, the mirror is set at an This is important because we need objective for these missions? angle to deflect its light to the top of the secondary mirror. a list of planets that are close enough WT: I think the most important thing Secondary mirror tower to Earth that we can measure their would be to answer the question of The smaller secondary mirror is mounted on top of this properties; nearest-neighbour planets whether there’s life on other planets. I tower. The light from this and the primary mirror is reflected are bright enough for us to measure, guess at heart I believe there are

© NASA © down the tower to the coronagraph assembly. but more distant ones are not. planets with life on them. I don’t know about intelligent life. The usual TPF Interferometer HIW: Will you be able to fi nd argument is that there are billions of This TPF-I mission would employ a formation of five evidence of Earth-type and even stars out there, and today we think spacecraft. Four would each be equipped with a four-metre life on these planets? the chances of planets being around infrared telescope, and one spacecraft would receive the data WT: A visible spectroscopy mission is each one of them are pretty high, from them and combine it. The interaction of the light waves needed to look for biomarkers in the which we didn’t used to think. And we from the telescopes produces interference that can be used to visible wavelength range. For an think that life formed very quickly, as eliminate the glare of a star by a factor of 1 million. This so- Earth-like planet these biomarkers soon as it was possible on Earth. But called nulling technique allows the detection of any infrared include oxygen, ozone, water, an out of the billions of stars in our emissions from planets near its parent star. The term atmosphere at least as thick as the galaxy, we only have a chance of interferometer is explained by the fact that it can also be used to measure the distance and angles of celestial objects. Earth’s (via the blue colour of a blue looking at about 200 stars that are sky, like ours), and possibly the nearby. The chances of intelligent life Stray light baffl es Combiner enhanced refl ection of red light from being there on one of those, right Beams of light from the collector spacecraft telescopes travel spacecraft vegetation (grass, trees and plants, all now, are pretty small. along these 35-metre-long baffles to the combiner spacecraft. of which look green to us but also It receives the light from Collector spacecraft the collector craft and refl ect red light that we cannot see). HIW: Will TPF-I, TPF-C or SIM Lite Each has a four-metre diameter telescope mirror shielded analyses it in a ‘nulling For a planet like the early Earth, go ahead? and cooled by a five-layer sunshade. beam combiner’. you could see methane and carbon WT: None of these missions have © NASA © dioxide, in addition to the blue-sky started development yet. Once the effect. An infrared spectroscopy current suite of missions in SIM Lite mission is needed to look for different development is completed, then an © NASA © The SIM Lite spacecraft will take five and a half years to reach an orbit around the Sun at a distance of 82 million km from biomarkers like carbon dioxide, ozone, exoplanet mission may begin the Earth. Here it will search the Goldilocks Zones of 60 stars and water. This mission could also development. The earliest a mission for Earth-sized planets at a distance of up to 33 light years measure the temperature of the of this type can be fl own is towards away. To achieve this it employs sensitive interferometer planet, and its size. We need to look the end of this decade. equipment that can detect a star’s wobble to an accuracy of 20 millionths of an arcsecond. These are incredibly small measurements; an arcsecond is 1/60th of an arcminute, which in turn is 1/60th of a degree. A star-tracking telescope is Where on an Earth? also carried by the craft to carry out astrometric calculations Exoplanet study has only been conducted over the past 15 years, to compare and use with the inferometric data. and has already revealed completely different planetary bodies Collecting apertures from those in our own solar system. Due to the limitations of our The twin mirrors of a six-metre baseline ‘science’ telescope current technology, we have so far only found giant exoplanets. have 50cm apertures at either end of the craft, and a ‘guide’ In future, we might discover rogue planets that do not orbit a telescope with a 4.2 metre baseline has twin 30cm apertures. parent star and exoplanets that are dominated by oceans, fi elds Communications antenna Inside spacecraft of ice, or boiling hot volcanic crusts like COROT-7b. None of these Once a week the craft will transmit the The images from the science and guide telescopes inside the are likely to sustain life, as we know it, so the Holy Grail of this

data it has collected back to Earth. spacecraft are sent to central beam combiners and analysed work is to ﬁ nd life-supporting Earth-type planets. NASA ©

© European Southern Observatory, 2009 Observatory, Southern European © by inferometric equipment. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 067

064-067_HIW_009.indd 67 1/6/10 15:07:28 Ancient world Ancient places & Buildings Industry Inventions times Medieval places & People war & Weapons General HISTORY categories explained Greek warships

The oarsmen Rowers consisted not of slaves but of free men and hired foreigners. The oarsmen were divided into three groups. The thranitai occupied the top section of the ship – a position that was relatively comfortable in comparison with conditions Large mast below. However, added strength and agility was required of The mast was used for these men. The middle section, who were known as the zygitai, propulsion, but it was rowed directly beneath the thranitai although at a slightly lowered during periods of hostile engagement. different angle, while the lowest set of rowers, the thalamitai, were seated in dismal surroundings at the bottom of the ship. The heat here was intense. The This month in oarsmen were particularly vulnerable during enemy engagement and if the History rowers were captured, the enemy Delve into the History section would dismember their thumbs or cut and you’ll discover the secrets off their hands. Moreover, if they were of Forties’ Battle of Britain and trapped below deck during a hostile learn about the remarkable encounter they risked drowning. aircraft used in Germany’s campaign against the English. There’s also an evolution of the The akrostolio © Deror Avi, 2010 bicycle, revealing the origins of To complement the this still-popular mode of bow, the stern was transport and its development. designed with a tail Ever wondered why the Tower so that the ship resembled a Helmsman position of Pisa leans? Well, wonder no The helmsman was placed at the mythological sea more as we have the answer on stern so that he was able to guide monster. page 71. We also took a look at and command the ship. some of the deadly weapons used in Wild West America. Captain’s seat The seat was designed at the rear of the ship for the benefit of the commanding officer.

70 Bicycle evolution

71 Leaning Tower of Pisa The oarsmen Rowers were placed at three levels Archers and spearmen on the ship. At the top, 62 thranitai, Marines were placed along each in the middle 54 zygitai and the side of the vessel to protect the lowest level 54 thalamitai. ship during battle.

72 Weapons of the Wild West Inside a HISTORY 68 Greek warships trireme The trireme was a long, narrow vessel highly unsuited for 70 Evolution of the bicycle habitation. As a military ship, it was not designed for long 70 The ﬁ rst TV journeys and there was no room for large stores of food or water. © Alex Pang 71 Leaning Tower of Pisa The ship was designed so the height of the hull rose only two 72 Weapons of the wild west metres above the water level, its draught was shallow and its keel 74 The Battle of Britain was ﬂ at, allowing the crew to carry the ship to shore each night. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 068 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

068-069_HIW_009.indd 68 1/6/10 15:10:23 THE LENGTH >35 metres METHOD OF SPEED CONTROL Flute players STATS SPACE BETWEEN TRIREMES OARSMEN 2 feet WEIGHT >45 tons ANCHORLarge stone

DID YOU KNOW? In 1987 scholars in Greece built a replica trireme called Olympias Greek warships Triremes – the ultimate fighting machines First used in the 8th an essential role in the Persian wars while larch was employed for the Primary propulsion came from the Century BC, the becoming an important symbol of interior of the vessel, the keel was oarsmen, this included one man per trireme was a state-of- Athenian military capability. By the made of oak. oar. While the ship was designed with the-art military 5th Century BC these ships came to The crew consisted of 200 men, this two masts, its steering was actually machine. Fast and dominate the waters around the included rowers, a marine corp controlled by two large paddles that agile, triremes were designed to exert eastern Mediterranean. (comprising archers and spearmen) were positioned at the stern. It is maximum power during military Construction of the triremes began and a deck crew who were under the believed that the trireme could sail at engagements. Both the Greeks and the with the hull. Later, the builders command of the helmsman. Due to its six to eight knots; the distance it Phoenicians employed these ships for added wooden ribs in order to design the trireme was meant to travelled depended entirely on the military and trading purposes – its strengthen the vessel, these were undertake short, swift operations. At weather and its overall manpower. In name is derived from its ability to seat reinforced with ropes that were fi tted night, the ships would pull into favourable conditions, it was thought three levels of rowers who to the keel and stretched tightly over harbour where the crew would collect that the oarsmen were able to propel were positioned on both sides the timber. The ships were built with fresh water and store it for the next the ship 50 or 60 miles over a seven- of the vessel. Triremes played soft woods – namely pine and fi r – stage of the journey. hour period. Ropes Ropes were made of Battle tactics hemp or papyrus and Athenian military operations depended on their were protected from The bow close-quarters battle tactics, namely the ramming humid conditions by The bow was being painted decorated with an eye and boarding of enemy ships. The ram of the with several layers of tar. that was designed to trireme was built at the front of the ship creating a repel evil spirits. large metal horn. When the ship attacked it would come in from the stern and attempt to rupture the Lookout hull of the enemy ship. A small number of marines The prõreus was were placed on the deck of the ship. They would placed at the foredeck defend or attack, attempting to board the as a lookout. enemy vessel armed with shields, spears and archery equipment. A squadron of triremes employed a wide range of battle tactics, these included a manoeuvre that was designed to outfl ank and encircle the enemy before attacking the rear of their ship.

A ram on show at the Israeli National Maritime

The ram The ram was made of copper or bronze and was designed to rupture enemy vessels. Why did the ancients give their ships female names? There are many theories and no clear answers. Triremes, with only rare exceptions, were named after female deities or mythological fi gures. The Greeks named their ships after sea nymphs like Thetis or Charis or after women of legendary courage, Learn more such as Danae or Prokne. In ancient times the ship would also sail under a female For more information about these Storage fi gurehead that would guide or protect the vessel – before leaving port prayers and incredible ancient warships why There wasn’t much room to store sacrifi ces were made to a goddess who was thought to safeguard the journey. The not visit the Hellenic Navy large amounts of food or water, and webpage, which can be found at therefore long journeys were kept to all-male crew may have associated their ship with the female shape and form – the www.hellenicnavy.gr. a minimum. boat, being a vessel of men, had clear female principles. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 069

068-069_HIW_009.indd 69 1/6/10 15:10:50 “ The introduction of pedals on the velocipede kick-started the evolution HISTORY of today’s bicycle” Bicycle evolution / First TV system

bicycle wheel, making the rider pedal furiously to 1817 1865 1868 1870 obtain any speed. To overcome this problem the high wheel bicycle had the pedals attached to a large wheel, so that the bicycle covered a far greater distance Walking machine Velocipede Pedal bicycle High wheel on one turn of the pedals. Invented by Baron von Drais in In 1865 crank-driven pedals were Pierre Michaux formed a In 1870 came this machine. The By the end of the 19th 1817. You sit in the middle of two fitted on the front wheel of a company that was the first to rider sat above the large wheel, Century tricycles and safety similar sized wheels, and roll walking machine-like bicycle. It produce bicycles with pedals which had pedals on the front bicycles featured many new along by walking on the ground. was very bumpy to ride. on a large scale. wheel to propel it forwards. innovations; lighter steel- tubed frames, brakes, 1880 1960s 1970s The name bicycle pneumatic tyres, metal-link was coined in chains that connected the 1869 but bicycle- pedals to a toothed sprocket like machines on the rear wheel and were built much earlier in gearing systems that this century. The walking employed several different © Author: © Al2, Author: 2007 machine of 1817 didn’t have sized sprockets to change the Safety bicycle Racing bicycle Mountain bike pedals, but did have a ease or difﬁ culty of turning Stronger metal frames and the use For maximum aerodynamic Developed for off-track racing. steerable handlebar and was the pedals. of chains and gears made same- performance they feature To cope with rugged terrain sized two wheeled bicycles more lightweight frames, drop they have either front or used throughout Europe. In These technological viable in the 1880s. handlebars and fine gearing. rear suspension. Britain they were known as innovations enabled urban ‘hobby horses’. dwellers to commute or Before pedals and chain travel to the countryside drives, Kirkpatrick more efﬁ ciently and quickly. Macmillan invented a push In particular, bicycles gave rod system for propelling his women far greater Evolution of bicycle. You had to push your independence. In the feet up and downwards to Thirties, a combination of drive the rear wheel. The lower production costs and introduction of pedals on the rising wages made bicycles velocipede kick-started the much more affordable for the bicycle evolution of today’s bicycle. the working classes and One turn of the pedals their recreational use began How we learnt to get on our bikes equalled one turn of the to increase.

Stooky Bill Amplifi ers (not shown) Transmitter The first subject to be The weak signals from the photocell (not shown) The fi rst seen on television. are boosted by the amplifiers. From the amplifiers the signals are transmitted by television radio to a television receiver. The start of the ‘goggle box’ invasion into our homes and minds Scottish engineer John Logie Baird’s breakthrough came on 2 October 1925 when he transmitted a greyscale image of the head of a ventriloquist’s dummy called ‘Stooky Bill’. Baird immediately replaced Bill with William Taynton who became the fi rst person to appear on TV. Elements of Baird’s system used technology that had been developed during the 19th Century. It employs circular Nipkow discs to obtain 32 lines of vertically scanned images at a rate of fi ve pictures per second. Baird’s disc had a double-8 spiral of 16 lenses on the outer edge that corresponds to the 32 lines of the full Rotating Nipkow disc Photoelectric cell Lamp television picture. Two rotations of the disc produce one complete This has a double-8 spiral of The variations in light Light is projected television picture frame. lenses in its outer edge. and shade reflected from from the lamp the subject are converted through the holes in The light from the scanned subject is converted by a selenium by the photocell into the disc to the photocell into electronic signals that are sent by radio waves to a electronic signals. ground glass screen. receiver. Here, the signals trigger a neon tube to fl ash behind a The apparatus shown here is spinning disc with holes on its edge. The light from the disc currently on show at Bradford’s reproduces the transmitted pictures onto a ground glass screen. National Media Museum © Science Photo Library © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 070 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

070_HIW_009.indd 70 1/6/10 15:13:41 SECOND MOST 1. Bad BUILT BY PISA 2. The bell tower, MOST TILTED 3. Leaning Tower Head TILTING TOWER Frankenhausen ARCHITECTS at the church of TOWER of Suurhusen The church’s spire inclines to San Nicola This late medieval steeple in to Head one side. Leaning at 4.5 Thought to be the product of East Frisia, Germany is the most THINGS THAT degrees the tilt is increasing the same architects, the bell tilted tower in the world at a rate of six centimetres tower of San Nicola is also tilting according to the Guinness Book

LEAN 2009 © Michael Schmalenstroer, each year. © Lonewolf1976 with the base currently secured. © Axel Heymann, 2004 Of Records, at an angle of 5.19°.

DID YOU KNOW? The name Pisa originates from the Greek word for ‘marsh land’

7. Bell tower An iconic Italian The Bell chamber was landmark added in 1372. It features seven bells – Leaning one for each note of the musical scale. The largest of which was Tower installed in 1655. 4. Shape The tower has a cylindrical body encircled with of Pisa arches and columns. The central body is a Find out how the tower hollow shell which features an external Johnson Natalie © was made and how it wall of white and went wrong… grey limestone. The Statistics The local architects and city 5. Spiral Leaning Tower of Pisa offi cials designed the complex Location: at Piazza dei Miracoli (the staircase The inner wall was City of Pisa, Tuscany, Italy Square of Miracles) as a fashioned from worked Years of construction: dedication to art, and as such it is thought limestone and 1173-1372 the principles of science and engineering comprises a 296-step Length of construction: were not fully understood. spiral staircase. 199 years Architect: There is still The tower was built in three stages over speculation as to who was the a period stretching nearly two centuries. 6. Curvature original architect but the The fi rst part of the tower was built during In 1272 architects following are credited as key a time of town prosperity and as such fashioned a corrective architects involved with the axial inclination where heavy white marble was used for the base construction: Diotisalvi, the walls on one side of Guglielmo and Bonanno Pisano, and tower, with limestone used for the the tower were taller Gherardo di Gherardo, Giovanni interior and exterior design features. than the other – giving Pisano and Giovanni di Simone Disaster occurred just fi ve years after the building its Height – both high side work began, as the workers fi nalised the concave appearance. / low side: The original height was 60 metres, today it is interior of the third fl oor. The tower was 56.67m on the highest side and sinking because the weight of the marble 3. Third fl oor 55.86m on the lowest building was too much for the extremely Upon reaching this level, Type of building/purpose: insuffi cient three-metre foundations engineers noticed the Bell tower (campanile) which had been set in weak and unstable tower was starting to Angle of lean: 3.97 degrees Weight of the tower: soil that contained a malleable mixture of sink. The heavy white marble had become 14,700 tons clay, sand and rubble. The construction too heavy for the Number of steps: 296 was halted for nearly a century to allow foundations set in soil. the soil to settle. In 1272 work recommenced as engineers began to build the tower’s middle section. To How to stop the compensate for the continuing problem of its lean, the workers built tower toppling… one side of the wall taller than the In 1964 a desperate Italian Government requested other. Subsequently the tower began aid to stop the tower from toppling. One of the fi rst to lean in the opposite direction and methods to be tested was to add 800 tons of lead caused it to curve. War caused a break counterweights to the raised end of the base, but this in construction and the seventh fl oor only added to its subsidence. With the problem was not completed until 1319 and the worsening it was decided to close the tower in 1990 eighth level, featuring the belfry, was and remove the bells to relieve some of the weight. fi nally added in 1372. Cables were cinched around the third level and grounded several hundred metres away to anchor 2. First fl oor interior the weight. Work began on removing some 38 cubic Lining the inside the first floor is a series tons of soil from under the raised end of the base, of arches in a typical Romanesque blind arcade style, intersected with columns which straightened the tower by 18 inches – displaying classical Corinthian capitals. regaining an angle last recorded in 1838. Ten years of corrective stabilisation followed and the tower 1. Foundations reopened to the public in 2001. In 2008 another 70 Made of white marble the construction tons of earth was excavated and for the fi rst time the began in 1173 during a time of prosperity in Pisa thanks to the success of its military. structure has offi cially stopped moving.

071_HIW_009.indd 71 1/6/10 15:16:17 Gunning for glory The Winchester 1866, nicknamed ‘Yellow Boy’ due to its brass “ The 1846 Walker Colt was the fi rst large DID YOU receiver, was no coward; the Winchester would come to be known HISTORY calibre rotating cylinder handgun” KNOW? as “the gun that won the west”. Weapons of the Wild West Brothers in arms The Clanton and McLaury clan’s defi ance of Tombstone gun-carrying laws ended in a 15ft space of Wild west weaponry William Harwood’s The development of reliable, lumberyard. From the OK Corral, Town Marshall accurate pistols and rifles Virgil Earp’s call to disarm could be heard; sparking played a key part in how the the 19-year old Billy Clanton west was won to draw against Wyatt and © DK Images miss. The resulting fi refi ght saw Morgan Earp’s reply hit Clanton twice in the chest. Wyatt’s .44 calibre Smith and Wesson turned Remington .44 on the stomach of Frank McLaury, while unarmed, A sturdier and more accurate his younger brother Tom competitor to the Colt and Ike Clanton tried to The Remington Army revolver was a large-framed run. Ike escaped, but Tom .44 calibre, with an eight-inch barrel length. It had McLaury was hit in the a six shot cylinder and an eight-inch octagonal back by a shotgun loaned barrel. Patented in 1858, it was the major to Holliday. In just 30 competitor to the Colt .44 in the American Civil seconds all but Ike from During America’s frontier War, and many considered it to be more accurate the cowboys were left past, westward expansion Round bullets than the Colt. The percussion model could be dying, or dead. meant settlers had to protect The six chambers could easily modifi ed to accept cartridges prior to the themselves and the land be loaded by dropping in introduction of the fi rst Remington cartridge powder charge they had taken from Native revolver in 1875. These percussion revolvers were followed by a round or Shooting Indian reprisals. Chief concern, the capable of considerable power with muzzle conical bullet. from the hip Comanche, could lose nine arrows in the velocities in the range of 550 to 1,000+ feet per time the Texans took to muzzle-load and 1. Technique: second depending on the charge loaded by the fi re a musket. The revolving cylinder pistol Draw pistol up, inches shooter. It has been seen in many movies including and lever-action repeating rifl es marked the from holster; rotate Pale Rider and The Good The Bad And The Ugly. wrist and lower elbow; turning point in this battle. Of these, while move gun forward and the black powder .36 calibre 1851 Paterson up towards target; Colt failed to unseat the mounted steady with supporting Comanche, the Walker Colt, adopted by the arm and fi re! Texas Rangers in the 1850s, did not. 2. Weapon of choice: The Volcanic repeating rifl e fi red caseless Walker Colt’s weight did ammunition known as a ‘rocket-ball’. The © www.adamsguns.com not lend itself to quick powder and primer was fused by a binding draw, unlike the SAA agent in the hollow rear of the bullet. Unlike Peacemaker 1873. the black powder handguns that used 3. A good workman: paper/cloth cartridges that were susceptible Considered by many the to moisture and so prone to misfi re, the fastest, the Sundance rocket-ball was waterproof. Unfortunately, Kid (1890s) would be the ammunition – despite its name – was Winchester Rifl e more deadly, accurate, grossly underpowered; it was usurped by and quicker, because of the Henry and Winchester rifl es of the 1860s. ‘The Gun that won the West’ his tools, than Jesse By the 1870s revolvers benefi ted from The Winchester 1866 succeeded the The 1866 shot .44 rimfi re cartridges James (1870s) - but this enclosed metal-cased bullet cartridges, Henry rifl e. Its ‘lever-action’ while the 1873 and later designs didn’t factor in which meant all-weather shoot-outs. Their mechanism and distinctive side- chambered 0.44, 0.38 and 0.32 meanness or even a common centerfi re rounds were compatible loading gate allowed the shooter to centerfi re rounds; used by Colt, man’s will! with many Winchester lever-action rifl es, eject spent cartridges and chamber Remington and other revolvers. The 4. The meanest: allowing the holder to alternate fi rearms new rounds from a sealed tubular replaceable primer located in the John Wesley Hardin; with ease. These modern cartridges and magazine, all in one movement. central base of the cartridge rather with over 40 kills to his later pistol designs gave rise to Colt’s game- The rifl ing process, whereby spiral than built into the rim meant when name was reputed to changing Single Action Army 1873. The grooves are etched into the gun barrel, struck and ignited the casing could be have killed a man “Peacemaker” ushered in the typical pistol helped to impart spin on the passing re-used; an advantage for large rifl es simply for snoring! fi ghting genre with the line: “God didn’t bullet, enhancing its accuracy in fl ight. where ammunition was expensive. create all men equal, Sam Colt did”. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 072 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

072-073_HIW_009.indd 72 1/6/10 17:26:52 Gunning for glory The Winchester 1866, nicknamed ‘Yellow Boy’ due to its brass DID YOU receiver, was no coward; the Winchester would come to be known KNOW? as “the gun that won the west”.

DID YOU KNOW? The gunﬁ ght near the OK Corral took place at approximately 3pm on Wednesday 26 October 1881 Head to Head LAST MAN STANDING

More often than not gunﬁ ghts were visceral spur- of-the-moment encounters Wild west weaponry sparked by disagreements and fuelled by drink that Weapon of choice: bore little relation to the Angel Eyes , honour and romantic idyll of The Bad And The Ugly quick-draw. The Good DEAD (CLEVER) William F. Cody

;

Big gun! The Remington Army revolver was a large-framed Percussion caps .44 calibre, with an eight-inch 1. Billy the Kid barrel length. A renowned gunslinger he was not After loading, placing a below tricking opponents to gain percussion cap at the rear an advantage. On the wrong end of the cylinder readied the of a battle of wits he was shot revolver for firing. from the shadows by lawman Pat Garrett aged just 21.

DEADLIER Brass trigger guard This, along with the distinctive loading lever web, makes it easy to spot in movies.

Rifl ed barrel Spiral grooves etched into the barrel imparted spin on the bullet, improving accuracy. 2. Wild Bill Hickok Hickok killed more than 20 men during gunfi ghts; he would reload his 1851 Colt black powder revolver every morning (even if it hadn’t been used) to prevent moisture and a resulting misfi re.

Lever action Side gate Cylinder Crank DEADLIEST This mechanism allowed a round The loading gate on the side and Housing a cluster of six to The Gatling Gun required to be ejected and a new one integrated, round sealed ten barrels which were an operator to crank, so chambered in one movement. magazine covered by a forestock. loaded by a hopper. it’s not a true automatic.

Weaponof choice: Henry McCarty; William Bonney: Gatling Gun aka, Billy the Kid Slaughter… with the best of intentions 3. Doc Holliday Gatling’s aim was to reduce the a fi ring-pin mechanism aligned in a Wyatt Earp claimed Holliday was “the nerviest, fastest, deadliest need for large armies, and so groove in the gun’s body. As the man with a six-gun I ever saw!” exposure to battle. However, barrel rotated the groove pulled the Earp lived to the ripe age of 81. Enough said. despite dispensing a murderous pin backwards, compressing its 400-1,200 0.45-1 calibre rounds/per spring. As a cartridge fell into the min. this gun was initially breech of the barrel the fi ring-pin Learn more unpopular. At 90lbs the US Army slid from the groove causing the pin For more information on the thought it too unwieldy for combat. to shoot forwards, contacting the weapons that won the West, Its cylinder housed a cluster of six cartridge and dispensing its round. along with a detailed look at the history of arms and armour, the to ten barrels turned by a crank General Custer refused its use in DK book Weapon, produced in shaft; loaded upon rotation by a his fi nal fi ght at the Battle of Little association with the Royal gravity-fed ammunition hopper. Bighorn. It was only used late in the Armouries Museum, is available from www.amazon.co.uk. Each barrel had its own breech and war against the North. Weapon of mistrust: The US Army; © Imagine PublishingGeneral Custer Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 073

072-073_HIW_009.indd 73 1/6/10 17:28:47 “ Göring inherited a Luftwaffe of great HISTORY numbers and experience” Battle of Britain Battle of Britain 70 years ago an epic conflict took place between A British air observer scans allied and axis powers. It was one of the defining the skies for enemy bombers moments of World War II and changed the nature of armed conflict forever The Battle of Britain was an place) and other regions of the country. At his exclusively aerial campaign disposal was a well-ordered yet numerically between allied and axis forces inferior air force to that of the Germans, with which began in the summer of many pilots lacking valuable experience. 1940 and culminated in May of Contrary to Dowding, Göring inherited a 1941. The objective of the German-led aerial Luftwaffe of great numbers and experience, assault on Britain was to completely destroy with many of its pilots having gained valuable the Royal Air Force (RAF) and render Fighter fl ight experience in WWI. This allowed Göring Command useless, so a planned land invasion and his commanders to launch large raids on of Britain could begin. The Luftwaffe Britain – one of the most notable being a 500- (Germany’s air force) was ordered by Hitler to strong assault on 15 September 1940 – causing drive the RAF from the skies in ‘the shortest large damage to a wide variety of areas and possible time’, and led by notable First World military buildings as well as, by the end of the War veteran fi ghter pilot Hermann Wilhelm war, 43,000 civilian deaths. Despite Göring’s Göring, the then Reich Minister of Aviation, leadership, his other commanders held what was to follow was a costly – in terms of differences of opinion in how the RAF should human life and fi nancially – battle of attrition. be toppled – a factor that Dowding also had to At the head of Britain’s defence was Hugh deal with among Britain’s commanders in how Dowding, the then Air Chief Marshal of the to defend the country. RAF and Fighter Command, which had been Despite their experience and numbers, set up in 1936 to oversee and manage Britain’s Germany failed to gain air superiority over emerging modern air force. Fighter Command Britain and by the end of the Battle they had led its RAF-based defence of Britain from lost 1,152 aircraft and 1,144 crew, compared to Bentley Priory, London, communicating with Britain’s losses of 1,085 aircraft and 446 crew. airfi elds, radar stations, pilots and other Retrospectively, this result was caused by a communications headquarters over the south single piece of state-of-the-art technology, as east (where the majority of the battle took we fi nd out over the page. Fighter Command Luftwaffe The men who led Britain’s resistance The men who led the German attack Name: Hugh Dowding Name: Hermann Wilhelm Göring Rank: Air Chief Marshal Rank: Reich Minister of Aviation Description: An experienced offi cer, Dowding was set to Description: The last commander of legendary ace fi ghter retire shortly before WWII, only to be persuaded to stay on pilot ‘The Red Baron’, Göring was responsible for German until the situation had stabilised. He is often credited as the Luftwaffe. In his youth he had fl own in the First World War mastermind behind Britain’s success in the Battle of Britain. and was respected by the Germans as a notable commander.

Name: Keith Park Name: Hugo Sperrle Rank: Air Vice Marshal Rank: General Field Marshal Description: In tactical command during the Battle of Description: General Field Marshal of the Luftwaffe, Britain, Park was in-charge of protecting London from Sperrle advised Hitler that the destruction of Britain’s air force attack. Flying a personalised Hurricane, Park held a was key to winning the war. Air Fleet 3, which he commanded, reputation as a shrewd tactician. played a major role in the battle but suffered heavy losses.

Name: Trafford Leigh-Mallory Name: Albert Kesselring Rank: Air Ofﬁ cer Commanding Rank: General Field Marshal Description: The commander of 11 Group RAF had open Description: Kesselring orchestrated combat in Poland, disagreements with Park and Dowding over the tactics to France and at the Battle of Britain. He is credited with the counter the German threat. He was credited as creating the Coventry Blitz of November 1940 and won the respect of allied ‘Big Wing’ ﬁ ghter formation to hunt German bombers. powers with his military accomplishments.

074-077_HIW_009.indd 74 1/6/10 15:18:19 FAMOUS 1. Hawker MORE 2. MOST 3. Spitfi re Head Hurricane FAMOUS Messerschmitt FAMOUS The most iconic fi ghter The real hero, the Hurricane Classed as heavy fi ghters, the of World War Two, the to Head shot down more aircraft than Messerschmitt Bf 109E and Spitfi re was a formidable either of its contemporaries Bf 110C were the Luftwaffe’s opponent, packing ICONIC and was the workhorse of main aerial threat and shot fi repower, fl exibility and PLANES the RAF. down many allied planes. unparalleled dynamism.

DID YOU KNOW? The RAF lost 1,085 planes during the Battle of Britain, while the Luftwaffe lost 1,152 Battle map Charting the key military bases, RAF and Luftwaffe headquarters, radar stations, and squadrons that partook in the Battle of Britain Due to Germany’s occupation of France, they could set up military bases at Calais and other coastal cities along the Channel. This put the German bombers in range of London and left the area to its south east (Kent) exposed to many attacks. Indeed, the majority of the Battle of Britain was fought over the south east of England and this led to the majority of Britain’s air force bases being A Spitﬁ re ﬂ ies over the south heavily used in the area. 11 Group RAF were responsible east of England for protecting London and the south east, and they saw much action and suffered the bulk of the casualties during enemy attacks. As we see over the page, the careful and strategic use of the newly emerging technology of radar gave Britain valuable insight into the activities of approaching aircraft across the Channel, especially at night when countering German bombers in low-visibility situations.

Heinkel He 111’s running aircraft bombing raids over Kent during the Battle of Britain

Key: Fighter command bases Luftwaffe ﬁ ghter bases Luftwaffe bomber bases RAF group boundaries Luftﬂ otte boundaries Range of Messerschmitt BF 109 Range of low-level radar Range of high-level radar

A selection of pilots from 303 Squadron walk away from their aircraft © Hohum © © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 075

074-077_HIW_009.indd 75 1/6/10 15:18:45 Baron Speech Axis Eagle Celebration 5 Reich Minister of Aviation The naming of the Battle of Joining the Luftwaffe in the The ﬁ rst main attack on The Battle of Britain is “ The main advantage that radar gave was TOP 1 Hermann Göring was the last 2 Britain originated from a speech 3 attack on Britain during the 4 Britain by Germany was 5 commemorated each year commander of the legendary by Winston Churchill, when he battle was a small section of code-named ‘Eagle Attack’, in the United Kingdom on the ability to launch intercepting attack FACTS World War I ﬁ ghter ace said: “The Battle of France is the Italian Air Corps, which and it was designed to 15 September, where it is BATTLE OF Manfred von Richthofen, aka over. I expect the Battle of saw much action in late 1940 knock out numerous allied referred to as Battle of HISTORY aircraft at the right time” BRITAIN ‘The Red Baron’. Britain is about to begin.” but with limited success. radar stations. Britain Day. Battle of Britain

Hawker Hurricanes fl y in a single line formation How the battle above Britain was won Thanks to the skilful implementation of the emerging technology of radar, allied forces were better equipped to counter German attacks The importance of radar in the Battle of resistance was to be mounted. Because of Britain was massive, something that its then this, Dowding’s system also incorporated leader Hugh Dowding knew all too well. RDF-based detection – which allowed Britain was facing larger numbers of enemy formations to be determined as they formed aircraft, pilots with more fl ight experience over France – and the pre-existing Observer and frequent bombing runs in the dead of Corps, groups of mainly volunteer civilians night – the favoured time for German dotted throughout Britain, visually relaying attacks. Radar then was key, allowing information on approaching aircraft enemy airborne movement to be tracked numbers and formations to Fighter from across the Channel and, crucially, Command. Indeed, many historians argue allowing Britain’s smaller air force to be that without the Observer Corps, no matter managed more acutely. how refi ned Britain’s radar-based systems Members of the RAF Observer Corps The main advantage that radar gave was became, the Battle of Britain would’ve been count and identify incoming raids the ability to launch intercepting attack lost – an opinion vocalised by Dowding aircraft at the right time. Not too early – when he said that “they constituted the forcing planes to reland for refuelling, whole means of tracking enemy raids once leaving them vulnerable to attack and they had crossed the coastline. Their works costing cash-strapped Britain in fuel bills – throughout [the war] was quite invaluable.” and equally not too late – giving the German Importantly, despite the benefi ts radar planes a crucial height advantage in the was providing Britain’s air force, Göring and proceeding dogfi ght and allowing them to his commanders underestimated its ability reach inland areas of Britain. Dowding, and importance in what was going to be the operating his stringent Fabian Strategy, used deciding factor in the Battle of Britain. While this to great effect, having information on initially the Luftwaffe were ordered to attack approaching aircraft sent from coastal RAF radar stations (an activity they stations to Bentley Priory (Fighter Command completed with little success, knocking out headquarters) with great haste so that only one radar station on the Isle of Wight for fi nessed tactical plans could be quickly under 24 hours), their attention was soon 303 Squadron drawn up and relayed to air force bases. turned to the towns and cities of Britain, as The Battle of Britain saw over a thousand enemy aircraft shot down The system did have drawbacks however. their grip on the confl ict slackened. It is by British RAF squadrons, and none more so than the famous Polish While radar was excellent and highly generally agreed by historians that if Göring 303s. No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron was one of 16 Polish squadrons accurate in detecting aircraft movement, it had persisted with his targeting of Britain’s in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War and won acclaim was quite poor in expressing the numbers of radar stations, Germany would have had for their marksmanship and aerial ability during the confl ict. aircraft and their formations, two factors considerably more success than they Scoring higher than any other squadron, 303 competed with other crucial in decision-making if an effective historically achieved. RAF squadrons in a competition as to who could shoot down the most enemy aircraft. By the end of the Battle of Britain they had won unequivocally, recording an immense 808 hits. In fact, the top three places in this competition’s leaderboard were taken by three of the 12 Polish squadrons, outgunning the best British squadron by far, who only racked up 150 hits.

A 303 captured Messerschmitt sporting anti- Hitler grafﬁ ti RAF and WAAF staff plot bombing raids at RAF Uxbridge © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 076 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

074-077_HIW_009.indd 76 1/6/10 15:19:19 Baron Speech Axis Eagle Celebration 5 Reich Minister of Aviation The naming of the Battle of Joining the Luftwaffe in the The ﬁ rst main attack on The Battle of Britain is TOP 1 Hermann Göring was the last 2 Britain originated from a speech 3 attack on Britain during the 4 Britain by Germany was 5 commemorated each year commander of the legendary by Winston Churchill, when he battle was a small section of code-named ‘Eagle Attack’, in the United Kingdom on FACTS World War I ﬁ ghter ace said: “The Battle of France is the Italian Air Corps, which and it was designed to 15 September, where it is BATTLE OF Manfred von Richthofen, aka over. I expect the Battle of saw much action in late 1940 knock out numerous allied referred to as Battle of BRITAIN ‘The Red Baron’. Britain is about to begin.” but with limited success. radar stations. Britain Day.

DID YOU KNOW? No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron recorded 808 hits during the Battle of Britain

13 for the north and Scotland, the radar garnered information could then be fi ltered quickly and effectively to Interview the area of the country were action was necessary. HIW: Aircraft had taken a massive step forward How It Works speaks since they were last used in the First World War, what technology did the RAF and Luftwaffe have at to RAF historian their disposal? DK: The RAF used two main fi ghters during the battle, the David Keen about the Hawker Hurricane and the Spitfi re. Despite the Spitfi re’s lasting fame as the poster vehicle of the war, it was actually Battle of Britain the Hurricane that was in greater use by the RAF and they shot down more enemy aircraft than the Spitfi re throughout. The Hurricane was a solid fi ghter and was seen as the workhorse of the allied forces, providing good all- round performance and a solid gun platform. The Spitfi re, for which there were fewer numbers, was technically the superior vehicle and in the hands of a fi ghter ace was a more formidable opponent though. In contrast, the Luftwaffe used mainly the Messerschmitt 109, which was classed as a heavy fi ghter and was famed for its stability and durability. Despite the aircrafts’ differences, they were Hugh didn’t think much of Fighter largely the same though and a skilled pilot in one would Command’s new headquarters normally always get the better of another with an amateur at the helm.

HIW: Finally, in retrospect, what should Germany have done to win the Battle of Britain? DK: Indecision and the spreading of forces was the real downfall for Germany at the time, something that stemmed right from the very top of the chain of command. Before their invasion of Poland, Hitler had promised Britain that if they left Germany alone during its military campaigns then he would leave it alone in payback, something that was How It Works: Was the Battle of Britain a turning favoured by many in Britain at the time. So when Germany point in World War II? suddenly found itself at war with Britain, no fi rm invasion David Keen: The Battle of Britain was not a turning point plan had been secured and after Göring and his in the war but was highly infl uential in the direction that it commanders failed to deliver the quick victory they progressed. This was because in winning the Battle of predicted, many confl icting tactics entered the fray. With Britain, Hugh Dowding, the then Air Chief Marshal of the no land and sea invasion in place, the Luftwaffe were RAF, prevented Fighter Command from being destroyed by constantly ordered to change their bombing priorities, the Germans and the Luftwaffe gaining complete air sometimes to go after Britain’s radar stations, sometimes dominance. If this had been the case then Hitler could have their cities (such as Coventry). Further, as Germany’s rolled out his planned sea and land invasion of Britain progress on the Eastern front stagnated against the (Operation Sea Lion) with very little resistance and the Russians, more and more aircraft were diverted to bolster American forces would have had no base to launch their their forces. In order to win the Battle of Britain Germany own attacks from. Members of staff at the RAF museum, should have fi rst concentrated on Britain’s radar stations, London, participating in a Battle of then once they were destroyed shifted their total focus HIW: In what state was Britain’s air force in the run- Britain re-enactment onto the airfi elds. up to the battle, how were the odds stacked? DK: The German Luftwaffe found themselves in a strong position going into the Battle of Britain, with a solid infrastructure in place from World War I, vastly experienced RAF museum The Battle of Britain memorial is pilots who had seen much combat experience during the The RAF museum in London is currently located in Capel-le-Ferne, Kent Spanish Civil War and a total numerical superiority. The celebrating the Battle of Britain’s 70th British, in contrast, had been very slow to start in its anniversary with a host of events and its preparations for war (famously Lord Halifax had promoted newly refurbished Battle of Britain and favoured a policy of appeasement with Germany until exhibition hall. For more information about their invasion of Poland) and modernisation of their outdated air force. For example, Fighter Command was only the Battle of Britain and what’s on at the set up in 1936 and without Dowding’s good management museum visit: www.rafmuseum.org.uk. and re-organisation would have struggled to combat the A great place for a German threat. The RAF was also numerically inferior going school trip into the battle and had less experienced pilots.

HIW: How important was Dowding and his integration of radar in the allied victory? DK: The integrated use of radar was very important as it gave Fighter Command a far greater view over the Channel than it had ever had before, allowing approaching aircraft to be detected and identiﬁ ed far sooner and that information relayed back to Bentley Priory, Fighter Command’s headquarters. By splitting the RAF into four main sectors – 10 for the south east, 11 for London, 12 for the Midlands and © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 077

074-077_HIW_009.indd 77 1/6/10 15:19:41 Proudly associated with www.sciencemuseum.org.uk Send us your questions! The How it Works experts are ready and waiting to answer your questions so ﬁ re them off to… [email protected]

Because enquiring minds want to know…

How It Works is proud to welcome the curators and explainers from the National Science Museum to the Braindump panel Dan Plane Science Museum Explainer Dan has a background in education, working with primary aged children with special needs before coming to the museum. He performs shows at the museum about subjects as varied as structures, bubbles and blood and recently got to drive the replica of Stephenson’s Rocket. Dominique Sleet Science Museum Explainer Dominique, a first- time How It Works panel Why do humans prefer member, studied Natural Sciences at university before becoming some smells over others? an Explainer at the Dina Al-Qassar are learned. Early in human development or not: we learn. This has been exploited to Science Museum. In her spare time ■ There are currently two theories for why we begin associating certain smells with ensure easier detection of gas leaks. Gas she likes painting and drawing to relax. humans prefer some smells over others. emotional experiences, ie smells detected naturally has no discernible smell. One theory states that we have innate during enjoyable experiences are However, a strong smell is added so that (born with) preferences to certain smells. perceived as pleasant. Taking this second when we detect the smell we associate it Proudly However, another increasingly supported viewpoint, it’s easy to explain how we with danger and can raise the alarm. associated theory suggests that smell preferences determine whether smells are dangerous Dominique Sleet with What makes diet cola diet? Douglas Heaton and sucralose – which is 200 and 600 times ■ Diet cola is actually not a modiﬁ ed form of sweeter than regular sugar respectively. This the original cola recipe but is produced from means much smaller quantities of an entirely different recipe. Original cola sweeteners can be used to achieve the contains the sugar sucrose or high-fructose same level of sugariness without adding lots corn syrup depending on the country of of calories – a regular can of cola contains origin, which both have a high caloriﬁ c value. around 142 calories compared to just 1.3 www.sciencemuseum.org.uk Diet cola, on the other hand, contains a calories found in a can of diet cola. blend of sweeteners – including aspartame Dominique Sleet © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 080 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

080-085_HIW_009.indd 80 1/6/10 17:33:30 Proudly associated with www.sciencemuseum.org.uk

What’s on at the Science Museum? Who am I? ■ Opening 26 June ■ Free To mark the end of its Centenary year, the Science Museum will open an upgraded ‘Who am I?’ How can I keep my PC gallery on 26 June. Currently one of the most popular galleries in safe when using Spotify? the Science Museum, Who am I? Luke De Costa presents the latest in brain ■ The most reliable way is to have up-to- what is known as a virus dictionary. This is science and genetics through a date anti-virus software on your computer. a list of all known viruses and needs to be mixture of interactive exhibits You could try to operate by trust alone, but kept up-to-date with the latest defi nitions and object-rich displays. What many viruses are – as you know – hidden of viruses. makes you, you? How do your and the person who sent it to you may not Spotify itself, which shares music genes impact on your brain, your know the virus is there, or even that they between users, doesn’t let the users actions, your thoughts and your are sending anything. upload anything manually, so no one can appearance? Visitors to the Anti-virus software can work in two add a virus into the mix. It also controls redeveloped gallery will get the separate ways. One is to look for and encrypts what is being transferred, chance to explore answers to suspicious behaviour, such as a fi le that presumably running them through its own these questions and more by copies itself. The other is to check any fi les virus protection too. encountering object displays, being received, created or saved against Dan Plane artworks and by sharing their Does a opinions on issues in science. LAST CHANCE TO SEE 1001 Inventions: metal Discover the Muslim Heritage in Our World spoon stop ■ Open until 30 June ■ Free Tracing the forgotten story of sparkling 1,000 years of science from the Muslim world, from the 7th Century onwards. Featuring wine from interactive exhibits, displays and dramatisation, the exhibition going fl at? explores the shared scientifi c Mark Blackmore heritage of diverse cultures and ■ This is a widespread myth and has looks at how many modern some variations, sometimes the spoon inventions can trace their roots must be silver other times the material back to Muslim civilisation. doesn’t matter. It’s unlikely that the spoon makes any difference. There is some COMING SOON suggestion that the metal will absorb How do ear Legends Of Flight at the more heat energy and keep the air in the IMAX 3D Cinema bottle colder, which may aid the thermometers work? ■ Coming up this summer preservation of the sparkle in your wine. Kevin Kennedy ■ Charges apply The temperature is certainly important ■ These are also called tympanic thermometers. This is because they take Legends Of Flight is a captivating though. Colder liquids can hold more gas, measurements from the tympanic membrane, the ‘drum skin’ of your eardrum. new fi lm showcasing some of in the case of sparkling wines, carbon Unlike traditional mercury thermometers, which use the expansion of mercury at history’s most amazing aircraft. dioxide (CO ). This is because the higher Soar over the highest peaks, feel 2 higher temperatures to measure those in the body, tympanic thermometers measure the temperature the more energy the infrared radiation. Infrared radiation, or IR, is a form of electromagnetic radiation, like the gut-wrenching force of take- atoms or molecules in the liquid and gas light or radio waves, that is given off by anything that has a temperature. off and loop and roll above the have, making it more likely that the gas The probe part of the thermometer is inserted into the ear where its IR sensor is ocean. From one of the fi rst molecules can escape the liquid. So the within range of the membrane and can get a reading. For hygiene, the probe has a passenger airliners to make long- lower the temperature the lower the disposable plastic cover, which the IR can pass through and for ease an extension can range fl ying practical to the energy and less CO can escape. So Boeing 787 Dreamliner which 2 be used to place it in the ear of unconscious surgery patients. The reading is much putting the wine in the fridge is the most quicker and convenient, two seconds compared to two minutes for an accurate rectal seeks to take its place among benefi cial thing. The best thing to do, thermometer reading. aviation greats, Legends Of Flight though, is fi nish the bottle! Dan Plane brings together the past and Dan Plane future of air travel. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 081

080-085_HIW_009.indd 81 1/6/10 17:33:50 Proudly associated with www.sciencemuseum.org.uk

Because enquiring minds want to know… Will we change the What’s on at the mass of the planet by Science Museum? extracting all the oil? COMING SOON Peter Webber Antenna ■ We are indeed redistributing mass around the planet, but the total ■ Opening in June ■ Free stays the same. Earth’s mass does slightly change over time, due to loss ‘Antenna’ hosts a series of events of atmosphere and a gain from meteorites, but it’s negligible. If the mass allowing visitors to get up close were to considerably increase, our orbital radius around the Sun would with new developments in decrease, the planet’s motion would be faster and a year would science and breakthrough be shorter. technologies. A new concept for However, although Earth’s mass isn’t changing, redistribution could Antenna will be unveiled in June change the length of a day. Angular momentum is a product of the rate 2010 providing an innovative at which an object spins, and the distance of its mass from its axis, and new way for the public to engage the Conservation of Angular Momentum says it must stay the same at with contemporary science. all times. It means that if mass is moved further from the centre of Earth, MartinBelam © Straw / Photo iStock © Earht the rate of rotation must slow down, increasing the length of a day. Science Museum Lates Earthquakes shift mass closer to the centre, hence speed up rotation ■ 30 June: 6.45pm to 10pm ■ Free and shorten the day. However, NASA states that the Chilean earthquake To celebrate the opening of the in 2010 shortened the day by an actual 1.26 microseconds, that’s new Who Am I? biomedical 0.00000126 seconds. gallery, the next Lates held on Dan Plane Wednesday 30 June will explore the question of identity. Visitors Why shower when you can lick can take part in a variety of yourself clean? activities centred on the themes of genetics, DNA and psychology. At 7.30pm, you are also invited to participate in a live recording of BBC World Service’s The Forum, presented by Bridget Kendall.

Forget Me Knot ■ 1 July, 7pm to 8:45pm Does your memory let you down? Could drugs, technology or memory tricks really enhance your ability to recall? Open up your mind and test out your memory skills on a night you’ll be sure to remember. © Science Photo Library Photo Science ©

The magnetron can be seen What are here with a red label on it fur balls? Why does metal react so Ashley Stephenson violently in a microwave oven? ■ Cats take a lot of care over their coats Tom Boon and regularly groom themselves by licking ■ Microwaves are a kind of electromagnetic wave and as such can create electric off any loose hairs. Cats’ tongues are currents in metals. Many of the microwaves are actually refl ected by the metal and For further information visit quite rough and they pull a lot of hair out, can refl ect back onto the magnetron – the part of the oven that produces the the What’s On section at most of which they’ll swallow. In small microwaves, which can overheat and become damaged. When microwaves hit www.sciencemuseum.org. amounts, this just passes straight through metal surfaces, free electrons (negatively charged particles) in the metal start to uk/centenary. the cat’s digestive system. But if, for move around and the movement of this charge is how an electric current arises. Visit the Museum example, your cat has a particularly thick Some of these electrons will move too much and will actually jump from the metal Exhibition Road, South coat the hair may build up too quickly and to the air which becomes temporarily ionised (charged). This can result in a Kensington, London SW7 2DD. form trichobezoar, or fur balls. The phenomenon called ‘arcing’ where an electric spark similar to a fl ash of lightning is Open 10am – 6pm every day. quickest way to get these out of the produced. Thin metal such as rims of mugs, produce more resistance to an electric Entry is free, but charges apply stomach is to vomit them up. As to why current than thick metal, and so can become very hot. If suffi ciently thin the metal for the IMAX 3D Cinema, your cat chooses the carpet, you’d best can become so hot that it actually burns or melts! simulators and some of the ask them. Dominique Sleet special exhibitions. Dan Plane © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 082 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

080-085_HIW_009.indd 82 1/6/10 19:36:38 Proudly associated with www.biodiversityislife.net

The Ghostbusters take the Statue of Liberty for a swim How it Works is proud to welcome the experts from International Year of Biodiversity in the UK (IYB- UK) to the Braindump panel

IYB-UK is made up of over 400 major organisations, charities, universities, businesses, schools, museums and arts practitioners. Dr Robert Bloomfield, the director of International Year of Biodiversity in the UK, will be marshalling a range of experts from across the partnership to answer your questions. Dr Robert Bloomfi eld Director IYB-UK/Head of Innovation and Special Projects, Natural Museum History Bob is Head of Innovation and Special Projects at the Natural History Museum where he has delivered Darwin200 and is now directing IYB-UK during 2010. With a PhD in Genetics, Bob has pursued a career in science and public engagement, leading major science communication projects. In 2002 Bob was awarded a NESTA Dream Time Fellowship which he ultimately used to Why has fl ooding become retrace the first voyage of Captain such a problem? James Cook. Donald Rempstone ■ Unfortunately, fl ooding is simply a Changes in land use, such as salt marshes to store fl ood water can part of nature. One in six properties are building houses or putting down prevent fl ooding elsewhere, and can also International Year at risk of fl ooding in England and Wales. concrete, can increase the risk of provide environmental benefi ts such as of Biodiversity – Changes in our climate, such as more fl ooding. Because of this, we advise new habitats. What’s On June severe storms and wetter winters, will against developments that will have an Individuals and communities also and July 2010 increase the risk of fl ooding in the adverse affect on fl ooding. have a role to play in protecting future. There are a variety of ways to When building fl ood defences we themselves and their properties from Plantastic! tackle fl ooding and these are just a few look for ways to work with nature rather fl ood risk. ■ Daily until 5 September 2010 of them… than against it. Creating mudfl ats and The Environment Agency ■ Free ■ World Museum Liverpool, William Brown St, Liverpool, Merseyside, L3 8EN (open from 10am to 5pm How do ants breathe? every day) Daniel McDermott Discover the secret world of ■ Ants, like all insects, don’t have lungs, breathing through tiny holes in their sides – plants in Plantastic!, an spiracles – one pair per segment. These lead into a network of tiny tubes – tracheae – interactive exhibition for all the permeating their entire body, getting narrower and narrower, supplying air (and family. There will be around 40 hence oxygen), right to the tissues that use it, rather than using blood to transport it exciting interactive displays that like us. Though they can open and close their spiracles, they have little ability to show the dynamic life of plants pump air in and out, which happens just through general movement. It’s this inability and explore the themes of that stops insects getting as big as us, with our ultra-effi cient lungs and blood. feeding, providing, reproducing, Dr Roger Key, Consultant to Royal Entomological Society moving and surviving. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 083

080-085_HIW_009.indd 83 1/6/10 17:35:00 Proudly associated with www.biodiversityislife.net

Because enquiring minds want to know… Gannet and Puffi n Do Komodo cruises ■ Daily until 10 July 2010 (cruises dragons have a take place morning and afternoon) ■ Tickets cost £15 for venomous bite? adults, £7.50 for children, and Neil Cobb £37.50 for family tickets (two ■ Recent studies have shown that Komodo dragons, indeed all adults and two children ■ monitor lizards, have saliva that is venomous to some degree. Bridlington, North Yorkshire However, this ‘venom’ is not like that of say a cobra that can kill From May onwards, the cliffs of prey in as little as a few hours, so dragons have a few tricks up Bempton and Flamborough their sleeves. It appears that the venomous saliva combines become crowded with over with infectious bacteria, blood loss, as well as physical injury, to 200,000 seabirds setting up home kill prey. Few animals are likely to survive a dragon attack and for the summer. On the three- that includes humans, and death can often be slow and pretty hour round trip from Bridlington painful. So the secret is, do NOT get bitten! Harbour, you’ll visit the Dr Ian Stephen, Assistant Curator of Herpetology, ZSL spectacular chalk cliffs at What are starfi sh? London Zoo Flamborough Head. Expert Nathan Cooper body movement and rigidity is commentators from the RSPB’s ■ Starfi sh are echinoderms, controlled using water pressure East Yorkshire Local Group are on along with sea urchins and sea and not bones. board each cruise to help you cucumbers. This name comes The body consists of identify the birds. from Greek, meaning ‘spiky (usually) fi ve arms radiating skin’. Their spiky skin is made from a central disc. The mouth The Deep up of many tiny skeletal plates is found in the centre of the ■ Daily (10am to 6pm ) until 30 and spines made of calcium underside of the body, with October 2010 ■ Adult £8, child carbonate minerals such as grooves running along the and concession £4.50, family £22. calcite and aragonite. However, middle of each arm containing pupil in school group £3.50. ■ The because it is an invertebrate it tube feet. The feet often have Natural History Museum, also does not simply have one suckers on the ends to allow Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD large protective coat. the starfi sh to grip the ground. Your imagination stops at 100 Inside, starfi sh are made of Starfi sh are typically metres, but the Natural History much the same material as you predatory and interestingly, Museum’s new exhibition will and I, having cells, tissues and when feeding they push their take you all the way down to organs. However, their stomach outside their body 11,000 metres. The Deep will arrangement is extremely and digest their prey where plunge visitors into the abyss, different and contains a large they are found, then draw their revealing a deep sea environment number of specialisations. The stomach back inside. that – amazingly – is less explored most important difference is Dan Bayley, MarLIN at the Even Komodo dragons than the surface of the moon. that they have a ‘hydrostatic’ Marine Biological can get sleepy…

Discover the history of deep sea skeleton. This means that the Association Einarsen Stafseng Mats © exploration, cutting-edge technologies used today and how museum scientists are helping to preserve this extremely Why do leaves turn important ecosystem. red in autumn? Biodiversity – what’s it Caroline Appleby all about? ■ The autumnal colours of our deciduous trees in the northern hemisphere ■ Daily (12am to 1pm) until 30 are a signal that winter is fast approaching. The green colour of leaves is September 2010 ■ Free, but due to the presence of a pigment called chlorophyll which is used for please register with the guide 15 photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is a dominant green pigment that masks the minutes before the tour, fi rst- rest of the colour pigments found in leaves. These include the carotenoids come, fi rst-served basis ■ Guides’ which give us the orange and yellows, the same pigment that colours Desk, Victoria Plaza, Royal daffodil fl owers and bananas, and anthocyanins which begin to develop Botanic Gardens, Victoria Gate, towards the end of summer, giving us the reds and purples, which we see Kew Road,Kew, Richmond, in strawberries and cranberries. Surrey, TW9 3RB Towards the end of summer and into autumn, the many veins of a leaf Join one of the Royal Botanic that are used to transport liquid to and from the leaves begin to shut down Garden Kew’s expert volunteer and chlorophyll production decreases. This allows the carotenoids and guides for a biodiversity-themed anthocyanins that are normally masked by the chlorophyll to show through tour of the beautiful gardens and and give us the colours that we know as autumn colour. learn what you can do to help So why colour up? We believe for two reasons, the fi rst being that the prevent the loss of habitats and red anthocyanins protect the leaves from harmful rays of the Sun during plants which all help to cold weather and at the same time act as a warning signal for insect pests encourage biodiversity. to avoid, while the tree sheds its leaves. Tony Kirkham, Head of Arboretum, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 084 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

080-085_HIW_009.indd 84 1/6/10 17:35:27 www.biodiversityislife.net International Year of Biodiversity – What’s On June and July 2010 Fossils are a glimpse Wildlife photography into the past safari in London ■ 18 June 2010 1pm to 5pm ■ Adults only admission cost: £50/£55 supporter/non-supporter, Every month we’ll feature a pre-booking required, People’s reader’s question from our Trust for Endangered Species 020 7498 4533 ■ London fantastic forum at www. Discover some of London’s howitworksdaily.com/forum wildlife gems and brush-up on your photography skills during this walking safari. Practical photography tuition will be suitable for beginners. Led by Iain Green, wildlife photographer and author of Wild London.

Father’s Day Nightjar Ride ■ 20 June 2010 9:30pm to 10:30pm ■ Free, pre-booking required (open to families) www. eastdevonaonb.org.uk ■ Trinity Hill Forestry Commission, near Axminster, Devon Enjoy an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in East Devon with a family-friendly

© Masur © introduction to off-road night rides and hear the amazing sound of the nightjars. A great © NASA © experience for dads and kids How are fossils alike. Cycle helmet and lights Why is Venus essential, suitable for off-road bikes only. Accompanied referred to as formed? children over nine years old. James Harfi eld Fossilisation can occur when Booking essential on 01404 46663. Earth’s twin? ■ Fossils are the preserved remains cavities within organisms, such as Beatrice Cook or traces of ancient organisms porous cell walls, become fi lled with Some of the reasons for this are that which have become entombed in minerals precipitated from Venus is almost exactly the same size as sedimentary rock. Fossils have also groundwater. This preserves the Earth, just 400 miles shorter in been found in volcanic ash, tar, ice overall shape and structure of the diameter and 20 per cent smaller in and amber. Those trapped in rock organism which could otherwise be mass. During the early evolution of the are preserved by the natural process crushed by the overlying sediment. solar system both Venus and Earth of burial in sediments such as mud, Fossilisation can also occur when Vaidyanathan Kavi © would have been almost mirror images silt or sand typically from a marine, the remains are dissolved by acidic Firth of Forth seabird of each other. This, however, was not to lake or swamp habitat. groundwater and the residual void is cruises last and differences in our atmospheres’ To increase the chances of a mould of the external surface left ■ Wednesdays and Sundays compositions play a part in the vast fossilisation the organism needs to as an impression in the surrounding until 14 July 2010 ■ Advance differences we see today. With surface be buried by sediment quickly after rock. If the void is later fi lled with booking on 0131 311 6530 is temperatures approaching 500˚ Celsius its death to stop it being scavenged minerals then this creates a fossil essential. Tickets cost £13 for and an atmosphere of around 96 per and to impede decomposition. cast of the original organism. adults and £6.50 for children. cent carbon dioxide, Venus exhibits the Following burial the remains go Similarly a 3D internal mould can Family tickets are also available kind of runaway greenhouse effect through physical and chemical form when sediments or minerals fi ll ■ Departing from Hawes Pier, people are worried might befall Earth if changes over thousands or even internal spaces of the organism South Queensferry, Edinburgh. we carry on pumping carbon dioxide millions of years to become before original tissues are dissolved. into the atmosphere. fossilised as the sediments are more In addition some fossils can form 2010 has been declared the Along with more than three per cent deeply buried and are transformed through mineral replacement of the International Year of nitrogen and the rest largely composed into sedimentary rock. Hard tissues original tissue or through Biodiversity (IYB) by the of sulphuric, hydrochloric and of organisms such as shell, bone and recrystallisation where mineral United Nations hydrofl uoric acids, when it rains on teeth are normally the only parts composition remains the same but Visit the website Venus it’s actually almost pure acid fossilised as they contain in a different crystal form. www.biodiversityislife.net This carried by weather patterns not that biominerals secreted by the living Lindsay Percival, Curator is the website of IYB-UK, which is dissimilar to those we fi nd on Earth. animals which makes them more Cephalopods, Dept of the UK partnership supporting Fortunately our rain isn’t usually quite resistant. Only rarely are soft tissues Palaeontology, the Natural IYB. It’s a great source of news and so harmful! such as muscles preserved. History Museum events concerning biodiversity and the environment. © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 085

080-085_HIW_009.indd 85 1/6/10 17:35:54 For connoisseurs of kit and savants of stuff DVDs/Blu-ray • Books • Gadgets • Toys EDITOR’S CHOICE AWARD

1,001 Facts That Will Scare The S#*T Out Of You Price: £7.49 / $12.95 ISBN: 978-1-60550-624-1 Did you know ofﬁ ce desks have 400 times more bacteria than toilet seats? That’s more likely to gross us out than scare the s#*t out of us, but there are more than just a few choice gems in this fact-packed tome of wisdom. Verdict:

If Carlsberg did radios… Pure Evoke Flow DAB internet radio EDITOR’S Price: £149.99 / N/A lights up, that is. The contrasting Tuning into a radio station really is CHOICE AWARD Get it from: pixellated neon glow on soft black has a effortless: you select your location and www.direct.tesco.com retro attraction to it and the sheer time zone, then the Evoke Flow spends 30 DESPITE THE HUGE push towards accessibility of the Evoke Flow’s many seconds or so auto-tuning available digital in the last decade, DAB radios features enhance that appeal. stations in your area. We chose Radio 6 Bad Science haven’t had nearly as enthusiastic a It combines standard FM and DAB and were pleasantly surprised by the Price: £4.59 / $6.59 reception from a market that couldn’t digital radio with internet broadcasts punchy quality of Tom Robinson’s voice ISBN: 978-0-00728-487-0 wait to ditch CRTs in favour of LCD (including podcasts and listen again we got from the three-inch drive unit. Written by the notable Dr Ben Goldacre, televisions. So maybe Pure’s Evoke Flow programmes) and Pure’s “Lounge”, a Pure Connectivity includes an iPod input plus Bad Science presents a funny, DAB internet radio could help instigate a radio owner’s webpage where you can headphone and stereo speaker outputs, invigorating and informative journey into trend? Because it’s certainly stylish register your product and customise plus a patented “Snoozehandle”, which the world of the bad science we are enough to sit alongside the latest, wall- content according to your taste before shuts off the alarm clock when touched (a bombarded with every day by the media mounted ﬂ at-screen telly. broadcasting it over Wi-Fi to your radio. capacitance change-sensor, in case you and advertising agencies. Debunking Its simple geometric lines and gloss You can even stream your entire music were wondering). quacks, hacks and supposed miracle ﬁ nish are eye-catching enough but if we collection wirelessly from your PC to the Truly, this is a multi-media lifestyle cures, Goldacre pulls no punches in didn’t know any better we would say that Evoke Flow, which is somewhat device that most certainly has as much a showing how science can be used to its looks understate the technology redundant a feature in an era of iPods and place in the house as any of the latest prove everything and nothing. within, until you tap the touch-sensitive portable music devices, but the option is a digital technology. Verdict: power button and the green OLED display welcome bonus. Verdict: © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 086 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

086-090_HIW_009.indd 86 1/6/10 15:22:16 SAVE 30% NOW! Flip to pg 92 now for full details DVD reviews Blitz Street ■ Price: £15.99 / $22.99 ■ Get it from: www.bbcshop.com Commemorating the 70th anniversary of the Blitz, Blitz Street is a four-part series presented by Tony Robinson that reveals what it was like to live through the devastation and psychological torment of wartime Britain. To do this the programme built a row of wartime-era terraced houses and then subjected them Sanyo to the types of bomb explosions real peoples’ houses suffered by the hands of the Luftwaffe. The show also details scientifi c investigations into the effects of each bomb and testimony from surviving Luftwaffe pilots. Xacti CS1 Verdict: Not Xacti what we had in mind Price: £249 / $299 generation of self-conscious and media- WWII In HD Get it from: www.jessops.com savvy teenagers to simply shoot eight ■ Price: £24.99 / $ 39.95 AN UNFORESEEN CONSEQUENCE of megapixel stills or video, then upload via ■ Get it from: www.shop.history.com the exponential rise in the popularity of AV or mini-HDMI to the internet. It’s the Carefully selected from over 3,000 hours of colour the iPhone is that one of our most reviled crispness and stability of the image that footage and painstakingly transferred to HD, WWII In mobile trends, fl ip phones, are beginning makes this device remarkable. It easily HD is a visually impressive documentary from the to die off. The same thing can’t be said of puts this pocket video camera in History Channel that presents the soldiers, battles and the fl ip design on portable video cameras, competition with more “serious” portable technology of World War II like never before. Covering though at least on Sanyo’s Xacti CS1 the cameras. Our two criticisms are the tiny all parts of this global confl ict, from the war in the 2.7-inch swivel viewfi nder has a more amount of internal memory (utterly Pacifi c to the heart of the engagement in western practical application than to show anyone pointless at 50MB) and the build, which Europe, this is an epic production and brings this most watching you how 2001 you are. leaves you holding a rather fl imsy bottom important of confl icts into the 21st Century. Due to its ease of use this pocket video half when the viewfi nder is extended. Verdict: camera is YouTube endorsed, allowing a Verdict: Ancients Behaving Badly ■ Price: £17.00 / $24.99 Moving ■ Get it from: www.shop.history.com Ancients Behaving Badly is an informative and Picture entertaining look at some of history’s most notorious rulers. From Alexander the Great, through Attila the Hun to Genghis Khan, this series pulls no punches in Show hammering home the actions, brutality and mindset that these scandalous fi gures have become famed for. A mixture of re-enactment, scientifi c investigation, historical analysis and computer animation, this series aims to present an accurate portrait of these Build a characters and, on the whole, does so well. Verdict: tachyscope, create history The Story Of Science Price: £9.99 / N/A tachyscope, but the concept is the same: ■ Price: £9.00 / $13.00 Get it from: www.mutr.co.uk a series of sequential images rotated on a ■ Get it from: www.bbcshop.com IT STARTED OUT as a bet about the spindle, isolated by a focused light source Presented by the respected and articulate Michael J way horses galloped, which Eadweard to create the illusion of movement. Moseley, the DVD version of the The Story Of Science Muybridge was asked to settle in 1872. This do-it-yourself kit is driven by a tells the story of the forces that came together to Twenty years later, he invented an early small, battery-powered motor and lit by a create scientifi c knowledge. Detailing the men, projector called the zoopraxiscope that a single fl ashing LED (the stroboscope). It’s machines, voyages, discoveries, scandals, German photographer called Ottomar fairly easy to construct and overall took us experiments and numerous failures that have Anschütz used to create the tachyscope, approximately ten minutes to put combined to shape the world and modern science, a forerunner of Edison’s camera and the together, but the results are still quite this is a serious and detailed exploration of 3,000 Lumiere brothers’ early cinema. This charming despite the century of years of human inquiry. offering from Middlesex University’s cinematic evolution that’s passed since it Verdict: broad back catalogue of scientifi c toys was invented. isn’t exactly a replica of the original Verdict: © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 087

086-090_HIW_009.indd 87 1/6/10 19:34:12 For connoisseurs of kitDVDs/Blu-ray and savants of • Booksstuff • Gadgets • Toys

The Parthenon Price: £8.99 / $14.95 ISBN: 9778-1-84668-349-7 Classicist Mary Beard asks the question ‘what is the Parthenon?’ Sure, it’s a remarkably well-preserved temple Levitron World Stage dedicated to the goddess Athena found on a hill above Athens. But why did it make Lord Byron cry and why did it Anti Gravity Platform cause Freud such consternation? A surprisingly light and interesting read for Coming soon: teleportation panels! such an academic topic. Price: £76.95 / $89.99 bottom panel contains one magnet and LED-lit, refl ective platform, the World Verdict: Get it from: the globe contains the other, the idea Stage’s performance is mostly smoke and www.amazon.co.uk being that you fi nd the sweet spot an inch mirrors distracting you from the fact that “AN ANTI-GRAVITY platform? Surely or so above the panel where attraction it’s just some carefully placed magnets. the stuff of science fi ction?” you say. But and repulsion are in equilibrium, and let the But these inert metallic lumps that spring no, this is science fact and a fairly basic globe hover there. to life in proximity to each other have one that’s been known for several hundred In practise it’s a bit fi ddly, but once always spellbound us, and anyone with the years. The Levitron World Stage works you’ve located the perfect position then same fascination will never tire of this toy. using the basic principle of magnets; the half the fun is fi nding it again. With an Verdict: Cideko Air Keyboard Move over air guitar Price: £69.99 / $89.99 Get it from: www.fi rebox.com BIZARRELY, AS WE type this article from the other side of the room on a How Bad Are handheld device that ergonomically, feels like it should be interacting with the latest Bananas? Xbox 360 game, we don’t miss our Price: £8.99 / $15.08 conventional keyboard whatsoever. ISBN: 978-1846688911 Rather than emulate standard It’s about health, of course. The health of keyboard design into a portable device, ingeniously, arrow keys that control the theoretically. Our Air Keyboard was a bit the planet Earth and human impact on it: the Cideko Air Keyboard combines all the cursor within a fi eld and the mouse, with of a temperamental beast unfortunately, this small volume categorises and details features you’d expect onto a wireless the left and right mouse button mounted intermittently failing to respond to our the carbon footprint human decisions handheld that works more like a game on the shoulders. key strokes at any distance beyond our have from the mundane, like a single web pad. On its face is a full Qwerty set-up, The air keyboard comes supplied with desk chair. A shame it falls down on its search (0.2 grams) to the Australian including number keys and a start menu two AA batteries, you’ll need to plug a most essential function, because bushfi re of 2009 (at 165 million tons). A button, plus a comprehensive set of receiver dongle into a spare USB port, it’s otherwise it would have been a perfect perfect read for the bathroom. multi-media buttons: audio and visual, Mac, PC and PS3 compatible and it has media centre system peripheral. Verdict: rewind, play, stop, internet button and an effective range of up to 100 feet… Verdict: © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 088 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

086-090_HIW_009.indd 88 1/6/10 15:23:59 SAVE 30% NOW! Flip to pg 92 now for full details

EDITOR’S CHOICE AWARD

Immortal What You Need EDITOR’S To Know Now Eye Gear CHOICE Price: £16.99 / $24.49 AWARD ISBN: 978-1405353717 I spy eyewear If infographics are your thing then you’ll Price: £249.99 / $359.99 love this new title from DK. Stuffed with Get it from: www.immortal.co.uk facts, stats and graphics detailing cool A STYLISH PAIR of video eyewear, the Immortal Eye Gear and fascinating facts about planet Earth, allows adrenaline junkies world wide to record their latest death- questions such as ‘What are the chances defying exploits and then download and replay them at a later of being killed by a coconut?’ are date. Within the stylish exterior is a three-megapixel video answered vividly and, most importantly, Wi-Fi Scales camera with 736x480 resolution, 4GB of data storage and a visually. We love it. 500mAh battery, allowing two and a half hours of continuous Verdict: Your weight, digitised running time. In addition to the built-in tech, the Immortal also Price: £119.99 / $172.99 comes with three sets of interchangeable lenses covering all Get it from: www.withings.com different light conditions: polarised ﬂ ame orange, polarised dark NOW SUMMER IS ﬁ nally here, losing all that weight you grey and clear. were supposed to lose in the new year suddenly becomes a On test the Eye Gear was simple to operate, with only two priority. Luckily, the Wi-Fi Scales from Withings automatically buttons necessary for 100 per cent functionality, allowing for monitors your weight, fat mass and BMI before then allowing easy on-the-go adjustments. The hands-free, wire-free nature of you to view them from your computer or iPhone. the glasses was also impressive and, unlike many glasses in the Up to eight individuals can have their data recorded per video eyewear category, they were comfortable to wear for set of scales, ideal for family fat loss, and the stored prolonged periods. Downloading the recorded video was simple information is presented in a series of simple and easy-to- too and the respectable resolution of captured content really follow graphs, allowing weight loss to be monitored over helped to bring the footage to life. The only downside to the extended periods. Immortal Eye Wear is that it is not waterproof. Verdict: Verdict: Dyson Air

Multiplier The Book Of Cool air; no blades Bond Price: £199.99 / $285.99 a smooth, constant and unbuffered Price: £9.99 / $17.99 Get it from: www.dyson.co.uk supply of air when operated. Partner ISBN: 978-1405355346 THE DYSON AIR Multiplier – a 100 per this with the Multiplier’s touch-tilt The Book Of Bond is a fat, hardback cent bladeless fan from the famous technology (allowing it to be angled compendium detailing everything about inventor Sir James Dyson – is an with the press of a fi nger), variable James Bond, from the styles and skills he expensive but highly effective desktop airfl ow (something not possible with possesses, to the plots, enemies and cooling device. Generating a massive traditional set-speed fans) and its sleek, gadgets he has interacted with over the airfl ow from an in-built impeller, which minimalist styling, and the only thing years. Of high production value, this is a is then accelerated over a 16-degree standing against its immediate glossy and picture-led title that any Bond airfoil into the surrounding purchase is the £200 price tag. fan will get a lot from. environment, the Air Multiplier provides Verdict: Verdict: © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 089

086-090_HIW_009.indd 89 1/6/10 15:24:35 For connoisseurs of kitDVDs/Blu-ray and savants of • Booksstuff • Gadgets • Toys Portable Take your favourite radio stations with you wherever you go DAB radios

Pure Move Price: £79.99 / $114.99 Get it from: www.pure.com Kicking off the group test, the Move is a palm-sized compact digital and FM radio (20 preset stations) with 40 hours battery life, iPod/MP3 connection port and built-in speaker. Similar to the 1500 but packing more features, there is only its slightly dubious styling and lack of included headphones to mark it down. It’s cheaper than the 1500 to boot too. Verdict:

Roberts Solar DAB Price: £79.99 / $114.99 Get it from: Pure PocketDAB www.robertsradio.co.uk The Solar DAB is a larger and more Roberts 1500 conventionally styled unit with an in- Price: £89.99 / $128.99 built solar panel for power-free listening. Sports DAB II Get it from: www.pure.com This is a welcome feature and makes Price: £81.73 / $116.99 The second entry from Pure is the PocketDAB listening to the radio outdoors very Get it from: www.robertsradio.co.uk 1500, a digital and FM portable radio with a lot convenient. In terms of features the The Sports DAB II from Roberts is an excellent all- going for it. The 1500 comes with 20 preset Solar packs all DAB/FM RDS round package. The radio is sleek, well designed and stations – including Radio 1, Classic FM and wavebands, iPod/MP3 port, headphone comes equipped with DAB/FM wavebands, 20 Radio 4 – textSCAN™, a rechargeable 24-hour socket, one-touch favourite station preset stations, built-in loudspeaker, built-in battery and a respectable pair of Sennheiser button and rotary tuning and volume rechargeable battery, telescopic antenna, large headphones. This is a good portable radio at a controls. It is not as portable as the backlit LCD display and included headphones. Its decent price. other units however. sound quality, features and styling earn it top marks. Verdict: Verdict: Verdict: © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 090 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

086-090_HIW_009.indd 90 1/6/10 15:25:11 © Imagine Publishing Ltd No unauthorised copying or distribution A mint tin flashlight… Mint tin flashlight Unlike the owl, humans struggle to fi nd things in the Turn a used mint tin into a dark, often resulting in large portable light source amounts of colourful language and exclamations of sentiments such as, ‘where is Step 01 B Step 02 the damn torch!’ Luckily, help is now at hand, as with a few A simple materials, a compact and portable light source can be a grab of your key chain away. Useful for fi nding objects and, in the event of c World War III, sending messages in Morse code, just make sure you don’t lose your keys! Here, then, is a simple Step 08 guide to building your very own mint tin fl ashlight.

1. Take your mint tin and remove its lid before setting to one side. Construction Next drill a hole in the front of the tin’s base section roughly 6mm materials: in diameter; this is the hole the fl ashlight’s LED will fi t into (A). Once this is achieved, drill a second hole into the front right side of 1 x Mint tin (although the tin’s base like this (B). This is the hole the fl ashlight’s switch any suitable sweet will pop out of. Take your time with this, as both the switch and the tin can be used) LED ideally need to fi t snugly, with no room for manoeuvre (C). 1 x 1 LED (5mm) 2. Next, line the inside of the tin 1x Battery clip Step 03 with tape or Blu-tack. This is 1 x 3V coin cell B important, as you don’t want any of A the internal wires to make contact battery with the tin’s body, as then the 1 x Push button circuit will short out and not work switch (A). Obviously, any tape/tack that 1 x Resistor (optional) runs over the holes you just drilled 1 x Thin, insulated needs to be pierced itself to allow copper wire (20 the LED and switch to fi t correctly. centimetres will 3. Take your battery holder and insert your coin cell suffice) battery, then stick both to the rear centre of the 1 x Blu tack pack mint tin (A). While doing this ensure that you note 1 x LED holder which is the positive and negative connector (usually the positive lead is the one in the back and 1 x Sharp cutting the negative is the one on the bottom). Once this is implement (to strip achieved, connect two pieces of copper wire (5cm) wire) to both positive and negative leads (B). This can be 1 x Electric drill done by coating the wire in blobs of Blu-tack, which All construction materials can be acquired at Maplins. ensures a stable connection without the need for soldering equipment. © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 094 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

094-095_HIW_009.indd 94 1/6/10 15:31:56 INVOLVED!GET Have you created a torch that puts ours to shame? Send your pictures to howitworks@imagine-

co.uk andpublishing. we’ll show it to Mint tin flashlight the world! Step 04 Step 05 A

5. Finally, take another piece of copper wire and connect the negative lead on the LED (the shorter prong of the two) to the 4. Now take the wire emanating B remaining prong on the switch. This should complete your from the positive lead on the internal circuit and look like this (A). At this point if you want to battery holder and connect it in add a resistor (which should not be necessary because the the same way to the positive forward voltage of the LED is already greater than the voltage on lead on the LED (that is the the coin cell battery) you can do by connecting it alongside the longer prong of the two) (A). Then aforementioned connection in this step. take the wire emanating from the negative lead of the battery holder and connect it to one of Congratulations! the switch’s two pronged leads (it doesn’t matter which as the You’ll never get lost in switch doesn’t have polarity) (B). the dark again! Step 06 Step 07

7. Finally, press the button on the side of the tin and 6. Penultimately, ensure that all your connections are marvel at the luminosity complete and that your switch can withstand being that appears before your pushed inwards without moving. If it does so, secure it eyes. Congratulations! in place with Blu-tack. Then take your lid and snap it You have now made your back on to the top of the base. You should now be very own portable mint looking at this. (A) tin ﬂ ashlight. Completed! © Imagine Publishing Ltd WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM | No unauthorised copying or distribution How It Works 095

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ISS is a fair way INBOX away… but not Feed your mind. Speak your mind that far ■ Someone probably pointed this out already, but on page six of issue 6 How It Works states that the ISS is “thousands of miles above the Earth.” Oops! The correct answer is printed on page 21 regarding ISS orbits in the thermosphere Love at fi rst sight “between 320 and 380km” about 260 ■ My fi rst sighting of your most miles plus or minus. interesting mag was in my dentist’s Other than that, How It Works is one waiting room and I hoped he would take of the best things to hit the ‘colonies’ his time in order that I may digest as since the British Invasion and Doctor much as possible. Even when one is over Who! I love your Photoshop mags too. 80 such reading is certainly ‘my thing’. Dan Rodriguez, via email I am considering taking up your offer of three issues for £1. Great stuff. We love Cox Ron Morgan, via HIW Daily ■ I’m so happy that your magazine is featuring an interview with Professor Has this reader Brian Cox. I’ve been glued to his Wonders Of The Solar System series and as a result stumbled upon he has sparked my passion for all things the truth behind scientifi c once again, which led me to fi nding this magazine. Thank you. why we hiccup? ■ Nikki Willis, via HIW Daily Hello. While gestating our three daughters years ago – daughters who HIW: We hope you enjoyed the regularly hiccupped in the uterus – I interview, Nikki. We were thrilled hypothesised that the function of hiccups when we found out he’d agreed to be is to exercise the diaphragm of an infant in the magazine. And we have plenty without allowing it inhale. Inhaling more awesome interviewees up our amniotic fl uid is dangerous; having an sleeves for forthcoming issues. underdeveloped diaphragm is also dangerous. I can’t think of a test that would be possible that would not transgress the boundaries of scientifi c ethics, but tend to favour the proposition ‘faute de mieux’. James Benton, vie email Letter Of The Month Pixel versus print – the dilemma ■ I would like to make two points. First, How It Works: the the graphics in How It Works magazine are very informative and easily old generation understood: congratulations on this. However, I’ve noticed that most of the ■ Hi there, I saw your magazine in artefacts acquire after many anatomical drawings are based on the WHSmiths the other day and couldn’t years in a cupboard.

© BBC © male human body. I for one would like to believe it. I have the complete original With regard to attaching a collection of the Marshall Cavendish value to your collection, we paid How It Works magazines from back in somewhere in the region of £25- the Seventies, all seven volumes in £50 for our incomplete set. If their binders. They’re mint condition you can bear to part with yours Can’t get enough and I wondered whether there is any it might be worth an auction as value attached? this kind of collection often Pete Gammon comes up. When searching for of How It Works? ‘How It Works’ on eBay, don’t be Signing up to the forum couldn’t be easier, just take a few HIW: We too have the vast surprised if you see a few of the minutes to register and then start sharing your questions majority of those ﬁ ne magazines current generation up for grabs and comments. The How It Works staff will be on hand to stowed away in our library – – some of our out-of-stock issues although they’re a bit dusty and are listed as rare and sell for a answer your questions and initiate debate. have that musty aroma ancient pretty penny. www.howitworksdaily.com/forum © Imagine Publishing Ltd | WWW.HOWITWORKSDAILY.COM 096 How It Works No unauthorised copying or distribution

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Imagine Publishing Ltd Richmond House, 33 Richmond Hill Bournemouth, Dorset, BH2 6EZ ☎ +44 (0) 1202 586200 That looks like a dream Cool tip for Web: www.imagine-publishing.co.uk he’d rather forget remembering www.howitworksdaily.com Magazine team your dreams Editor in Chief Dave Harfi eld ■ After reading the Braindump article dave.har [email protected] ‘Why do we sometimes remember our ☎ 01202 586229 Deputy Editor Helen Laidlaw dreams, but sometimes not?’ I thought I’d [email protected] offer this tip. Since an average sleep cycle ☎ 01202 586215 takes around 90 minutes and REM sleep Staff Writer Rob Jones occurs at the end of this cycle, if you want Art Editor Duncan Crook to have a better dream recall, wake up at Assistant Designer Jonathan Wells intervals of 90 minutes. For example, set Senior Sub Editor Jon White your alarm for three, four and a half and Head of Design Ross Andrews six hours after you go to bed. Contributors Richard Allcock, Andy Betts, Aneel Bhangu, Ben Biggs, Paul, via HIW Daily Shanna Freeman, Tom Harris, Natalie Johnson, Bridget McDermott, Nick Parkins, Lynsey Kay Porter, Vivienne Raper, Dave Roos, Jonathan Tustain, Nigel Watson Cover images see a few more female examples? century ago. For an example of what the Crane crazy Dr Yan Wong © BBC, Bloodhound SSC Car © Bloodhound SSC Project, roller coaster picture © Merlin Entertainment, solar Secondly, I have a 12-month subscription UK could do in years gone by, travel to the no more are image © NASA but would also like to view the app on my Isle of Wight to see the sad remains of the ■ Last issue you published the letter that Photography iPhone. Does this mean that I will need to rocket testing area by the Needles. DK Images, iStockphoto, Reuters, NASA, Alex Pang, Wikimedia, I sent you about not being able to do the Last Refuge Ltd, Barcroft Media and Science Photo Library pay twice? There’s a museum that reveals how high- origami crane because I found it too All copyrights and trademarks are recognised and respected Jennifer Ford, via email thrust orbital engines once thundered diffi cult. I’m writing back to say a big Advertising across the English Channel, and how the Digital or printed media packs are available on request. thank you for giving me the link to the Account Manager Nathalie Stainer HIW: With regard to the How It UK decided to ditch its space effort after video. I found it really easy to follow and ☎ 01202 586431 Works pixel mags, you can download – after! – orbiting its fi rst satellite, had it done in no time. Here is a picture of [email protected] the fi rst issue free of charge. Prospero. It’s still up there 39 years after International the origami crane I made. I felt really great How It Works is available for licensing. Contact the However, while the app provides a launch. Argh, it makes you weep. when I fi nished it and I found it so much International department to discuss partnership opportunities. remarkable new way for you to enjoy David, via HIW Daily fun that I am planning on doing even more International Manager Cathy Blackman the magazine, it’s not currently ☎ +44 (0) 1202 586401 origami models. Thank you once again. I [email protected] possible to combine print and digital love your magazine. Keep up your Subscriptions subscriptions. For now it’s one or the You promised us amazing work. Subscriptions Manager Lucy Nash other – or both of course! [email protected] chocolate power Nathanael Nunes (age 12), via email For all subscription enquiries ■ Dear editorial team. Your magazine is ☎ 0844 826 7322 Overseas +44 1795 414779 Weeping for brilliant. In issue 7 the Global Eye article Email: [email protected] about the chocolate-powered racer said 13 issue subscription (UK) – £41 13 issue subscription (Europe) – £50 missed that you would be taking an in-depth look 13 issue subscription (USA) – £50 opportunities at it in the next issue. I was really looking 13 issue subscription (ROW) – £60 forward to it, but when I got issue 8 it Circulation ■ [The Fairey Rotodyne a predecessor to Circulation & Export Manager Darren Pearce the V-22 Osprey] is yet another item in the wasn’t there. So please please please put ☎ 01202 586200 long and tragic list that has seen so much it in one of the next two issues. Production Joshua Mitchell, via email Production Director Jane Hawkins of the UK’s technology base disappear. ☎ 01202 586200 Aircraft, space, automotive, motorcycles – Founders all world winners once upon a time, but HIW: As long as those pesky Managing Director Damian Butt circumstances don’t get in the way, HIW: We’re loving your origami skills, Finance Director Steven Boyd mostly trashed by a combination of Creative Director Mark Kendrick you can be sure that we do try our Nathanael. Certain members of the witless politicians and bad management. 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Subjects ☎ 0203 148 8105 Disclaimer Choose your favourite subject and The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any unsolicited material Join the lost or damaged in the post. All text and layout is the copyright of Imagine discover everything you want to know Publishing Ltd. Nothing in this magazine may be reproduced in whole or part without the written permission of the publisher. All copyrights are recognised forum and and used speci cally for the purpose of criticism and review. Although the magazine has endeavoured to ensure all information is correct at time of Content print, prices and availability may change. This magazine is fully independent All the latest news and features, let’s talk and not af liated in any way with the companies mentioned herein. displayed in an easy-to-read way © Imagine Publishing Ltd 2010 Forum science ISSN 2041-7322 Got something you want to say? Or a question you want answered? Do it here in the forum

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