Aquaculture of Fresh Water Prawns/Macrobrachium Species

0804 quaculture of Fresh Water Prawns/Macrobrachium Species

THE OCEANIC INSTITUTE/Waima.. nrB.lo, Hawaii DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible in electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document.

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Goodwin & Goodwin photo

Dr. Shao-wen Ling, first scientist to control the life cycle of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, is also an artist. He painted "Malaysian Prawns",. used as the cover of this publication with his permission, to commemorate the first prawn culture workshop at St. Petersburg, Florida, in November, 1974. Dr. Ling holds a fine example of Macrobrachium rosenbergii brood stock selected from a King Caribe Shrimp brood pond near Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico. The photo was taken during the 4th Food and Drugs from the Sea Conference, held at Mayaguez, in November, 1974. THE AQUACULTURE OF FRESHWATER PRAWNS (Macrobrachium species)

by Harold L. Goodwin and Joe A. Hanson

on behalfof·those members of the Macrobrachium culture community who participated in the first U. S. prawn culture workshop, and who provided the information contained in this publication

The Oceanic Institute

Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795

This publication is a summary of proceedings, augmented by material from other sources, of the Workshop on the Culture of Freshwater Prawns held November 25 and 26, 1974, at the Marine Research Laboratory of the Florida Department of Natural Resources, St. Petersburg, Florida.

The work was supported by the National Sea Grant Program, NOAA, Department of Commerce under grant #04-5-158-13 and by the Oceanic Institute, Waimanalo, Hawaii. The U. S. Government is authorized to produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any copywrite no tation that may appear hereon. I TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page: INTRODUCTION 1

I. ABOUT FRESHWATER PRAWNS 5

II. FRESHWATER PRAWN SPECIES AND CHARACTERISTICS 7

III. BREEDING THE MALAYSIAN PRAWN 15

IV. FROM EGG TO POST-LARVA 18

V. JUVENILE PRAWNS 22

VI. FEEDING CULTURED PRAWNS 24

VII. DISEASES OF FRESHWATER PRAWNS 28

VIII. PRAWN CULTURE SYSTEMS 31

IX. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PRAWNS 38 x. THE ECONOMICS OF PRAWN CULTURE 41

XI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 46

APPENDIX 1 - PRESENT STATUS OF CRUSTACEAN CULTURE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 49

APPENDlX 2 - ATTENDEES AT THE ST. PETERSBURG WORKSHOP 53

APPENDlX 3 - THE WORKSHOP AGENDA 61

APPENDIX 4 - ORGANIZATIONS ACTIVE IN FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE AND RESEARCH 65

APPENDIX 5 - WHERE TO GO FOR HELP WITH PRAWN DISEASE PROBLEMS 91

APPENDIX 6 - BIBLIOGRAPHY 93

iii INTRODUCTION

This pUblication has two main purposes:

To summarize the state of development, in the United States, of aquacul~ ture of the freshwater prawn, with particular emphasis on the long-legged giant. Malaysian prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man).

To begin compilation of institutions, companies, and persons engaged in some aspect of prawn research and culture so that communication among per- - sons and organizations with comparable interests may be accelerated.

The improvement of communication among aquaculturists is an objective. of the National Sea Grant Program, shared by the Oceanic Institute of Waimanalo, Hawaii. Through a Federal Sea Grant, matched by private Oceanic - Institute funds, with Vice President William W. Sellew as Project Manager, the Oceanic Institute has undertaken a: series of aquaculture workshops and pUblica-:: tions as a service to the entire aquaculture community.

A major workshop under this program was convened by the Oceanic Institute at St. Petersburg, Florida, in November, 1974, to bring together organizations and individuals concerned with the aquaculture of freshwater

prawns. Co-sponsors of the workshop, in addition to the Oceanic Institute and i National Sea Grant Program, were the Florida Department of Natural Resources and the Southeast Regional Office of the National Marine Fisheries Service. Th.e Workshop was conducted at and hosted by the Marine Research Laboratory of the Florida Department of Natural Resources.

The workshop format designed by Chairman Harold L. Goodwin for the Oceanic Institute was to begin each subject-matter session with a discussion leader and two or three discussants outlining the subject background, after which general discussion followed. The discussion sessions were provocative and surprisingly candid, and elicited a great deal of information. The entire workshop was recorded, and the tapes served as the primary source of infor mation for this publication. The Workshop Agenda is in Appendix 3.

The authors filled some gaps in basic information by reference to selected papers from the literature, and by personal consultation with several', of the principal research groups.' As is always the case when discussions are' recorded, extraneous noise and failure of discussants to identify themselves ' make it impossible to state with accuracy the source of all comments. Where

1 it was possible to do so, the St. Petersburg Workshop source is identified in the text either by name in the narrative, or by notation of the name in paren theses, e. g. (Jones). Where the literature was cited, the customary notation of author's name and date of the pUblication are used, e. g. (Jones, 1974), and the reference will be found in the bibliography. Information without source citation either came from an unidentified person on the proceedings tapes, or represents the authors' understanding of a concensus or majority opinion.

In such a rapidly developing field, a summary of this kind is soon out dated. We believe important elements of prawn culture as stated herein are reasonably up to date as of the first quarter of the year 1975. Nevertheless, interested persons are urged to follow current developments through the litera ture or personal communication with culturists. Lists of attendees at the St. Petersburg Workshop and both research and commercial prawn groups and persons are given in the Appendix.

Some discrepancies in information supplied by different sources will be noted. We have not tried to resolve them because the numbers or information were given by experienced culturists and may reflect only environmental differ ences. The discrepancies certainly do reflect the fact that growing a living organism cannot be reduced to the high precision of an engineering enterprise. In some cases, the information is not based on research of adequate depth or sufficient replication, and should therefore be considered as preliminary. As the state of the art advances, some discrepancies will be resolved; others will not. But, that's aquaculture.

We must emphasize that our purpose is to summarize, not to provide a definitive, exhaustive treatment; to go into great depth for many elements of prawn culture would be to duplicate the literature. Best use of this summary is as an overview and checklist.

Many persons, particularly those who were at the Workshop, have given generously of their time in reviewing this publication, and in providing infor mation.. The authors have tried to be accurate in reporting the sometimes. diverse views, but the possibility of error of omission or commission always exists, and if errors are found, we would appreciate correct information for future addenda or supplements.

The thanks of the entire prawn culture community are due to the Workshop sponsors, .and particularly to Dale Beaumariage, Laboratory Supervisor of the Marine Research Laboratory, Florida Department of Natural Resources, and his staff.. Their cooperation in providing Workshop meeting facilities and sup port was exceeded only by the warm hospitality extended to the Workshop

2 attendees, a hospitality emphasized by the welcome given the group by Edwin Joyce, Jr., Chief of the Bureau of Marine Science and Technology of the Florida Department of Natural Resources.

Harold L. Goodwin Joe A. Hanson

3 'J .~ ,"

1. ABOUT FRESHWATER PRAWNS

1. 1 From the viewpoint of the aquaculturist, the most important fact about freshwater prawns is that they are already an item of commerce, produced from both the natural fishery and from commercial aquaculture. In the United States, commercial culture is limited at present in scope and geography, with most operations essentially at pilot scale; but the potential is promising.

1. 2 Freshwater prawn fisheries have existed for centuries. In the countries,' of South and Southeast Asia, some .fisheries are large enough to support prawn, exports. For example, "freshwater shrimp tails" have been marketed through', American supermarket chains from fisheries and some culture in India and Bangladesh. Accurate numbers are lacking because no statistical distinction has been made between marine and freshwater shrimp, but estimates are that more than a million P9unds per year are imported by the United States. Puerto Rico has a small natu~al fishery and "river shrimp" are sold in a limited num ber of markets.

1. 3 In South and Southeast Asia, prawns have been cultured in ponds, tanks; and rice fields through recruitment of wild juveniles (Ling, 1969 a & b), and a ' similar practice exists on a limited scale in Colombia, South America (Smitherman) •

1. 4 The terms "frJshwater prawns" and "freshwater shrimp" cover a great' variety of crustaceans' found around the world. In this publication, the term "freshwater prawns" tefers to palaemonid shrimp, specifically Macrobrachium .§E£. Of the more thaii 100 species, there are over a dozen with wide variation I in geography, size, b~1iavior, environmental requirements, and possible suita...'1 bility for aquaculture.:: The taxonomy is less than perfect, and in some cases I, the difference may be !bne of location rather than species. '.1' 1.5 Among culturists, at least in the United States, interest is centered on'; the Malaysian prawn, M. rosenbergii. Culture potential for this species was .. 1: developed by Shao-well Ling, who was then F AO/UNDP Regional Fish Culturist ' for Asia and the Far East. Conducting his research at Penang, Malaysia, Ling, succeeded in controlling the full life cycle of the prawn and published his first : results in 1961, jointly with A. B. O. Merican. Ling completed his research irii' 1964, and after the usual initial presentations of results, published two papers! that are still basic references in the field (Ling 1969a, 1969b).

1. 6 Ling's work was noted by Takuji Fujimura, Aquatic Biologist and now Chief at the Hawaii Division of Fish and Game's Anuenue Laboratory. Fujimur~ immediately recognized the potential for culture in Hawaii, and through Ling arid

5 the Fisheries Division of 'Malaysia he obtained a shipment of four mature males and four gravid females, with later additions of 10 males and 18 females. Not all of the stock survived; only about a half dozen prawn provided brood stock for Hawaii's first juvenile production. Most remarkable about this bit of history is that the handM of sur vi vors were progenitors of all present U. S. research and commercial culture activities. There is even a possibility that a single female produced the stock now in use (Malecha). Only within the past two years have limited numbers of brood prawns from other Asian stocks been brought into the U. S. cultured gene pool.

1.7 Because of the successful developments by Fujimura and associates at the Anuenue Laboratory and in experimen tal ponds in the islands, Hawaii has become a world center for expertise and information on culture of the Malaysian prawn. The first Hawaiian test ponds were also the first to achieve production of a saleable crop in the U. S. and to provide a model for other commercial activity.

1. 8 As of April 1, 1975, commercial prawn aquacul ture R&D and pilot-scale acti vities in the U. S. were underway in Hawaii, Florida, New Jersey, South Carolina, California, Texas, and Puerto Rico. Culture activi ties are listed in Appendix 3. Photo courtesy Anuenue Fisheries Research Center 1. 9 Despite the existence of a number of ventures, it Takuji Fujimura, Chief, Anuenue Fisher should not be concluded that ies Research Center, Hawaii Department prawn culture has been opti of Fish and Game, examines two large mized or all problems solved. male Macrobrachium rosenbergii from the Later chapters on specifics of Center's brood stock. the various aspects of culture identify the unknowns and areas of uncertainty as well as the solid grounds for culture.

6 1.10 A principal bottleneck in the, spread of prawn culture is tlJ-e limited .-t~.mp~q~~,g;...,gj-!,~Mall!-Y;~-p.,!,gJYE:' a warm~ater animal. Even! Hawaii's superb climate for people is not ideal for prawns because of slow growth during the cooler months. In the continental United States, growing seasons are even shorter.

1.11 According to Ling (1969b), young prawns 60 days old (dated from meta morphosis), when cultured in good water with ample food, grow, on the average,: to 22.5 centimeters in ~engt~ and 125 grams in ~eight in seven ~on~hs; but this' ';. V growth seldom has been achieved by U. S. cultunsts. Less than optimum tem- .. ",.. peratures are certainly a prime factor; food may be another. There is also some possibility (Malecha) that the' stock may have deteriorated somewhat through inbreeding; adqition of stock from other populations will determine whether this is the case.

1.12 Because of temperatures, successful prawn culture in the United States requires a somewhat ~gher degree of technology than in tropical countries. One approach is to use,;thermal power plant effluent to raise temperatures; another, in suitable areas, is to use solar energy. A third is to hold juveniles) in controlled environments until outdoor temperatures are suitable before stocking. A fourth, where killing temperatures are unlikely, is to stock and accept the lower growth rates. A fifth approach is to rear to market size in fully controlled recirclflating systems.

II 1.13 Pessimists gen~rally do not go into farming or animal husbandry, and the optimists who are dndertaking freshwater prawn culture in the United States, are convinced that the problems of less than optimum temperatures and the . high costs of feed and labor will not prevent profitable Macrobrachium culture. This is most rn:.

II. FRESHWATER PRAWN SPECIES AND CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 The Malaysian prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) is best known because of the work of Ling, Fujimura, and others, but research has been conducted on additional species, .and still other species have been observedjl to some extent. One purpose of the Macrobrachium Workshop at St. Petersburg' was to inquire into the 'suitability of various species for culture, and to elicit what was known about their charac~eristics and environmental requirements.

7 What the session disclosed is that useful information is available to only a lim ited extent on very few species. The conclusion was that, while scientists certainly should continue to investigate other species with the hope of finding characteristics useful to culturists, the Malaysian prawn is the species of choice at present.

2.2 In this section, prawns about which some information is available are covered briefly, with principal factors that result in choice of the Malaysian prawn outlined in greatest detail.

Macrobrachium rosenbergii

2.3 In its natural habitat, the Malaysian prawn flourishes in both fresh and brackish waters. Greatest concentrations are in the lower reaches of Asian rivers, but the prawns are known to travel more than 200 kilometers upstream. In addition to being competent travelers, the prawns are also good climbers, able to mount dams and waterfalls (Ling, 1969a). The traveling ability of M. rosenbergii is shared by most other species. This means that, in areas where more than one species exist, it is not uncommon for culturists to find "wild prawns" in with their cultured stock, e. g. M. Lar in Hawaii (Fuj'imura and Cohlan) , and M. acanthurus and M. carcinus in Florida and Puerto Rico (Mulvihill, Costello and Parker) in company with . the stocked M. rosenbergii.

2.4 Both the larval and adult stages of the Malaysian prawn are euryhaline to a consid erable degree. In nature, the prawns commonly spawn in brackish water and the juveniles make their way upstream to fresh (or at least fresher) water. Larvae newly hatched in 3 to 6 0/00 Photo courtesy Anuenue brackish water tolerate Fisheries Research Center immediate transfer to any water of less than 21 0/00 One reason why the Malaysian prawn is the without serious losses culturist's choice. A four-count (four to the (Fujimura). Sandifer, pound) male harvested from Ota's Pond, Hawaii.

8 Hopkins, and Smith (1974) reported post-larval (PL) mortalities within a few days at 30 0/00, and determined that PL blood concentrations are hyperosmotic to the medium at salinities to about 17 or 18 o/cO and hypoosmotic at higher salinities.

2.5 Best salinity for larval stages of Malaysian prawns appears to be about 12 or 13 0/00 (Fujimura).

2.6 Smith, Sandifer and Trimble (1974) have grown larvae and juveniles successfully in recirculating artificial sea water, a development which appar ently can free the culturist from dependence on coastal areas and natural saline water. '

2.7 Temperature appears to be more important than salinity. Larvae need saline water to survive, but juveniles and adults can move into fresh water; or, if they are maintained in brackish water, apparently they continue to do well. The question even was raised at St. Petersburg (Bush) whether the term "fresh water prawn" is not misleading, because of their adaptability to environments of varying degrees of salinity. Some species appear to tolerate even full sea water, as noted below. However, McSweeny notes that growth of post-larvae held in 129'00 hatching salinity is slower than for those moved to fresh water.

2.8 The question of salinity is important because freshwater supplies in many regions are limited. Continued experimentation to determine survival and growth under a spectrum of salinities has the potential of opening up large areas for prawn culture in estuaries and coastal marsh regions, especially in protein-short tropical countries (Goodwin).

2.9 Malaysian prawns, after becoming 60-day juveniles, can survive a wide temperature range. Sandifer and Smith found that adults and juveniles in South Carolina experimental ponds survived 160C temperatures for several days, sa ':,0 c. lJ r with some deaths but not total lethality at 140C. At the other extreme, 350C I" .) was given as the lethal: upper limit (Bennett). Except under unusual conditions beyond the culturist 's control, prawns should not have to demonstrate wide temperature tolerance; if the objective is culture for profit, best temperatures j: 0 for growth should be maintained. The optimal range was given as 30 to 310C '::l't:. F (Bennett) with 29-330 acceptable. McSweeny reports a narrower range of 28°- 0 30 C as practical, 300C as maximum and 29~~.C. as optimal. "l).r.t F 2.10 Larval prawns, too, are sensitive to temperature. Fujimura (1968) established that prawn larvae do best at 24.40-30. 60C. Sick and Beaty (1974) reported best larval survival at 280 to 300C. There appears to be wide agree ment that 280C is preferred for larval rearing. Y;:} F

9 ,2.11 A~art from. the obvious necessity of high-qUality. water free of pathogens or damaglllg orgamsms, water hardness.,.has...p~ troublesome in some ( ~ --...... ,. ___,Of " cases. Dep.o.mJ;s~cllIDLc.~~!te o£cur on th~P3c§%'at...b!gh..pli (see the \ chapter on diseases), and Sick and Beaty (1974) reported that larvae were less "'--tolerant to water of from 50 to 100 ppm hardness.

2.12 Malaysian prawns have been raised successfully in concrete, fiberglass, plastic and ceramic tanks, swimming pools, aquaria, and ponds with earthen bottoms, with and without plastic liners. Nevertheless, there is evidence that substrate aids both growth and survival. A critical point in development is when larvae metamorphose and settle to the bottom as crawlers. A substrate that _p.LQ.v;id.w..JL.qgg~~f protection assists in reducing predation ~d cannib3J.ism (Ling, 1969). Smitll'ima-S'l'l:n"difer (1975) found that either horizontal or vertical substrates not only reduced mortality but improved growth and food utilization.

2.13 Prawn larvae are attracted to light, but avoid strong light, such as direct sunlight (Ling, 1969a). Sick and Beaty (1974) found that prawn larvae expend less energy under low light conditions and hence get better fo~d conver sion. Prawns of all ages grown in...§hruled tanks are healthier than those grown without shade; research at the Anuenue Laboratory showed that the use of water hyacinth in grow-out ponds resulted in healthier prawns and had the added advantage of providing natural foods, small organisms that flourished around the plants (Fujimura).

2.14 Aggressiveness and cannibalism are characteristics of most crustaceans, and Macrobrachium~. are no exception. Among the freshwater prawns, M. rosenbergii is one of the least aggressive, and preliminary research (Peebles, 1974) indicates that it may not be highly cannibalistic, at least com paratively speaking.

2.15 Several species of Macrobrachium are relatively easy to breed and spawn, with procedures to raise larvae well established by Ling, Fujimura, and others. M. rosenbergii in a suitable environment breed and spawn readily, and the species is sufficiently fecund to suggest that egg and larval production should not be a problem in commercial culture. However, year-round produc tion of post-larval prawns at reasonable prices remains a problem.

2.16 Finally, a key reason for the popularity of the Malaysian prawn is the generOSity and helpfulness of the Anuenue Laboratory and its personnel, not only in providing expert assistance but in making brood stock, larvae, and post-larvae available to irivestigators and commercial culturists. The Hawaiian Fish and Game Laboratory can produce seven million juveniles during the summer months, and brood stock always is available (Fujimura).

~o Macrobrachium acanthurus

2. 17 M. acanthurus is a nati ve American strain found in the Southern United States with several specimens taken recently in South Carolina (Sandifer) and reports of M. ~. as far north as the Neuse River Estuary in North Carolina (Williams, 1965). While it does not grow as large as the Malaysian prawn, it is large enough to be of potential commercial interest.

2.18 A number of culturists have reared M. acanthurus through from egg to ' adult without serious difficulty (Bush, Mulvihill, Costello, Dobkin, Hagood) using both the green water technique developed at the Anuenue Laboratory, and clear water (Hagood and Willis).

I, 2.19 Growth of M. acanthurus larvae to metamorphosis takes about four days longer than for the Malaysian prawn (Hagood). The extra days mean more feed and consequent costs; otherwise the two are very similar.

2.20 M. acanthurus does not grow out to maximum size as rapidly as M. rosenbergii (McSweeny and Hagood) and may be a little more aggressive (Dobkin). Under Jamaican pond conditions, males grew to 25-35g in five J ~ months, with an occasional larger individual (McSweeny). ~ I

2.21 Except for its lower temperature tolerance, there seems to be no good, reason to consider M. acanthurus as a replacement for M. rosenbergii (Byrd)., The lower temperature tolerance has not been related satisfactorily to growth; i. e., does it refer only to the ability of the species to survive lower tempera tures, or to continue reasonably good growth at lower temperatures? If the latter, culture of M. acanthurus may be somewhat more appealing to persons interested in pond culture in the U. S. Southland. Dobkin concludes that two crops per year of M. acanthurus could be raised in Florida ponds.

Macrobrachium carcinus

2.22 M. carcinus i~ another native United States species, apparently with a . i more restricted northward range than M. acanthurus, but with a similar south ward range through Central America (Bush). M. carcinus grows larger than the Malaysian prawn, but is less appealing for several reasons, not the least of which is its bad disposition (Dobkin, Mulvihill, et al).

2.23 M. carcinus tolerates high salinity; specimens have been found off Miami at a depth of 60 feet and a salinity of 35

2.24 M. carcinus has a more extended larval development than M. rosenbergii or M. acanthurus (Hagood and McSweeny) and has one more larval stage (Bush) ~

11 Concensus at St. Petersburg was that its aggression and cannibalism make it unsuitable for commercial culture.

Macrobrachium ohione

2.26 M. ohione is a ubiquitous native United States species collected for fish bait in the Northern Gulf states (Byrd). It is quite small, with a wide range of sizes from barely post-larvae to a probable maximum of four to five inches. Specimens in culture reached about 10 centimeters in four months, with wide variation (Miyajima). Along the Atlantic Coast, M. ohione ranges from Virginia to Florida, and along the Gulf Coast from Alabama to Texas (Williams, 1965). In the Mississippi drainage basin, M. ohione ranges northward at least as far as Ohio, from which it is said to have received its name. It is of special interest for its low temperature tolerance, particularly if it can contribute to a possible hybrid with characteristics more suitable for the U. S. mainland. It is reported as unaggressive, and very hardy but of low fecundity, producing three to four thousand eggs (Miyajima)

Macrobrachium lar

2.27 M. lar, the" Tahitian prawn", is widely distrib}lted in the Pacific, and isa highly capable traveler and climber. It is not unusual to find Tahitian prawns high in the volcanic mountains of the Pacific islands where temperatures drop far too low for Malaysian prawns, and the ability of the Tahitian variety to tolerate cooler temperatures seems apparent (Fujimura). M. lar was success fully transplanted to Hawaii about a decade ago. The prawns were placed in a stream on Molokai, and possibly in other locations, and are now found through out the islands where they provide a sport and subsistence fishery. Their ability to spread throughout the chain reflects a larval requirement for full sea water •. So far as is known, Tahitian prawns have not yet been brought from egg to juvenile successfully; a graduate student working on the problem in Hawaii was able to bring the larvae to the 11th stage, but not beyond (Fujimura). Ability of the prawns to reach unexpected places is their presence in the ancient Hawaiian fish ponds at Kaupulehu, now Kona Village Resort on the island of Hawaii. One Tahitian prawn found there, in company with stocked M. rosenbergii, weighed about 170 g (Cohlan). The area, except on the sea side, is completely surrounded by lava flows. Apart from the difficulty in full control of its larval development, M. lar is reported to be highly aggressive.

Macrobrachium americanum

2.28 M. americanum, a Central and South American species, shares most of the characteristics of M. carcinus. Both have 12 larval stages, apparently identical; however, it is difficult to differentiate stages eight and nine (Bush).

12 , i

In a closed system, M. americanum was brought to the post-larval stage in about 55 days; after the sixth stage, mortality gradually increased (Bennett). .!! Observation of prawns in Colombia, where a large pond was stocked by natural II tidal recruitment, found both M. americanum and M. tenellum, with M. 1. pre-;- , fer ring the more saline parts and M • .!!. found in fresher waters; neither speci~s appeared to be very large (Smitherman). In Panama, M. americanum was found along with M. carcinus in 249'00 salt water (Bush). Like M. carcinus, M. americanum is agressive. The close relationship between the two is empha sized by successful cross-breeding in Florida (Mulvihill and Costello).

Other SpeCies

2.29 A number of other Macrobrachium species with some interest for aqua culturists are known to exist, and some are referenced in the literature; e. g. , M. malconsonii (India), M. asperlum (Soviet Union), M. lanceifrons II (Philippines), and M.,vollenhovenii (Liberia). In addition, there are a number II" of closely related pal~emonid shrimps. Among other Macrobrachium~. d mentioned at the St. Petersburg Workshop were: M. wolfersi, a small prawn I: that burrows in the substrate, unlike most other species (Miyajima), M. rude,J another small prawn trom Asia (Ling), and M. tenellum, mentioned i~connec- ii tion with _M. americanum in Colombia, and characterized as "rather small" in -IiI: the circumstances in which it was noted briefly during a general survey II (Smitherman). Other species are noted in Bardach, et aI, 1972. .:; II 2.30 The conclusion!' is that, at present, M. rosenbergii is the superior ani- Ii mal for culture. It was noted that stocks from other populations should be: Ii brought into the gene Rool, and the presence of Malaysian prawns in Palau, :! I II where they are under culture by the Palau Mariculture Demonstration Center, •. Ii was noted as the only place within .the United States political jurisdiction where:1 a nati ve stock of M. resenbergii is known to exi"st (Glude). The existence of a II giant Australian prawn, possibly a separate population of M. rosenbergii was ii discussed, but little itlformation was available. 1"li I, ~i " !I 2.31 The happy compination of definitive research into the life cycle of the Malaysian prawn by Ling, and the application and expansion of Ling's results II by Fujimura and assodiates in Hawaii has resulted in initiation of a United .11 States prawn culture i.q.dustry. Information available does not identify any other:1 species with the same ,pr greater potential than M. rosenbergii. Nevertheless, the paucity of data on other species illustrates that the full aquaculture poten tial of the palaemonid prawns has not been determined. While the embryonic U. S. prawn industry grows around the Malaysian prawn, it is hoped that researchers will continue to explore the latent possibilities in other, exotic species.

'I: !I 2.32 Because of the clear superiority of the Malaysian prawn, it is appropri ate to focus on that species in the following chapters. Unless otherwise noted, statements will refer to Macrobrachium rosenbergii.

Goodwin & Goodwin photo Paul Sandifer, Marine Resources Research Institute, Charleston, South Carolina, checks on a prawn experiment. This particular tank holds M. ohione taken in South Carolina.

14 III. BREEDING THE MALAYSIAN PRAWN

As the title implies, and as the conclusion of the previous chapter stated, this chapter is concerned with the Malaysian prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) except where other species are mentioned explicitly. 'I'·

3.1 In the proper environment, healthy, mature prawns breed year round. Culturists find little difficulty in maintaining brood stock in ponds or tanks, selecting ripe females as the need arises.

3.2 Ripe ovaries in the female are visible as large, orange-colored masses occupying the dorsal and lateral parts of the cephalothorax. The abdominal pleura are slightly distended and arched outward to enlarge the brood chamber (Ling, 1969a). Ii I: 3.3 Mature males are ready to breed at any time. Mature female s are ready after a pre-mating moult (Ling, 1969a).

3.4 According to Ling, a typical mature female, about 80 grams in weight and 18 centimeters in iength will produce about 60,000 eggs. A larger female may produce up to 100,000, but these numbers are not often seen by United States culturists. Fujimura (1966) reported that second-year females that had matured at one year, reaching a length of 9 cm and a weight of 18g, produced about 15,000 eggs. For somewhat larger females, from 25,000-30,000 appears, to be a reasonable exp~ctation (Fujimura, Sandifer). I

3.5 Mature females can lay eggs twice within five months, or even more often. In the United Kingdom (Wickins, personal communication) three females spawned four times in successive intermoult periods, and one produced viable I offspring five times in succession. In South Carolina, Sandifer and Smith recorded three viable hatches from each of two females within a period of four months. The useful breeding life has not been completely established, but McSweeny believes it is from 12-18 months, with 24-30 months as a maximum. An early recommendat~on (Ling, 1969b) was to replace females after every second spawn, and to replace males every three or four months. Given the ease of maintaining ample brood stock, the question of productive lifetime does not seem to be a critical one.

3.6 When a number of females are kept in a tank without males, one that has just completed a moult is apt to be attacked and damaged or killed by others. If a male is present, he protects the vulnerable female (Ling, 1969b). A male can protect five or six females at the same time; the ratio of males to females is important in maintaining brood stock density (McSweeny).

15 3.7 Eggs are extruded six to 20 hours after mating, depending on how soon after the pre-mating moult the mating takes place. The eggs are attached to the female's pleopods where they rIpen. The larvae are fully developed in 16 or 17 days, the eggs slowly changing in color from orange to slate gray as the larvae mature toward hatching. At about 19 days, the eggs hatch, some within an hour and the whole batch in a few to 24 hours. Unmated females also extrude eggs, but unfertilized eggs drop from the pleopods in a few days (Ling, 1969a).

3.8 The Anuenue Laboratory holds berried females in salinities of from 6 to 12 9"00 until the eggs have hatched (Fujimura).

Photo courtesy Anuenue Fisheries Research Center The U. S. center for culture of Macrobrachium rosenbergH, the Anuenue Fisheries Research Center of the Hawaii Department of Fish and Game, located on Sand Island, Honolulu. The circular tanks are for phytoplankton culture; the rectangular tanks for larval culture.

16 Genetics and Selective Breeding

3.9 Genetic studies and selective breeding of the Malaysian prawri. are in their infancy, and it is too early to expect significant results. While several investigators are trying selective breeding, choosing the larger animals as breeding stock, the possibilities of success are uncertain because of lack of good information on reasons for the variability in size and fecundity among individual animals. The reasons may be genetic, but they may also be environ mental or behavioral (Malecha, Shleser).

3.10 With better understanding, the high fecundity of the Malaysian prawn may allow selection for desired characteristics to suit the culture method (Malecha). Only now is true domestication of the prawn withln sight, due largely to the number of generations bred at the Anuenue Laboratory. With the first steps away from a wild animal and toward a domesticated one, the well established methods of the selective breeder and the geneticist can be brought to bear (Malecha).

3.11 In larval culture, all animals are exposed to the same environment, yet some metamorphose sooner than others. Among lobsters (Homarus §J2l2..), early metamorphosis is not necessarily an indicator of most rapid growth and ultimate size (Shleser), and whether it is an indicator among prawns is still to be determined; Malecha believes it may be.

3.12 Selective breeding should be directed to a number of characteristics. Identified at St. Petersburg were these:

a. Larger percentage of males. Males and females grow at about the same rate until the females mature, when they put their energy into reproduc tive physiology rather than growth. The males continue to grow. Experiment ing with M. acanthurus, Dobkin produced a crop that was two-thirds males, the high proportion of males apparently resulting from deliberate selection of the largest post-larvae immediately after metamorphosis.

b. Rapid metamorphic rate and post-larval growth. Shortening time to juvenile production would mean savings.

c. Larger and more homogeneous metamorphic and post-larval size. As noted later, prawns tend to grow in size classes; this would increase the size of each class.

d •. Lower temperature tolerance. While this may be bred for, efforts also are underway to produce techniques for hybridization (Dobkin, Sandifer).

17 e. Tolerance of higher rearing densities.

f. Higher feed conversion efficiencies.

g. Larger percentage of tail, where the meat is.

h. Docility.

3.13 It will be noted that all characteristics to be selected for in breeding programs are directed to reducing costs for commercial operations. Another characteristic with the same objective is disease resistance, although, as will be noted later, disease has not yet proved to be a serious problem.

3.14 The question of importing exotic species for study and possible culture arises, particularly in view of new regulations promulgated by Department of the Interior. It was noted that, in most cases, the exotics of interest have higher temperature ranges than are found in the United States, and are less aggressive than the native U. S. species. For these reasons it seems unlikely that the exotics could survive or compete in the wild. Disease-free prawns from other countries should, therefore, meet importation criteria.

IV. FROM EGG TO POST-LARVA

4.1 Methods for raising larvae from egg to post-larva are well established for Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Occasionally, usually seasonally, because of the fecundity of the species and ease of holding ample brood stock, culturists are able to produce more post-larvae than they can stock and grow. The State of Hawaii has provided for cooperative arrangements between Hawaiian prawn growers and the Anuenue Laboratory through which the State laboratory can provide stock (Fujimura). Private growers in Florida and Puerto Rico may, at times, produce stock surplus to their needs for sale to others (Mulvihill, Parker).

4.2 After prawn eggs hatch, larvae go through 11 stages, of which only eight are readily apparent; the others requiring closer examination. During larval development they are planktonic, and constant feeders. They swim strongly, tail first, head down, ventral side up. Until about 10 days old, they are gregarious, tending to swim close together in large groups just under the water surface. This "togetherness" gradually disappears after the 10th day (Ling, 1969a).

18 4.3 Larvae tend to jump as they approach metamorphosis, and they may be" stranded out of the water. The Anuenue Laboratory found it desirable to glue alii band of mosquito screening about 12 cm wide around the inside of the tank at water level (Fujimura). McSweeny believes fiberglass screening is best.

4.4 Because the larvae are planktonic, efficient feeding requires that food particles be kept in suspension until consumed. Air stones, perforated air tubes, and water circulation in properly designed tanks have all been used suc- ;. cessfully. (Ling, 1969b, Fujimura, 1966, Sandifer).

4.5 Living foods (e. g. Artemia nal!Plii) and particles of suitable size are preferred. Liquid foods are not consumed and small particles are ignored. The larvae eat while swimming, catching the food with maxillepeds and thoracic, legs (Ling, 1969a).

4.6 Growth rate of the larvae is fairly regular during the first three stages, and then becomes irregular among individuals. The egg sac is carried during the first two stages, and frequently into the third, providing food for the larvae. Bush considers feeding during this period to be unnecessary. McSweeny points out that because progression during the first few stages is somewhat irregular, and that for best survival, food should be available when the first larvae reach feeding stages in from 24-48 hours.

/4.7 Natural food forr larvae consists mainly of zooplankton (Ling, 1969a).) lJ..! there is wide variation in larval size, cannibalism also occurs (Sandifer).

4.8 Larvae may hatch out in either fresh or saline water, but require brackish or saline to survive. In fresh water, survival is limited to about five days.

4.9 Longest record of success in larval development has been at Hawaii Fish and Game Division's Anuenue Laboratory, with mass rearing of larvae in "green water". The water is prepared by mixing sea water from the Labora tory well with municipal, water. The mixture is held in outdoor tanks exposed to direct sunlight. While aging, the water is stocked with about 50 male adult tilapia per 5,000 gallon tank; presence of the- fish appears to promote plankton bloom. The water develops a phytoplankton bloom in about five days. The , green water is transferred to larval rearing tanks. The larval tanks are scrubbed, flushed, and the green water replaced every other day for about 10 days, after which the larvae are maintained in clear water (Fujimura, 1966, 1968, et seq.). ,

p. ~ I ~ ~#-LoJVri!U.. 4.10 McSweeny reports that first metamorphosis to P. L. can oe expected in 0 17-18 days at a temperature of 29 C and a salinity of 12 9'00, with adequate food.

19 Time to completion of metamorphosis depends on a combination of factors including temperature, salinity, density, food, etc. Others have reported that larval development may take from 30 to 45 days under less optimum circum stances, including variations in salinity. Prawn larvae are euryhaline, and can tolerate salinities up to about 21 9'00 (Fujimura), but salinities near 12 9'00 appear to be most suitable.

4.11 In experiments with recirculating systems, Sandifer, Smith, and Trimble (1974) produced an average of 32 post-larvae per liter in 380 liter tanks stocked initially with 67 to 138 larvae per liter; survival averaged 31. 9%. Although inconclusive, their results suggest that survival and development rates may be inversely related to stocking density. Research is now in progress to test this hypothesis. On the other hand, Hagood found that early larval stages are unaffected by crowding, and are more efficient to feed and maintain at high densities during the first phase of development, after which density was reduced from 250 per liter to 30 per per liter, with 50% survival and meta morphosis in 30 to 35 days. The two experiments were not directly comparable and the conclusions do not necessarily appear to be incompatible. Hagood also reported that densities greater than 30 per liter after the initial phase (not specified by stage) increased time to metamorphosis.

4.12 Engineering experiments in South Carolina have been directed to finding the best tank designs for prawn production. A cylindrical tank with conical bottom and a rectangular tank with sloped bottom are believed to be efficient designs for larval culture (Sandifer, Zielinski, and Castro, 1975). Detailed studies have been in progress on variations in inlet flow methods and internal geometry. An extensive study of the air-life pump performance has been com pleted and results are in preparation for pUblication. Data were collected on sizes from 3/4...;inch to 3-inch diameter, lengths of 2 to 10 feet, and submergence ranges from 40 to 100%. The sizes were selected because they are in a range of values commonly used in aquaculture (Zielinski).

4.13 University of Hawaii Agricultural Engineering student Jimmy Kuwabara conducted an experiment to test the interaction of three variables, temperature, ;> density, and media exchange rate, on production of juveniles,)-with~analysis of variance. Kuwabara was supervised by J. K. Wang, Chairman of the Depart ment of Agricultural Engineering, and ran his experiments at the Anuenue Laboratory in cooperation with T. Fujimura. Kuwabara' s 3 variable, 2 level, 8 experimental point (2 3 factorial) project demonstrated that~as.ing..1h.e te.mperaturLto optimum si~fi~J.ly... decr,eEi.Jles time to metamorphos!st.=apd igcreases l!!~nile_p...!'..9Jly"<;!j;jgn rat~.and survival. GroWfli media a~icated that iexchange of media at better than one exchange per day would be beneficial. Stocking rate of larvae at 32 per liter was possibly optimal at 28. 30 C, but

------

Photo courtesy of Paul Zielinski Schematic drawing of a larval culture tank designed by Zielinski and Castro, Clemson University, for the South Carolina Macrobrachium program.

Kuwabara's equations indicated that some temperature-density interaction is to be expected. Kuwabara did not find a serious lack of fit between his analysis and previous data. The best past production record from larva to juvenile (post-larva) was 22 days, with a survival of 60%; Kuwabara's figures showed 22 days with 66% survival at high temperature, high media exchange, and low density.

4.14 The conclusion is that, while growth and survival of larvae to post larvae may be improved to some degree and the cost of production may be reduced, the present technology for handling larvae is adequate for commercial production.

21 V. JUVENILE PRAWNS

5.1 From 18 to 45 days after hatching, depending on temperature and other factors, Malaysian prawn larvae complete their development and after meta morphosis resemble the adult in appearance and general behavior. They settle to the substrate, no longer planktonic and become crawlers.

5.2 At this stage they are usually referred to as post-larvae (PL), although the distinction between a post-larvae and a juvenile is a matter of size, nomen clature and custom rather than difference. Commonly, the animals carry the name of post-larvae for about 60 days, a period during which they moult every fivEito 10 days, grow rapidly, and may attain a length of about 5 centimeters.

5.3 The transition from larvae to post-larvae is a vulnerable time. When the baby prawns settle to the bottom or cling to suitable objects in the tank or pond, they may be subj ect to aggression or cannibalism from their fellows, and to predation by such creatures

as dragonfly nymphs.c _ A p..E0per suh,m~&.,~sh~Us, _ twi~§,,~)lelter- _ r_edq.Q..~s~casualties.=c

5.4 In nature, the newly metamorphosed prawns Photo courtesy Anuenue remain in brackish water Fisheries Research Center for up to two weeks then Sixty-day juvenile prawns at the Anuenue start moving upstream into Fisheries Research Center lower salinities. Speed of migration increases until, when two months old, they can move against swift currents, climb rapids, and migrate across wet areas to other waters.

5.5 Hardiness also increases during the two-month period, and the juveniles are able to tolerate wider fluctuations in temperature.

5.6 Where temperatures are ideal for growth, i. e., tropical regions, juveniles can be stocked in ponds or other grow-out facilities at the culturist's

22 convenience, usually selected on the basis of need for continual cropping of marketable prawns. In the United States and other temperate zones, however, it may be desirable to maintain juveniles for a longer period, stocking them when temperatures rise in late Spring.

5.7 Preliminary data developed by Wang and Huang at the University of Hawaii (personal communication) indicates that it may be desirable to hold juveniles until they can be conveniently handled and sexed, with males and females stocked separately. In the field, juveniles may be sexed at about five centimeters in length, identifying males by the flap associated with the genital ' opening on the fifth legs -(Dobkin). Presumably, stocking females separately would mean prOVision of enough males to protect them during moulting.

5. 8 In pond culture where natural foods occur in sufficient abundance, it may not be necessary to feed juveniles for the first 120 days. However, this assumes a rich pond and relatively low stocking densities and is not a recommended prac tice for commercial growers; it may be applicable in tropical areas for subsis~, tenceprawn farming, where [email protected] oth~r natural fertilizers are - :7 r~adily a vailableJo.r_Rond .fer..tillza.ti~n.

5.9 Stocking rates for juveniles continue to be a matter of experimentation in order to arrive at an optimum figure for a given set of conditions, with the most consistent data over several years from the experience of the Anuenue Laboratory. The Hawaiian data indicate probable optimization for pond grow- 09-L12_to_1,8-jJly~eIJil..~~p'e£~~q!!~L~et~I, with an average of 15 (Fujimura). Lower densities result in higher survival and more rapid growth, but a lower harvestable biomass. ,Higher densities result in lower survival and growth rates. Mortality of stocked animals is on the order of 50%.

5.10 In an experimental recirculating system, Sandifer and Smith (1975) found that juveniles of 0.12g mean size stocked at a density of 10 per square meter averaged 9. 2g with 82% survival after 16 weeks, while juveniles stocked V at 200 per square meter grew to a mean weight of only 3. 6g with 50% survival. A" However, while growth was relatively slow at high population densities, survival of small juveniles was high for the first six weeks. 'In other studies, Smith and Sandifer (1975) demonstratea that growth and survival rates of juve- . nile prawns were greater in tanks with horizontal or vertical substrates than in tanks without added substrates.

23 VI. FEEDING CULTURED PRAWNS

6.1 Food is a critical factor in the cost of prawn production, and considerable time was spent on problems of food and nutrition at the St. Petersburg Workshop. The session resulted in many questions, but few answers.

6.2 Most food research has been conducted on larvae, post-larvae, and juveniles. Yet, the principal food cost, pos sibly two-thirds or even more, is during the latter stages when the prawns are growing to marketable size (MacGrath). Depending on the kind of grow-out system used, profit may be very sensitive to food costs to produce prawns of a given size. There was consensus that much additional research is needed on food requirements of prawns 20 grams and up.

6.3 The discussions permitted definition of the characteristics of an optimized prawn food foJ:' grow-out to marketable size, with principal elements as follows:

a. Provide good growth.

b. Remain stable in water for 24 hours with no leaching of nutrients.

c. Be convenient and easily handled in form.

d. Cost as little as possible.

e. Be made of materials the supply and cost of which do not vary significantly.

f. Be attractive to the prawns.

g. Have a reasonably long shelf life.

h. Fit current manufacturing methods.

i. Be non-toxic and disease-free.

6. 4 The nutritional requirements of freshwater prawns are not known with any reliability. In specifying a diet, Ling (1969b) recommended 75% animal protein and 25% vegetable matter" particularly vegetation high in starch. Reporting on work conducted by Andrews and Van Patten, it was noted that the very young prawns on which diets using various kinds of binders were tested grew best on those containing high amylose starch (Van Patten). Describing

24 Asian prawn diets, Ling commented on successful use of soybean curd in larval culture.

6.5 A difficulty in interpreting food research data is that the experiments were not conducted according to an agreed standard. The variation in animal size, environmental parameters, and types of growing system makes it nearly impossible to relate one kind of data to another.

6.6 The feeding of larvae is the one stage on which there is relatively good agreement. Artemia nauplii are the food of choice for the early larval stages, with properly sized fish flesh introduced as the larvae develop. In the Anuenue: Laboratory method, the green water makes a contribution, probably significant, but unquantified. From the third day on, nauplii are fed at a rate of one~fourth teaspoon per day per 5,000 larvae, gradually increasing to a full teaspoon by the 30th day. For one to three-day-old larvae, raw fish flesh is sieved through a 60 mesh per inch stainless steel screen and fed at the rate of one gram per day per 5,000 larvae. Four to eight-day-old larvae get fish strained through a 40 mesh per inch screen, and when nine days and older the mesh size is increased to 20 per inch (Fujimura, 1968). Hagood and Willis gradually con verted to all fish flesh with good results.

6.7 Sick and Beaty (1974) conducted a series of experiments with different diets to calculate energy budgets from results obtained in ingestion and respira tion studies of larvae, and to assess by caloric comparison the ability of the diets to sustain larval g~owth. Stage seven and eight larvae incorporated rela tively higher amounts of' a freeze-dried diet containing 15% Artemia, and, in general, developed best on Artemia-containing diets.

6.8 The ubiquitous brine shrimp has proved to be a near-necessity in aquaculture, and particularly in crustacean culture. Because diets with brine shrimp seem to work very well, while diets with no Artemia generally do less well, the question was raised, only half humorously, at a Homarus culture workshop at the University of Rhode Island in March, 1975: "Is there an Artemia factor?" (Goodwin). If there is, the fl!-ct.or is shareQ.l>y thJ~~ter ~~__ Daphni~at least in the feeding of Homarus lobster larvae (Shleser). As.iatLp'rawn growers ~re moina, (a ~lose relative of Daphnia) ~~~~ty .~ feed ~s.h_Q:r:J:r.q;?;.~IL( Ling) •

6.9 After 60 days, the juveniles commonly are stocked in grow-out systems-- . mostly ponds, at present, although some culturists use tanks--and are fed adult rations. There is little agreement on the nature of those rations. Success in ponds in Hawaii has been gained with chicken broiler starter ration, with vari ous supplements, and more recently with catfish pellets (Fujimura). In

25 preliminary pond and tank. culture experiments in South Carolina, Sandifer reported some success with Ralston-Purina's Experimental Marine rations. Trout and shrimp chows, Oregon moist pellets, and a variety of other foods have been tried, with varying degrees of success. It is difficult to find any available protein bulk food that has not been tried on prawns, to a greater or lesser degree. But lack of standards and agreed procedures makes it impos sible to develop a quantitative comparison (Myers, MacGrath, Van Patten).

6.10 With the exception of developments in proprietary recirculating systems, prawn grow-out is mostly in earthen ponds. A characteristic of outdoor ponds is normal algae bloom with an as sociated population of zooplankton, and a bot tom with a benthic community of both algae and animal life. There is no doubt that the normal productivity of a pond makes a contribution to prawn growth, but the percentage of food the pond provides is unknown. There is not even a

Photo courtesy Anuenue Fisheries Research Center Ota's Ponds on Oahu, Hawaii. These ponds have been in continuous production for four years.

26 ..J _____• _____"_

good quantitative assessment of a "rich" pond. An unanswered question is how much of the artificial feed provided by the culturist serves principally as a nutrient supply for the pond, and how much is actually consumed by the prawns. We belleve that an answer to this question, and several others (including accu rate sampling methods to determine populations) requires pilot-scale experi ments specifically designed to obtain accurate data.

6.11 The differences between pond systems with their natural productivity, and essentially sterile tanks in which the prawns depend entirely on artificial foods, were pointed up by a number of comments at St. Petersburg. For example, chicken feed, which has proved successful in Hawaii's earthen ponds proved to be deficient in recirculating systems (Parker, McSweeny), and was also shown to be deficient in new clay ponds which had little or no accumulation of organic detritus (McSweeny).

6.12 Prawns produced with present feeds are a satisfactory product, but improvement clearly is possible. In addition to giving satisfactory growth rates, prawn feed should also result in excellent flavor, texture, and color. Joseph and Williams (1975) are investigating the effects of lipids, derived from marine shrimp heads and containing carotenoids, on prawn color and growth. Early results demonstrated that a shrimp-head lipid additive produces a desir able pink color, apparent after cooking, with some preliminary evidence that the lipid also produces better growth.

The conclusion is that no completely satisfactory, cost effective feed for prawns has yet been developed. Further, it is clear that no single feed can meet all needs. Feeds must be devel bped that will serve different kinds of grow-out systems, and ~hat will produce good growth bd survival at various stages of prawn development.

6.14 The amount of research Photo courtesy Anuenue on-going in nutrition and feeds Fisheries Research Center is inadequate. Better and more Freshly seined six-count Malaysian prawns cost-effective feeds are a clear from Ota' s Ponds, Hawaii, grown on broiler requirement for improvement of starter ration. Production from Ota's Ponds prawn culture economics, even is close to 4, 000 pounds per year. though prawns can be grown and

27 marketed on feeds available at present. Further, development of feeds must, as always, be based on adequate understanding of the nutritional factors which determine health, growth, and taste.

VII. DISEASES OF FRESHWATER PRAWNS

7.1 Freshwater prawn culturists have had fewer problems with disease than culturists of other crustaceans. Sindermann (1974) in his volume on "Diagnosis and Control of Mariculture Diseases in the United States" shows a dozen entries for marine shrimp, six for lobsters, seven for crabs, and only three for Macrobrachium species. Nevertheless, problems have occurred and undoubt edly will arise again. A past difficulty has been a lack of experienced diagnos ticians in key locations, and there is some opinion among culturists that .. transient diseases have caused prawn kills without emerging as serious prob lems and without being diagnosed. In this chapter, the experience of culturists is summarized briefly. Persons and laboratories able to assist in disease diagnosis and treatment are listed in Appendix,5.

7.2 There is some possibility that Gaffkaemia may occur in freshwater prawns. Some culturists at St. Petersburg reported inci dences, although few and scattered, of what might have been" red tail", the common name for the disease. The coloring may, of course, have been due to other factors. Certainly "Ga:fi" has not proved to be a problem, but any possi bility of serious disease should not be overlooked and culturists are urged to communicate immediately with the pathologists listed Photo courtesy Anuenue in the appendix if "red Fisheries Research Center tail" should be found Exactly one pound of cultured ten-count among their animals. Malaysian prawns from Ota's Ponds, Hawaii. The ponds have been remark ably free of serious disease problems over a four-year period.

28 ~,. .

7.3 Gaffkaemia, Gaff, or Red Tail is a systemic bacterial disease usually associated with lobsters (Homarus ~. ). The traditional name for the disease has undergone two changes recently, first to Pediococcus homari, then to Aerococcus viridans. The bacterium is said to require a portal of entry; in the case of lobsters, pegging claws sometimes provides such a portal. Han dling of lobster larvae or juveniles, e. g., transferring them to ollier contain ers, invariably causes some slight injuries which may also provide a portal. The disease, in lobsters, usually is fatal. Sindermann lists treatments and methods of control, should the disease prove to occur in Macrobrachium culture.

7. 4 An infection known as "Black Spot" has been noted in the Malaysian prawn, M. rosenbergii, and in an African species, M. vollenhovenii. The disease begins as a brown or black spot or lesion on the exoskeleton and spreads, eroding the exoskeleton and attacking gill filaments, legs, ventral abdominal muscles and telson. The cause may be a chitin-destroying bacteria. Sindermann notes a tentati ve diagnosis of such a bacteria isolated from M. rosenbergii as Benekea §E. Investigation of the treatment potential of Furanace by Del ves Broughton (1974) of the Lord Rank Research Centre brought mixed results. Fujimura related the black spot infection to damage to the prawn carapace which provides a portal for bacteria, to crowding, and to accumulation of uneaten food. He reported that increasing water flow in the pond and removing detritus helped to solve the problem. In severe cases, about three percent of harvested_prawns from Hawaiian ponds might show the infection, but live prawns were put back into the ponds to moult the diseased carapaces. Quick stated that black spot in the St. Petersburg Laboratory tanks was associated with fungus infections, and may be a different disease. Addition of three %0 salt controlled the disease, while 189'00 was rapidly therapeutic.

7.5 Earliest reported disease problem was by Ling (1969b), who described a fungal infection characterized by the presence of small, opaque whitish patches starting on larvae tails and bases of appendages, then spreading to the whole body. The infection is not otherwise identified. Treatment is principally preventati ve: cleaning and disinfection of tanks and equipment, filtration of water before use, cleanliness in preparation of food, and general care to avoid contamination. If a few larvae do become contaminated, they should be removed and destroyed; if many are infected, it is better to sacrifice the whole batch~ So far as is known, the infection described by Ling has not occurred in the United States.

7.6 A fungal infection in a larvae culture recirculating system was reported by Smith et al (1974), apparently caused by excessive organic loading when a flake food was used to supplement Artemia nauplli. The flake food disinte grated so rapidly that particles became too small for the prawn larvae and fine

29 food particles accumulated in the water and on the bottom. The fungal inf~cti.on appeared on the anterior appendages and telsons of the larvae and, as the lllCl dence and intensity of the infection increased, so did larval mortality. The investigators tried a variety of treatments, including formalin and malachite green, but none was any better than simply reducing the density of larvae and replacing the flake food with boiled fish.

7.7 Fujimura (1966) reported a larval infestation apparently by a suctorian protozoan that yielded to a 6-hour treatment with a 0.4 ppm copper concentra tion, with severest cases requiring repeated treatment at 24-hour intervals. It was not determined whether larval mortality was a result of toxic materials produced by the protozoans or their mechanical interference with prawn swim ming and feeding. Also recommended for the protozoan infestation were a daily half-hour treatment with 0.2 ppm malachite green, and a daily half-hour treat ment with 200 ppm formalin solution.

7.8 Sandifer et al (1974) reported a problem with a small hydrozoan, which they identified as Moerisia lyonsi. l'he medusae stage of the hydrozoan actively preyed on both Artemia nauplii and prawn larvae, causing significant mortali ties. Control of the infection was accomplished by improved cleaning of tanks and equipment and the use of a 250 ppm formalin dip to kill the medusae.

7.9 Sick and Beaty (1974), during their two-year larval program, found several forms of disease that occasionally threatened successful larval rearing. As with other experiences, most of the organisms, which they characterize as protozoans, fungi, and bacteria, were not identified. Among diseases of eggs and larvae, a number of poorly identified fungus infections were discussed. Some were tentatively characterized as species of Zoothamnium or Epistylus.

7.10 Prawn kills were reported from new ponds and tanks. Tentative conclu sion was that lack of algae in the new ponds exposed the prawns to too much sunlight, causing stress that permitted invasion by bacteria (Mulvihill, McSweeny).

7.11 Water quality as a cause of stress with resulting disease was identified. Poor quality may have been caused by buildup of organic materials, nitrites, and ammonia compounds, resulting both in stress of the prawns and growth of fungal and bacterial pathogens. The cure, in each case, was improvement of the water quality (Quick, Shleser, Sandifer).

7.12 Inadequate diet as a cause of stressed prawns in tanks and aquaria was a clear cause of disease in several cases.

7.13 High pH was identified as a probable culprit in causing deposition of calcium carbonate on the prawn carapace, but the deposits were characterized

------~ as non~lethal. Fujimura reported that water hardness on the order of 300 ppm, caused by mineral-containing soil, resulted in growth of an Epistylus. The infestation was so severe that the only solution was to'imove to ponds in another area where soil quality was better •.

7.14 Several diseases have plagued growers to some degree. They include bleeding gills, "white tails", and some muscle necrosis. Occurrence has not been common, nor consistent. McSweeny notes that white tails and muscle necrosis in the majority of· cases are almost certainly responses to physiological stress rather than disease organisms. In some cases, physical injury to an abdominal segment apparently results in deterioration of segments posterior to the point of injury. Similar degradation, usually involving the entire abdomen, can result from nutritional deficiencies.

7.15 Few, if any, culturists have escaped disease ',completely, but in spite of a few wipe-outs, disease generally is not considered. at present to be a major obstacle to commercial prawn culture. Nevertheless, the history of animal husbandry, whether land or aquatic, does not pennit complacency. Alertness to and quick reporting of diseases to pathologists listed in the Appendix will provide early warning and will help to identify cures and preventive measures for the entire prawn culture community.

VIII. PRAWN CULTURE SYSTEMS

8.1 The options open to the prawn culturist for growing Macrobrachium rosenbergii are essentially those of aquaculture in general, regardless of the animals to be grown. Ponds, troughs, raceways, and tanks have been used successfully. Open flow-through systems, recirculating systems, and partially closed systems are suitable. Prawns may be cultured as a single crop, or in' combination with other animals and plants in polyculture systems. The culturfst may depend on natural ambient temperatures or may increase temperatures by direct application of energy, mixing in of thermal effluent, or adding solar' heaters.

8.2 In the United States, nearly every possible ~ombination is under devel-" opment to some extent. Most research in State ag~ncies and universities is supported by the National Sea Grant Program, by tlle National Marine Fisher ies Service through funds provided under Public L~w 88-309, and by the states themselves. In South Carolina, the Coastal Plains Regional Commission also. provides support. Results of such research are available for the asking. Other research is being conducted by private firms and individuals for the purpose of. making a profit, and some results are considered proprietary, although the .

31 l

candor of commercial representatives at the St. Petersburg workshop was refreshing and helpful.

8.3 Dual systems are in use in every case; a system for production of post- larvae, and a grow-out system. The production of post-larvae and juveniles for stocking commonly takes place indoors or under shelter of some kind, in systems that can be fully controlled. Grow-out is, for the most part, in earthen ponds, although experiments are under way in raceways and intensive systems. Except for experiments in an early stage at Auburn University, and the addition of tilapia and mosquito fish to Hawaiian ponds, mono culture of prawns is the rule in the U. S., although polyculture of prawns with herbivorous finfish is practiced in Asia (Ling).

8.4 Site selection emerges as th-e first, most critical factor in prawn aquaculture, as it does in all other forms of aquaculture. Webber (1971) has sup plied a checklist of criteria for site selection, and reference to his paper, "The Design of an Aquaculture Enterprise" is recommended; it covers all important site elements.

8.5 Discussions at St. Petersburg stressed a number of factors in site selection, based on the experience of the participants. A clear distinction was made between the large commercial enterprise, of the type that might be developed by a corporation, and the smaller enterprises created by individual entrepre neurs and small companies. Burkholder stated that anything less than a thou sand acres was too small for a major enterprise, with ponds occupying from two-thirds to three-fourths of the area. The first problem is suitable land, because land which fits site selection criteria invariably is under cultivation, and hence is expensive even when available. The second problem is adequate supply of good water. Burkholder considered underground water in ample quantity to be an essential, even in areas with good surlace water. Quantities, depending on flow rates, could be as much as ten million gallons per day. Other elements would scale accordingly, including capital costs, energy costs, and labor costs. Further, such an enterprise would require a management team, and possibly an initial payroll of a quarter million dollars annually. For an operation of this scale to be commercially feasible would require production on the order of 2,500 to 3,000 pounds of prawns per acre-year, with mainte nance of high prices for the product.

8.6 In contrast is the Hawaiian experience. As of the start of 1975, 26 acres were in production, with one company farming 18 acres and the rest divided among five other prawn growers (Fujimura).

8.7 A common assumption is that aquaculture can use land not suitable for agriculture or other competing uses. This is not usually the case (Goodwin).

32 Prawns require good water quality, soil for earthen pqnds must be relatively impermeable to water, pond bottoms should not be ana.erobic or have too high a biological oxygen demand. Sometimes overlooked is the nature of the neighbor hood. Ponds in heavily farmed areas may be susceptible to runoff from agri culture with water carrying pesticides and herbicides that are either lethal to prawns, or may contain chemicals that would make the prawns unmarketable (MulVihill). At least one prawn farmer was wiped ou~ by aerial spraying for mosquitoes, and the Anuenue Laboratory suffered larvae casualties when eucalyptus dust from a nearby pallet plant settled on the tanks (Fujimura).

8.8 To date, profitable and successful prawn culture has been in earthen ponds, with production (under normal conditions) ranging from 2,500 to 4,000 pounds per acre-year. When conditions were not normal, either because of such natural events as hurricanes and floods, or unnatural events like aerial mosquito spraying, production has been far less--from zero to a few hundred pounds.

8.9 Intensive systems, in which the numbers of prawns are much higher per unit space than in ponds, are under development in several places, e. g., the Marine Resources Research Institute in South Carolina, The Public Service Electric and Gas Company of New Jersey, and the Syntex Corporation (USA), with at least one company, Solar Aquafarms, alreaqy engaged in intensive cul ture using proprietary methods (Serfiing). Intensiv~ systems use artificial heat, recirculate water, and generally have some ferm of stacking so that ani- II mals fill all or most of the water column. They ar~ capital-intensive rather than labor-intensive, although labor demands are still high. Because tempera tures in the United States are not the most suitable .for prawn culture, the use ..

of intensive, fully controlled systems, which have muchI smaller land and water. demands, may prove most feasible, although none have yet done so.

8.10 Another approach to prawn culture, which circumvents to some extent the problem of growing season, is to hold juveniles in intensive systems and stock them in ponds at a larger size. This method takes full advantage of the outdoor growing season. .

8.11 The best size for prawn ponds is a matter of some debate. Ease of har vesting and pond control are the usual determinants. Common sizes are the acre and half-acre pond, although there are many 'variations. One-tenth acre ponds sometimes are used to maintain brood stock. Quarter-acre ponds have been used, and marine shrimp frequently are grown in ponds up to four acres' in size.

8.12 A difficulty in selecting the proper pond size is the lack of engineering experience in prawn culture. Ideally, the pond should be designed for maximum

33 1 t

ease of care and harvesting, and research by competent engineers is only now getting underway. The results may have less influence on surface acreage than on pond shape.

8.13 Two harvesting methods are in general use, draining and seining. In the draining method, the water is removed, usually draining into a collecting area or sump. McSweeny cited an experience when prawns, being good swim mers, moved against the current and were stranded on pond sides and bottoms, where they had to bE1 collected by hand. Sandifer's experience was that essen tially all prawns drained to the sump for relatively easy harvest in ponds with sloped bottoms. For areas where a single crop per year is the rule, draining requires least labor, and collecting prawns of all sizes does not pose a problem. It is also possible to drain, sort prawns, and put those too small for market into another pond, or the same pond if holding facilities are available.

8.14 The other method is to seine the pond, using a mesh size that will permit the smaller prawns to escape, while capturing those of the size selected for marketing. This method is labor intensive. A variant is to prepare a trawl of proper size to fit the pond, with mesh size selected to permit the smaller prawns to escape, and drag the trawl through the pond, collecting the prawns in the cod end. Sein ing, however, is the most common method and the one in use in Hawaii.

8.15 The great dif ference in growth rate among individual ani mals was noted pre viously. It is a behavioral character istic of crustaceans that they developdomi nance, and that domi nance by some Goodwin & Goodwin Photo indi viduals suppres Seining of the weekly prawn harvest just getting s es the growth rate of underway at Fish Farms Hawaii's ponds at Laie, others. Apparently Oahu. Water inlet at upper left.

34 freshwater prawns I' share this characteristic. A consequence, possibly in combination with genetic traits, is that Malaysian prawns tend to grow in "size classes." Mesh selec I 1':: tion in Hawaii is designed to harvest the big "bulls", and once they are re moved, the next size class grows to "bull" size in turn. With suf ficient growth time, a series of size classes develops from a single stocking, with all or most surviving male prawns I i reaching "bull" size. Continuous stocking in an ideal climate would, I' by extension, mean a continuous "bull crop".

Goodwin & Goodwin Photd 8.16 On the other hand, females appar Gary Oura, Pond Manager at Fish Farms Hawaii, ently reach a single Laie, Oahu, dips prawns from the seine. This ,. peak, presumably that haul, in one pond, netted about 700 pounds of mar- ' at which maturation is ketable "bull" prawns, averaging six to the pound. achieved, after which growth slows as the females' energy is devoted to egg production. It is for this reason that separate stocking of males and females after they reach sufficient size to be sexed may help to optimiz e production.

8.17 Apparently 50% survival may be used with confidence as a planning figure for stocking. This means stocking twice as many juveniles as the culturist expects to harvest. It was noted earlier that pond stocking rates between 12 and 18 prawns per square meter of pond bottom or surface appear to be dependable densities. Fujimura puts the density figure at 1. 5 juveniles per square foot.

35 8.18 For intensive systems, maximum use should be made of the full water column, with densities calculated on the basis of cubic units (Eble). A number of systems are being tried (Edle, Sandifer, Serfling) but are still in the pre liminary stages.

8.19 There is considerable observational evidence that, when prawns moult, they attempt to get away from possible predation. One way is to head for the surface, and to climb onto or cling to any appropriate surface. This observa tion is being applied in intensive systems research.

8.20 Although water exchange rates must be determined by pond conditions, between 15 and 20 gallons per minute per acre appear to be minimum for the typical sugar cane land in Hawaii. Build-up of metabolites or a low dissolved oxygen would, of course, dictate higher rates of exchange; it must be kept in mind that the function of water flow is to prevent stratification, and to ensure mixing and oxygenation in addition to replacing losses caused by seepage and evaporation.

8.21 The culturist is faced with environmental regulations affecting disposal of culture water. The ideal solution, now practiced in Hawaii, is to use the "prawn water" to irrigate land crops. There is some evidence that water con taining metabolites from fish and shellfish culture aids in the growing of leafy vegetables, but has less effect on root vegetables (Goodwin).

8.22 An alternative, where circumstances and economy permits, is sequen tial culture. A number of projects, well known through the literature, are using plants--particularly algae of commercial value--asnutrient strippers; however, this is not the only possibility. Culture water, containing nutrients which would cause algal and zooplankton blooms may be used "downstream" from the primary culture system for the growth of other organisms, e. g. , tilapia and carps, which may be harvested and recycled into food for the pri mary crop. Experiments in suitable conditions also are being conducted with such aquatic plants as Chinese water chestnuts and watercress, both useful as nutrient strippers and a secondary cash crop (Goodwin). A brackish water possibility is a combination of oysters on top (on racks, in nets, or on strings) and prawns on the bottom (Watters).

8.23 Stripping methods and sequential culture are only suitable in relatively small systems. When water flow reaches large volumes, these methods may not apply, except in specific cases, usually where prawn culture co-exists with substantial acreage of agricultural products with large water requirements, as is the case with sugar cane.

36 8.24 In all probability, environmental requirements ;Will grow more and more strict, requiring appropriate water cleaning and disposal systems, with consequent increase in cost.

8.25 Consensus at St. Petersburg appeared to be th."l-t water supply is a pri mary limiting factor for extensive prawn culture., Ev~n at the rate of 10 gallons per minute per acre, scaling up to 100 acres of ponds would mean nearly a million and a half gallons per day, with necessary energy supply and pumps.

8.26 Polyculture in pond systems routinely is practiced in Asia (Ling), but not in the United States. A principal reason is that thEil herbivorous fish suit able for polyculture do not bring a high return in the U. S. market. Because of recent developments in seafood technology, e. g., comminuted flesh machines and new products, such low-value fish as carps, tilapia, and buffalo fish may soon command a higher price. Poly culture can, however, help to reduce the cost of feed by providing fish flesh.

8.27 There are many similarities in crustacean culture, whether the crus tacean is marine shrimp, American lobster, or Malaysian prawn. Prawn cul- turdists t~reulurgle~.to fOllOfWthclOSelYl dfeflveloPmeLonts in shrulimt p ~d lobster lCultture, ,/// an par IC ar y In use 0 erma e uen.,t b s t er q ure m power p an effluent already is approaching pilot scale in California (Ford, Van Olst, Carlberg, 1975) and the methods and prinCiples to be ,derived will apply to culture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, the Malaysian prawn, which, on the whole, is an easier animal to farm.

8.28 Success in prawn culture to date has been bas E;ld largely on "green thumb" methods which, while eminently practical andli producti ve, are not designed to produce some of the detailed information necessary to optimization of culture practices. To obtain precise data on utiliz'ation of feeds, the contri bution of natural pond productivity, population counts in a pond at key intervals, and other factors vital to optimizing_production, requires pilot-scale operations specifically designed for fully controlled experiments. A key research area that has been neglected until recently is engineering, and while designs based on known principles can be developed on the drawing board and tried at labora tory scale, proof testing of engtneering systems requires pilot-scale facilities. An objective of the prawn research community, therefore, should be develop ment of facilities in which the necessary controlled experiments can be conducted.

8.29 Present prawn culture activities span a fairly' narrow continuum having rather low technology, moderately intensive earthen pond monoculture or poly culture at one extreme and higher technology, intensive tank or raceway mono culture at the other. The spectrum of culturing alternatives might be depicted

37 as in Figure 1. The culture of Macrobrachium may be intensive (high density and high subsidy cost) or extensive (low density and low subsidy cost). The prawns may be cultured as a single species alone (monoculture) or in inten tional concert with other species (polyculture). Generally speaking, the more extensive and "polyculturish" approaches take advantage of more natural and functionally free energy and nutrient fluxes, while the more intensive and "monoculturish" approaches require active environmental control and higher food and energy subsidies. On the other hand, intensive systems require less space per organism and pose fewer harvesting problems, while mono cultures also are generally easier to harvest than poly cultures and the maintenance of ecosystem stability may be easier, too (Hanson).

MONOCULTURE POLYCULTURE

INTENSIVE High food, energy & Moderate food, energy environmental con- & environmental control subsidy. trol subsidy. Low space require- Moderate space quirement and har- requirements and vesting cost. harvesting cost.

EXTENSIVE Moderate food, Low food, energy & energy & environ- environmental control mental control subsidy. subsidy. Moderate space High space require- requirement and ment, high harvesting harvesting cost. cost.

Figure 1. Culture system trade-offs (Hanson).

IX. PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF PRAWNS

9.1 The size and elasticity of the market for Malaysian prawns is unknown. At present, limited supplies in some markets (e. g., Hawaii and Puerto Rico) bring premium prices. Wholesale prices in Hawaii are from $3. 00 to $3. 50 per pound, heads on, with retail prices at $4.50 to $4.95 (Shang). Because of the large Hawaiian population of Americans of Oriental extraction, the market cannot be considered typical. Residents of Japanese descent, for example, pay premium prices for a product of extreme freshness, i. e., live prawns.

~------~---- Prices in Puerto Rico are projected at $4.00 to $4.50 per pound (Parker), but, as in Hawaii, public acceptance is unusually high because of the esteem in which "camerones" are held in the island Commonwealth.

9.2 With volume production, and processing of prawns into various product forms, changes in price structure are inevitable. Low production permits individual handling, personal delivery to markets, and sale of prawns as a live .or fresh product. Increase in volume means processing and distribution through a jobber or distributor, with consequent lower price to the producer. Prawns delivered heads on, bla.nched and iced to a distributor in Hawaii bring a price of $3.00 per pound to the producer, and $3.50 per pound to the jober, as of March, 1975 (Goodwin).

9.3 A much-debated question at St. Petersburg wa~ what the prawns might be called for marketing purposes. Names must meet Federal government requirements. The point was made that the term "fr~shwater" meant that the prawns would be given a lower value (Cohlan). However, biologically, the prawns are not strictly freshwater animals any more than are anadromous fish. In Latin America, a common name for the pravJns is "langostina", a non-specific term used for a variety of crustaceans (Ip.gle). The most common name for Macrobrachium rosenbergii is "the Giant M~laysian Prawn", but, with many generations now bred in Hawaii, with cons~quent variation in some II degree from the original stock, the term" Giant Hawaiian Prawn" may be equally appropriate (Goodwin). The name "blue lobst&r" also has been used. Variants of the name "prawn" are most common becav.se Macrobrachium §..2l2.., harvested at large size (the apparent range is from 6 ito 10 per pound, heads on) fit the general concept of a prawn as a large, shri!mp-like crustacean, a concept shared in the Americas, Europe, and Asia arib applied to several genera and species. I

9.4 The proposal was made (Greenfield) that com*ercial prawn growers work together to develop generic names for the produpt and to clear them through appropriate government channels; Paul Mulvihill of APARI was named as chairman for the commercial representatives. It 'was the consensus that, since marketing is a problem f~r commercial growers, the academic and state researchers should leave it to their industry colleagues. Greenfield also made the point that market testing of proposed names for public acceptance was an essential. Both Federal and State agencies have expertise and are able to help.

9.5 Malaysian prawns are highly perishable. Killing the prawns by flash freezing, and then holding them at -300 C was recommended for long shelf life; . II the lower the temperature the better, because ice crystals are smaller and II tissue damage is less (Biddle). George Kelly, Harrell International, points

39 out that the prawn pancreas, is extremely active with enzymes: mushiness begins adjacent to the intestines within 15 minutes following death, but with blast-freezing before that time, mushiness is avoided (personal communication).

9.6 At present, greatest demand in areas where prawns are available is for a fresh product. To hold prawns in good condition requires blanching before icing (Fujimura). Therefore, in Hawaii as of March, 1975, the tech nique was to chill kill the prawns in ice containers, blanch, and then re-ice immediately, the entire process taking less than a minute per batch of prawns (Goodwin). Blanching at 1500 C for 15 seconds gave a useful shelf life of six days (Fujimura).

Goodwin & Goodwin Photo Quick processing of freshly seined prawns at Fish Farms Hawaii, Laie, Oahu. Prawns came from the pond in recirculating tanks on truck at right. At far left, worker is dipping prawns in ice water for quick chill-kill. Pair in center are about to lower killed prawns into blanching tank, after which they are iced and taken immediately to market.

40 GEO~ HEAT CENTER

9.7 Soft-shelled prawns pose a problem. In any pond system, some percentage of prawns will be newly moulted when harvested. In addition, there may be factors, e. g., enzyme action, that cause some prawns to soften under icing conditions faster than others. There is insufficient experience and research to determine the best course of action. A possible solution to the moulting problem may be to separate "soft" prawns from "hard" prawns and sell them as a separate product, if a market can be created for" soft-shell prawns" as it has for crabs (Goodwin).

9.8 On the whole, we know very little about the problems of processing, distributing, and marketing prawns on a large scale, but as prawn culture grows and the quantities of marketable prawns increase, such information will be a necessity. It is imperative that qualified food scientists and marketing specialists conduct the necessary research as soon as possible.

9.9 One question to which scientific research must provide answers is whether the prawns can act as an intermediate host for organisms (e. g., schistosomes) not necessarily pathogenic to the prawns, but a hazard to con sumers. Such a problem, if indeed it exists at all, would be limited to spe cific, usually tropical, areas.

9.10 It has been assumed that the Malaysian prawb, as a high-quality product, would move naturally into market channels with other high-value crustaceans, e.g., lobsters, crabs, and shrimp. The question arises, however, of what forms prawns should take. For the most part, prawns are sold at present as whole animals, heads on. As tails only, they would be competitive with marine shrimp, as the imported Asian prawns are. Sold in the smaller sizes, they would also be competitive with marine sh~imp. Grown to eight to ten count, or even as large as six count (to the pound), they are larger than most shrimp but, smaller than most lobsters. There have been few experiments to define differ ent products made from prawns, but as quantity increases, the possibilities should be explored. Obviously, the larger the prawn at harvest, the higher the production cost. Limited experience to date indicates that large prawns, . which can be served four to six to a plate, bring the best price, at least in the' institutional markets. Whether this will continue to be so remains to be seen. Alternati ve product and marketing approaches are needed.

x. THE ECONOMICS OF PRAWN CULTURE

10.1 Solid economic information applicable to all prawn culture is so scant that few conclusions can be drawn. While experience with costs in Hawaii and Puerto Rico was shared freely, these island communities with their atypical

41 populations present situations and conditions not directly transferable to broader markei;s on the U. S. mainland.

10.2 In Hawaii, where experience is longest and more information is avail able, the cost of raising prawns to marketable size presently is about $2.00 per pound (Shang). As of October, 1974, feed costs were about 42 cents per pound of prawn produced (Fujimura). Labor costs are estimated at from 30 to 40% of grow-out costs, and feed at about 22% (Shang). To reduce costs of grow-out, mechanization should replace hand labor to the greatest extent pos sible, and a cheaper feed is needed. Another possibility is to increase sur vival from the accepted norm of about 50%.

10.3 The Anuenue Fisheries Research Center's production cost per 1,000 PL's is $6.44 excluding amortization of capital, taxes, and other indirect costs. Of this, labor is 79%, electricity 12%, food 8%, and water 1 %. (Fujimura).

10.4 Hawaiian ponds are making money because of the particular circum stances in that state, which provide a form of subsidy. Under the cooperative arrangement with the state government, post-larvae are provided to the grow ers without charge, but with "strings" attached insofar as pond management and control are concerned; technically the state owns the prawns up to time of ~-----"----- marketing, at which point the money accrues to the pri vate grower. The oldest operating venture is Ota's Ponds, about 1.5 acres, started in 1971. The ponds have not been drained in four years, and with stocking at the rate of 1. 5 juve niles per square foot, the ponds produce about 3,000 pounds. per acre/year, bringing the owner an annual income of over $14,000, of which about 50% is net (Fujimura). Largest operation is Kenneth Kato's Fish Farms Hawaii, of Pacific Aquaculture, Inc., with 18 acres of ponds in prawns at Laie on the island of Oahu. Larvae recei ved from the Anuenue Laboratory are grown to juvenile size at the firm's facility at Kihei, Maui, and flown to Oahu for stock ing, a matter of convenience, since the facilities already existed at Kihei before the Laie ponds were developed. As of April, 1975, harvest from the Laie ponds was approaching 1, 000 pounds per week (Goodwin).

10.5 The Puerto Rico experience was described by John Parker of Caribe King Shrimp, Inc., a firm that began its commercial harvest in January, 1975, with 36 one-acre ponds in production. For the first 18 months of development, Parker stated $3,556 as capital cost per acre and $2,937 operating costs per acre. The period included pond preparation and aging, and all other make ready operations. In total, Caribe King Shrimp's first land area was 50 acres, with 36 ponds built on the approximate ratio of 1 acre of pond to 1 1/2 acres of land. Parker recommended that, in a comparable situation with well water

42 ------

and costs of pumping, pIpIng, and equipment, capital costs should be amortized over 30 to 40 one-acre ponds, time not specified.

10.6 Prawn economics can be divided conveniently into two parts: the eco nomics of production, and the economics of marketing. With respect to the former, perhaps the conceptual model of the bio-economics of aquaculture gi ven in Figure 2 is an easy mechanism for exposing ,the problem. From Fig ure 2, it is evident that there are at least eight major: classes of economic drains on the single source of revenue: market return. Assuming that some net profit is required and that some marketing costs are inevitable, each class of economic negative on the average can receive little more, and probably less, . than 10% of the total market return. Should any single class exceed its nominal 10% share, then the shares remaining for the others must fall well below 10%.

10.7 Much of the information given at the Macrobrachium Workshop suggests that, at present, capital and overhead, hatchery operation, feed, and labor all typically exceed 10% of the market return. Control of the physical and biologi cal environment, given today's relatively low stocking densities, are low-cost items as are processing and marketing. Processing costs are minimal only because the animals are sold live or blanched and iced within localized markets at present--a condition that cannot prevail if freshwater prawns are to become a significant industry over wider geographic areas.'

10.8 There are also several ancillary concerns that may affect the economic picture. On the positive side, an expanding demanq for economically competi tive prawn meat can be envisioned as we reach--asmany believe we already have--the maximum sustainable yields of non-cultured lobster and saltwater

Hatchery Control of Physical Control of Biological Operation Environment Environment (-) (-) (-)" Capital Amortiza tion and Overhead Costs (- )

Nutrition Harvesting p'rocessing (-) (-) (-)

Figure 2. Bioeconomics of aquaculture. (redrawn from Hanson, J. A. et al. "Open Sea Mariculture")

43 shrimp. To balance, or possibly overbalance this view, there is the question of what will be the market for luxury foods during a serious, world-wide recession or depression, if such should occur.

10.9 Other points made during the economics discussion were as follows:

o New chemicals that improve the economics of hatchery, grow-out dis eas e control, and proces sing are not likely to come into being until we can demonstrate a high demand for them. Not only are they costly to develop, but it is a long and costly procedure to obtain FDA approval to use them, and the foreseeable market does not warrant the investment by chemical or drug companies (Greenfield) •

o It is necessary to factor in an assumption of near-complete crop disaster at least one year out of eight in order to achieve a realis tic economic projection for any new culturing industry (Greenfield).

o As production volume of any crop increases, the wholesale price tends to drop (Shang, Greenfield).

o At present, and with the current culturing technology, a fortuitous combination of cheap land, ample water and inexpensi ve labor, along with high ambient temperatures nearly year round, combined with high localized wholesale prices for the prawns are the optimal conditions for approaching viable prawn culture.

10.10 With respect to the economics of promotion and marketing, it seems clear that the freshwater prawn industry will not be in a position to support any form of mass marketing until it is large enough both to meet the demand such an effort would stimulate and to defray the cost.

10.11 Based on the St. Petersburg discussion, the economic growth of the freshwater prawn industry apparently will be characterized by a positive feed back phenomenon in which demand for the product--initially available only in limited volume--drives prices up enough to stimulate increased production, which hopefully expands the market little by little. In turn, this market expan sion further stimulates increases in production capacity while lowering produc tion'costs through competitive improvements in technology and economics of scale. This projected pattern follows a classical sigmoid growth curve; the first half of the curve representing exponential growth and the second half rep resenting "peaking out" at an asymptote set by some limit to the growth process. In the case of the freshwater prawn industry, the limit to growth always will be

44 the ratio of production cost to wholesale price. Thus, to the extent production costs can be minimized, the market can be expanded; to the extent production costs remain high, the market will remain restricted (Hanson). -,

10.12 If the picture painted here is at all accurate, it seems clear that the key" to freshwater prawn culture as a significant American industry lies in lowering the cost, first of grow-out, and second of production of post larvae. Analytical models such as the Homarus model developed by Shleser's group (Bodega Laboratory, University of California. Reports are available from the source.) and described in the Workshop are particularly valuable. They can, to the extent that they are realistic simulations, be employed to expose those facets of culturing to which costs are especially sensitive and thereby to direct research toward lowering costs of these critical processes. "

GOodwin & Goodwin photo A circular culture tank at the Marine Resources Research Institute , South Carolina, on~ of two designs developed by Clemson University engineers. Paul Sandifer checks on the occupants, M. rosenbergii.

45 XI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The first meeting of "the Prawn People" very likely was a landmark event. Not only did it serve to bring the geographically diverse factions of the incipient Macrobrachium industry together and thereby clarify fundamental concepts and perspectives; it also stimulated the recognition of "the Prawn People" as an identifiable group and was the first of recurring workshops for the coming years. To this end it was agreed that the group would be well advised to develop itself as a distinct entity, perhaps as an element of the World Mariculture Society or other appropriate professional group.

With respect to the basic issues addressed in the workshop sessions, the following summary statements are valid, as far as they go:

o Hatchery technology and procedures are adequate now to support small localized culturing enterprises. However, they still require refinement to achieve high volume, year-round post-larval produc tion at reduced costs. Improvements should seek to exploit natural (or waste) energy and nutrient fluxes in order to reduce the industry's d-ependence on inevitably rising costs of power and traditional feeds.

o Genetics and selective breeding constitute virtually unplowed ground. A prime target for early effort is the determination of genetic vari ability in the species M. rosenbergii. Another is selection for fast and uniform larval metamorphic rates. This should be followed by selective breeding for the other desirable traits mentioned in the text.

o Nutrition and feeds are of prime importance in light of the conclusion that economical grow-out is probably the major goal to be achieved in Macrobrachium culture. Yet, we are unsure what the animals actually do eat during post-larval grow-out. We should be working on the animals themselves to determine their nutritional require ments while searching for better and less expensive feeds. At the same time, we should strive to understand the ecological dynamics of the ponds in which they grow. An accurate energy balance equa tion of the grow-out ponds might very quickly reveal what the animals are actually eating and so lead not only to better nutrition but also to better and cheaper pond set-up and management. For this and other needs, a controlled, experimental pilot operation is required.

o Health and disease problems in freshwater prawn culture have been minor thus far. Diseases that have surfaced have, by and large, been transient or statistically insignificant, and in some cases have

46 been successfully treated with standard fl-quatic animal remedies and/ or improvements in water and feed quality. However, we expect eventually to run hard against epizootic disease problems as we

achieve higher density rearing success. Ii In anticipation of this event, it was suggested that 3.'Macrobrachium pathology center be created and that a disease reporting system be initiated. o Culture systems fall into two categoriesl defined by their intent. In the first category are those commercia]) culture systems which are' intended to make a profit in the near future. In the second are those experimental culture systems which are intended to develop advancEld techniques as a public service. For the most part, the first category is privately financed and the second is government financed. The distinction is less clearcut in Hawaii, "Where the Anuenue Fisheries Research Center provides both stock an~ technical assistance to private growers under a cooperative agreement (see Appendix 4). Support for the Laboratory is from the State, PL 88-309. funds from National Marine Fisheries Service,and from the National Sea Grant Program. However, the end result is prawn sales for profit by the: cooperating growers who are,' in fact, showing a profit while the Research Center continues its research. To date, all profit-oriented enterprises employ earthen pond, medi:um rearing density approaches; Solar Aquafarms' proprietary high-density raceway system is an exception. Where the physical and economic environments are especially favorable, e. g., Hawaii, some operations are profitable. In the R&D category of activities, experiments with power plant cooling water effluents are in progress and should be intensified. ,,' These efforts should be complemented by attempts to achieve major improvements in the cost/effectiveness of pond culture and intensil. ' fied research into pond dynamics and polyculture. o Processing, handling, and marketing are hurdles that lie beyond the I immediate problem of cost/effective grow-out. As economical pro- dUction volume increases, blanching and flash-freezing are at pres ent the obvious mechanisms with which to reach geographically expanded markets. To the extent the product begins to reach super market shelves, an inexpensive packaging and labeling technique will be needed. Along with this, of course, must come an attractive and descriptive name for the product. An ad hoc committee was formE)cl for this purpose in the final session of the workshop.

,J'; , , o Economics of prawn culture is a multifaceted question. The economic pessimist might ask if it is wise to develop a cultured luxury food in the face of a threatening recession or depression. From another per spective, cultured crustacea may be the only path to satisfying demand as we reach the maximum sustainable yields of wild stocks. Further, the optimistic futurist believes cultured products with relatively low artificial energy demand may be much cheaper than such high-energy products as feed-lot beef. Given the potential of a large market for the product, we return to the fundamental problem: the size of the market will be determined by the wholesale price of the product; hence, cost-effective grow-out is an absolute requirement if fresh water prawns are ever to become an industry of economic signifi cance. In the United States, 'this may mean intensi ve recirculating systems, and pond systems with much higher densities than are practical at present. An important uncertainty is the effect of gov ernmental regulations imposed by a variety of agencies, not infre quently contradictory or arbitrary, on U. S. aquaculture as a whole. This uncertainty is a principal reason why prawn culturists need some way of joining their voices with those of other aquaculturists, so that Federal, state, and local laws and regulations are based on full information.

48 APPENDIX 1 1< PRESENT STATUS OF CRUSTACEAN CULTURE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM (Comments by Duncan N. Irvin, Shrimp ,Culture Project, Ministry of Overseas Developm~nt, at the first Prawn Culture Workshop) ~:

"Whilst visiting the U. S. A. to study recent developments in penaeid shrimp cultivation techniques, a request was made for a brief summary of U. K. research involvement in crustacean culture to be given to the St. Petersburg Workshop.

"Both industrial and Government interest is' currently being shown in shrimp culture in the U. K. As of this date, the majority of industrial resea~ch' is being carried out by Rank Hovis McDougall on Macrobrachium rosenbergii'.

Manor Trout Farms, a recently established comPanY, though not actively 1 'i involved in crustacean culture work, at present h~ve considerable expertise in this field, but are emphasizing development of recirculation system design " , as a preliminary to further shrimp culture work. !i Both groups have been pri~" marily interested in caridean prawns, notably M.'rosenbergii, though aware: ,i of the possible potential of penaeid culture.

"Government research in shrimp culture can best be considered as part of the overall strategy concerning aquaculture in general. The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, with a wider brief in fisheries research, '" has three major research groups working in the c~lture field. Shellfish cul-:! ture is concentrated both at the Burnham-on-CroJch Laboratory concerning ',i some bivalve research, whilst crustacean cultivation and further bivalve work' ' is carried out at the Conway Laboratory in North Wales. Finfish culture research is at present located at the Port Erin L~boratory in the Isle of Man, and the Lowestoft Laboratory in South East Engl~d. The Ministry of Overs~a.s Development is currently supporting a research ~rogramme into the feasibility: of penaeid shrimp culture in the Arabian Gulf, centred in Bahrain. ' I

i "The work of the Conway group of the M. A.F. F. is of particular rele- "! vance. Originally research was concentrated on Palaemon serratus, a specfes:' indigenous in North West European waters. Cons'iderable interest has devel':: ' oped, however, in recent years in the potential of exotic species that could bie reared intensively under controlled environment 6onditions. The interest in;', closed recirculation systems was prompted by the necessity to maintain the required temperature optima for growth under adverse climatic conditions in

49 the U. K. Endemic temperate species tend to be slow growing, even at elevated temperatures, in relation to exotic species. Research under the direction of Dr. John Forster involved both caridean and penaeid prawns.

"Priority in the Conway research has been evaluating nutritional require ments. Further work has been done, however, on maturation and rearing techniques and studying the effect of waste metabolite toxicity on growth and survival. Initially rearing work with M. rosenbergii has suggested routine survival to metamorphosis of 20%. Considerable variation has been found in on-growing juveniles, e.g. individuals of 0.03 g after 12 weeks growth attained a mean weight of.2-3 g. Some individuals, however, ranged between 10 and 20 g.

"The Conway and Rank research groups are both self-sufficient for material, maintaining their own breeding stock. Partially because of problems with cannibalism and growth variability, more interest has been shown recently by Government research workers in the potential of penaeid shrimp. It is a commonly held view that were it not for the problems in controlled reproduc tion of penaeids, that Macrobrachium culture would attract less interest. A recent publication of the Conway Laboratory reports screening trials of a range of penaeids and M. rosenbergii to assay specific growth and survival potential. In this work both Penaeus monodon and P. orientalis showed better growth and survival than M. rosenbergii.

"The Rank Hovis McDougall operation is headed by Dr. Alan Walker, a nutritionist. Their interest is primarily in intensive culture of M. rosenbergii in closed recirculation systems. Their work is still at the stage of a feasibility study considering nutrition, disease and de!,ign parameters. The intensive system they have developed optimises land utilisation by implementing a stacked raceway system.

"Manor Trout Farms, under the direction of Keir Campbell and Neil Bass, both formerly with Rank Hovis, retain an interest in Macrobrachium work. The original supplies of M. rosenbergii imported into the U. K. were from Dr. Ling in 1966 to Keir Campbell. This group have tended to concen trate in recent years on the development of recirculation system design ~ .§.£l rather than carrying out detailed work on Macrobrachium culture. By ~etailed systems design they think it feasible that a production of 10-20 k per m of land used per year could be achieved. Feed costs are attributed to comprise at least 75% of their running costs. At present, however, this group is pri marily concerned with salmonid culture.

50 "Two particular factors contribute to the recurrent interest in intensive recirculation systems, namely lowering necessary heating costs and optimising land usage. Both factors are major cost items in likely commercial ventures. A vail ability of suitable land and the supply of uncontaminated water are further problems particularly relevant in industrialised countries.

"Whilst considerable effort has been directed to systems design to improve intensive culture facilities, a relati v ely small effort has been made in nutrition in the U. K. Rank Hovis McDougall, a commercial feed company with considerable research expertise, have developed numerous diets, but are reluctant to release information. The past work of John Forster in the nutri tion field has, regrettably, not been developed further. There is still a basic lack of information concerning nutritional requirements, not only of crustacea, but also of marine fish.

"A further priority in research must be the development of a more com plete understanding of water chemistry under the artificial conditions of inten sive organic loading, namely high animal stocking densities and high feed inputs. This applies, not only in intensive systems, but also in extensive pond culture where more needs to be known of basic primary productivity as a low cost energy input to offset high supplemented feed costs. Such information would benefit both Macrobrachium and penaeid pond culture work.

"It can be summarised that research and development interest in the U. K~ in shrimp cultivation is primarily concerned with exotic species under intensive culture conditions. This approach is due to climatic and economic reasons. At present the emphasis is on developing system design and improving growth and survival. None of the commercial groups working with M. rosenbergii report profitability to date. The present trend in crustacean culture research is now tending towards work with penaeid shrimp rather than Macrobrachium. "

51 APPENDIX 2· ATTENDEES AT THE ST. PETERSBURG WORKSHOP

ALLEN, Harold BURKHOLDER, Elvin National Marine Fisheries Service 820 Prospect Avenue Du val Building Hartford, Connecticut 9450 Gandy Boulevard St. Petersburg, Florida 33703 BUSH, James 813/893-3141 Academy of Marine Science 1230 North Ocean Way BEAUMARIAGE, Dale Palm Beach, Florida 33480 Marine Research Laboratory 305/842-0849 Fla. Dept. of Natural Resources 100 Eighth St., S. E. BYRD, I. B. (Buck) St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 National Marine Fisheries Service 813/896-8626 Duval Bldg., 9450 Gandy Blvd. St. Petersburg, Florida 33702 BENNETT, John 813/893-3161 Syntex Aquaculture Sciences Div. 3401 Hill view A venue CHIN, Ta Foo Palo Alto, California 94304 Department of Limnology 415/855-6227 Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 BIDDLE, Kirk S. E. Utilization Research Center COHLAN, Bernard F. National Marine Fisheries Service 2850 Moraga Drive University of Maryland Campus Los Angeles, California 90024 College Park, Maryland 20740 213/472-0482 301/344-4155 COSTELLO, Tom BINDER, A. Francis National Marine Fisheries Service Hibbard Engineers 75 Virginia Beach Drive 2637 Main Street Miami, Florida 35149 Niagara Falls, New York 14305 305/361-5761 716/282-1282 DOBKIN, Sheldon BLAYLOCK, Lynn G. Florida Atlantic University International Multifoods Co. Boca Raton, Florida 33432 P.O. Box 117 305/395-5100, Ex. 2706 Courtland, Minnesota 56021 517/276-2652

53 DUGGER, Durwood M. GOODWIN, Harold L. Aquaprawns, Inc. 6212 Verne Street P. O. Box AK Bethesda, Maryland 20034 Port Isabel, Texas 78578 301/229-3658 512/943-2501 GREENFIELD, John EBLE, Albert F. National Marine Fisheries Service Trenton State College Duval Bldg., 9450 Gandy Boulevard Department of Biology St. Petersburg, Florida 33702 Trenton, New Jersey 08625 813/893-3161 609/396-4011, Ex. 361 HAGOOD, Randy ERDMAN, Donald S. Caribe King Shrimp, Inc. Fisheries Laboratory Bo. Guaniquilla, Buzon Rural A603 Department of Agriculture Aguada~ Puerto Rico 00602 Apartado 3665 809/891-3738 Marina Station Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 HANSON, Joe A. Oceanic Foundation FUJIMURA, Takuji Makapuu Point Di vision of Fish & Game Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 Dept. Land & Natural Resources 808/259-7914 1179 Punchbowl Street Honolulu, Hawaii 96813 HEINEMAN, Peter 808/841-3723 Homarus, Inc. P. O. Box 415 GLUDE, John Purchase, New York 10577 National Marine Fisheries Service 914/946-8686 1700 Westlake Avenue North Seattle, Washington 98109 HEINEN, John M. 206/442-1789 P. O. Box 431853 South Miami, Florida 33143 GODFRIAUX, Bruce 305/271-5054 Research & Development Di vision Public Service Electric & Gas Co. HOFF, Frank 80 Park Place Neptunes Nurseries, Inc. Newark, New Jersey 07101 1601 3rd Street South 201/622-7000, Ex. 3906 St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 813/822-1696 GOODWIN, Elizabeth S. (Libby) 6212 Verne Street INGLE, Robert M. Bethesda, Maryland 20034 173 Avenue B 301/229-3658 Apalachicola, Florida 32320

------~~-- --- ~ IRVIN, Duncan N. MALECHA, Spencer R. Shrimp Culture Project Department of Genetics, School of" Ministry of Overseas Development Medicine, University of Hawaii ,, c/o British Embassy Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 P. O. Box 114 808/948--7802 Bahrain, Arabian Gulf MC SWEENY, Edward S. JOYCE, Edwin A. Manager, Aquaculture Sciences Department of Natural Resources Syntex Agribusiness, Inc. 202 Blount Street 3401 Hillview Avenue Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Palo Alto, California 94304 904/488-6058 415/855--6227

KENT, Ronald S. MIY AJIMA, Lester S. Ron's Fish Farm Aquaprawns, Inc. P. O. Box 958 P.O. Box AK Delray Beach, Florida 33444 Port Isabel, Texas 78578 512/943-2501 : ,,:, KERNS, O. E. "Bud" MOE, Martin Bumble Bee Seafoods Aqua Life Research 50 California Street 1000 3rd Street South San Francisco, California 94111 St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 I _ 415/986-3000, Ext. 206 MORGAN, Bruce H. KNIGHT, Allen W. Sr. Vice President Dept. of Water Science & Engineering AMFAC Foods, Inc. University of California, Davis P. O. Box 23564 Davis, California 95616 Portland, Oregon 97223 503/620-3720 LEVINTHAL, Cyrus Department of Biological Sciences MUL VIHILL, Michael P.

754 Shermerhorn Hall Aquaculture Products & Research, I Inc.

Columbia University P. O. Box 1303 II • New York, New York 10027 Homestead, Florida 33030 305/257--5101 LING, Shao-wen (S. W. Ling) 5805 S. W. 45 Terrace MUL VIHILL, Paul Miami, Florida 33155 Aquaculture Products & Research, ,Inc. 305/667-6927 P.O. Box 1303 Homestead, Florida 33030 MACGRATH, William 305/257--5101 & 248-4205 Ralston Purina Co. 900 Checkerboard Square St. Louis, Missouri 63188 314/982-3468

55 MYERS, Samuel P. ROE, Julia Department of Food Science Aquacon Hawaii Louisiana State University 898 East 6th Street Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 Englewood, Florida 33533 504/388-5206 SANDIFER, Paul A. NEAL, Richard A. Marine Res. Research Inst. Gal veston Laboratory P. O. Box 12559 National Marine Fisheries Service Charleston, South Carolina 29412 4700 A venue U 803/795-6350, Ex. 262 Galveston, Texas 77556 713/763-1211, Ex. 524 SELLEW, William W. Oceanic Institute NORFLEET, Phillip 28 Hermit Land Aquafarms Westport, Connecticut 06880 Glastonbury, Connecticut 203/226-1033

PARKER, John W. SERFLING, Steve Caribe King Shrimp, Inc. Solar Aquafarms Bo. Guani quill a, Buzon Rural A603 P. O. Box 109 Aguada, Puerto Rico 00602 Encinitas, California 92024 809/891-3738 714/436-6499

PRICE, Vincent A. SHANG, Hung C. Puerto Rico Nuclear Center Social Science Building College Station University of Hawaii Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 809/832-7912 808/948-8533

QUICK, Joseph SHERMAN, David Marine Research Laboratory Harrell International Florida Dept. of Natural Resources 2011 15th Street 100 Eighth Street, S. E. Vero Beach, Florida 32960 St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 813/896-8626 SHLESER, Robert Bodega Marine Laboratory REIMER, Rollin D. P. O. Box 247 Wildlife & Fisheries Sciences Bodega Bay, California 94923 Nagle Hall 210 707/875-3662 Texas A & M University College Station, Texas 77843 SHULL, James 713/272-8044 Arizona Feeds P. O. Box 5526 Tucson, Arizona 85703 602/887-2202

56 SMITH, Lincoln B. WILDM:.£\N, Robert Center for Wetland Resources Office of Sea Grant Louisiana State University Suite 620 ,i I Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 425 13th Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. 20006 SMITH, Theodore 1. J. 202/967-4562 Marine Resources Research Inst. 217 Ft. Johnson Road WILLIAMS, James Charleston, South Carolina 29412 Caribe ;:King Shrimp 803/795-6350, Ex. 249 Bo Guaniquilla, Buzon Rural A603 : .. Aguada, Puerto Rico 00602 SMITHERMAN, O'Neal Fisheries Department WILLIS, Scott Auburn University Marine Research Laboratory Auburn, Alabama 36830 Florida Dept. of Natural Resources .• 205/826-4786 100 Eighth Avenue, S. E. St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 STEVENSON, William H. 813/896-8626 National Marine Fisheries Service Duval Bldg., 9450 Gandy Blvd. WILSEY, Wallace C. St. Petersburg, Florida 33702 General Mills, Inc. 813/893-3141 9000 Plymouth A venue North Minneapolis, Minnesota 55427 STUART, Arch P. 612/540-4447 Aquaprawns, Inc. P. O. Box 1135 WYNKOOP, Raymond Marcus Hook, .Pennsylvania 19061 Sun Ventures, Inc. (Sunoco) 215/485-1121 P. O. Box 1135 Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania 19061' VAN OLST, Jack 215/484-1121 San Diego State University Department of Biology, Box 18 ZIELINSKI, Paul San Diego, California 92115 Dept. of Engineering Mechanics 714/452-2758 Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina 29631 VAN PATTEN, Eric M. 803/656-·3000 c/o Running K Farms Letona, Arkansas 72085 i .

WATTERS, Kenneth W. Radioecology Division Puerto Rico Nuclear Center College Station Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 809/832-7912

57 Other Persons with an Interest in Freshwater Prawn Culture

ANDREWS, James W. DRUMMOND, Billy R. Skidaway Institute of Oceanography Mariculture S. A. University of Georgia Apartado 5255 P. O. Box 13687 San Jose, Costa Rica Savannah, Georgia 31406 912/352-1631 FOSTER, Neal R. Department of Limnology BATES, Charles Academy of Natural Sciences American Maize Products Co. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103 113th St. & Indianapolis Blvd. Hammond, Indiana 46326 GRAJCER, Dov 2275 Sharon Road, Apt. 314 BISHOP, James M. Menlo Park, California 94025 P. O. Box 12559 415/854-4209 217 Fort Johnson Road Charleston, South Carolina 29412 GUARRAIA, Leonard Environmental Protection Agency BLAND, Charles L. East Power, Room 1043 Department of Biology 401 M Street, S. W. East Carolina University Washington, D. C. 20460 Green ville, North Carolina 27834 GUILLEVIC, Odile CAMPBELL, Keir Documentation Service Manor Trout Farm, Ltd. Guyo Marc'h Stubbs Walden Division Aliments du Betail Doncaster DN 6 9BU Talhou~t 56 - Saint NoIff Great Britain 56-Vannes, France

CARLBERG, James M. JOHNSON, S. Ken Aquafarms Texas Agricultural Extension Service 7847 Exchange Place College Station, Texas 77843 La Jolla, California 92037 KATO, Kenneth N. CHOUDHURY, P. C. (Mike) Pacific Aquaculture Corp. 46, Daisy Avenue P. O. Box 899 Kingston-6, Jamaica Kihei, Maui, Hawaii 96753 808/879-2724 DELVES-BROUGHTON, J. RHM Research Lihlited Lord Rank Research Center Lincoln Road High Wycombe, Bucks HP12 3QR Great Britain

58 KELLEY, George G. MULLEN, Kevin Paul Harrell International & Universidad del Valle Jacksonville University Depto. de Biologia 2011 15th Street AA 2i88 Vero Beach, Florida 32960 Cali (Valle) Colombia, S. A. 305/567-3203 NAKAMURA, Robert KNOX, John H. Department of Animal Science P. O. Box 3063 University of Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii 96822 j,-'I Clearwater Beach, Florida 33515 , ' 813/447-7392 NAKAMURA, Royden Southea~tern Massachusetts UniversIty MACON, A. Riley Office of Research North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747 Uni versity of South Carolina NASH, Colin E. Columbia, South Carolina 29208 The Oceanic Institute Makapuu Point MAXWELL, Alan Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 Box 4119 I' .. Lantana, Florida 33460 NEW, Michael B., Manager ,i ~ Kelvin Hughes Aquaculture Services" McCLARY, John 4 Beaufort Gardens 101 Old Ford Drive Marlow, Bucks, SL7 1EL, Camp Hill, Pennsylvania 17011 Great Britain

MEAD, Dana G. NILSON, Edward H. 21701 S.W. 147 Avenue Bodega Marine Laboratory Goulds, Florida 33170 Box 247 Bodega Bay, California 94923 MIRAVITE, Q. F. Director, General Affairs PENDLETON, Kirk P. Aquaculture Department Pitcairn" Inc. Southeast Asia Fisheries Jenkintown Plaza Development Center Jenkintown, P ennsy1 vania 19046 Suite 401 Kalayaan Building De La Rosa corner Salcedo Sts. .POPENOE, Hugh Makati, Philippines Center for Aquatic Sciences 2001 McCarty Hall MISTAKIDIS, Michael N. University of Florida Fishery Resources Officer Gains ville, Florida 32601 (Mariculture) Fi~hery Resources & Environmt. Div. RIORDAN, Pauline Food & Agriculture Organ., U.N. Groton Biolndustries Develop. Co. Via delle Terme di Caracalla, P. O. Box 517 00100, Rome Groton, Massachusetts 01450

59 ROBER TSON, Phillip B •. VAN OLST, Jon C. Department of Biology Department of Biology, Box 18 Lamar University San Diego State University P. O. Box 10037 San Diego, California 92115 Beaumont, Texas 77710 WALKER, A. SHAPIRO, Harriet RHM Research Ltd. San Diego State University Lord Rank Research Centre Department of Biology Lincoln Road San Diego, California 92115 High Wycombe BUCKS HP123QR Great Britain SINDERMANN, Carl J. Middle Atlantic Coastal Fisheries WEBBER, Harold National Marine Fisheries Service Groton BioIndustries Develop. Co. Sandy Hook, New Jersey 07732 P. O. Box 517 Groton, Massachusetts 01450 SMITHER, Robert R. Operation R&D WICKINS, J. F. Lexim Trading (USA) Inc. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries Suite 300 Transco Bldg. & Food Houston, Texas 77027 Fisheries Experiment Station 713/627-9650 Benarth Road Conway LL32 BUB STEENBERGEN, Frank Great Britain San Diego State University P.O. Box 397 Alpine, California 92001

60 APPENDIX 3

THE AQUACULTURE OF FRESHWATER PRAWNS (MACROBRACHIUM SPECIES)

Agenda for the Workshop held November 25 and 26, 1974, at the Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida

SPONSORS: The Oceanic Institute The National Sea Grant Program The Florida Department of Natural R,~lsources The National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office

WORKSHOP OBJECTIVES:

To define the state of the art in Macrobrachlum culture. To identify barriers to commercial production. To identify priorities for research, for the guidance of investigators and funding agencies.

GENERAL CHAffiMAN: Harold L. Goodwin

ANALYST Joe A. Hanson

REGISTRARS Libby Goodwin, Vi Stewart

HOST Dale Beaumariage and the staff of the FDNR Marine Research Laboratory

Monday, November 25

8:30 a. m. Introduction to the Workshop: H. Goodwin

8:45 a. m. Welcome: E. Joyce, Jr.

9:00 a. m. FROM BROOD STOCK TO JUVENILE SUPPLY

Review of species suitable for culture; brood stock; fecundity and survival; larvae raising. Discussion Leader: John Glude Discussants: Takuji Fujimura, Randy Hagood, O'Neal Smitherman

61 10:30 a. m. GENETICS AND SELECTIVE BREEDING

Potential for selective breeding; characteristics to be bred for; potential for hybridization. Discussion Leader: Robert Shleser Discussants: Sheldon Dobkin, Spencer Malecha

11:30 a. m. NUTRITION AND FEEDS

Nutritional requirements; commercially available feeds; rates; successes and failures. Discussion Leader: Eric Van Patten Discussants: William McGrath, Scott Willis, Robert Shleser

(Session broke for lunch, continued after lunch)

2:30 p. m. HEALTH AND DISEASE

Preventi ve medicine, what's needed for healthy prawns, diagnosed diseases and treatments, undiagnosed diseases. Discussion Leader: Takuji Fujimura Discussants: Joseph Quick, S. W. Ling

3:45 p. m. CULTURE SYSTEMS

Site selection, engineering, extensive vs. intensive; problems of scale; suitability of M. rosenbergii for polyculture; harvest ing problems and methods, includip.g culling, sequential cropping. Discussion Leader: Tom Costello Discussants: Paul Mulvihill, John Parker, Paul Zielinski, added comments by E. McSweeny

5:30 p. m. Adjourn.

In the evening, after proper attitude adjustment, the participants dined at the Edgewater Beach Motel and had the great pleasure of hearing Shao-wen Ling describe, with great humor and insight, his problems in getting control of the life cycle--especially larval survival--of the Malaysian prawn.

62 Tuesday, November 26

9:00a.m. CULTURE SYSTEMS, continued.

10:45 a. m. PROCESSING, HANDLING, AND M.ARKE TING

Fresh and frozen prawns; whole prawns or tails; shelf life and perishability; marketing problems. Discussion Leader: Kirk Biddle Discussant: John Bennett

12:00 Noon LUNCH

1:30 p.m. ECONOMICS OF PRAWN CULTURE

Capital costs per unit of scale; operating costs; buy or breed juveniles? A lobster economic model applied to prawns. Discussion Leader: Jack Greenfield Discussants: Durwood Dugger, Y. C. Shang, R. Shleser

3:15 p. m. SUMMARY AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES

Discussion Leader: H. Goodwin Discussants: To Costello, J. Glude, J. Hanson, Mo Mulvihill, R. Wildman

4:45 p.m. UNFINISHED BUSINESS

To continue prawn workshops? Answer: yes.

5:00 p. m. ADJOURN.

Most attendees accepted the invitation of the Marine Research Laboratory to visit the lab facilities, and all expressed high appreciation to the MRL staff and the Workshop conveners and sponsors.

63 APPENDIX 4

ORGANIZATIONS ACTIVE IN FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE AND RESEARCH

Authors' Note:

Information in this appendix was provided by the organizations themselv:es, and is therefore only as complete and accurate as the input received. Only that editing necessary for a reasonably consistent presentation format was perfor~ed.

No special attempt was made to include other than United States organizations because the Appendix reflects participation in the Workshop at St. . . Peters burg, which was limited to U. S. attendees (except for the timely presence in the U. S. of Duncan Irvin). However, when groups that did not attend heard about the Workshop and publication and volunteered information, it was included. ,.

If a U. S. organization is not included, it is because that organization did not provide information. Future workshops will (hopefully) include other U. S. and non-U. S. prawn culturists, and supplements tb this publication (hopefully) will be more complete.

Corrections or additions may be sent to the authors at the Oceanic Institute.

Many persons and organizations not included in this Appendix, and who did not attend the Workshop, are listed in the "additional addressees" of Appendix 2.

Commercial feeds producers are listed at the end of this Appendix.

65' ACADEMY OF MARINE SCIENCE, INC.

Principal: James Bush, Ph. D., President, oceanographer

Team: Robert L. Murray, Biologist Enrique Diaz, Biologist Luis Camell, Applications Engineer Robert E. Pt1aumer, Organic Chemist, Chemical Engineer Alfred Bush, Systems Engineer

Address: 1230 North Ocean Way, Palm Beach, Florida 33480

Facilities: Stuart, Florida: research laboratories Panama City, Panama: laboratory, hatchery, prototype ponds, both fresh and saltwater culture.

Interests: Macrobrachium carcinus - Began with locally trapped animals at Stuart, Florida, to determine feeding rates (10-15% body weight per day), mated mature wild animals and carried through second generation. Characterized larval stages and photographed defini tive changes by examination of populations. Determined salinity variation adaptability of species as well as food needs. Stages 1 & 2 feed on egg sac and not on external food supply.

Macrobrachium acanthurus - Similar feeding experiments on trapped wild specimens at both our Stuart, Florida, and Panama City, Panama, facilities.

Macrobrachium americanum - Specimens trapped in Panamanian fresh water. Berried females followed through hatch and larval stages. Species subjected to stress changes of salinity. Wild animals trapped at 10 parts salinity continue to do well at that salinity.

Macrobrachium rosenbergii - Shipping studies determined condi tions for very low mortality rates. Duplicated the experiments in breeding and matching of classic earlier experimentors. Devel oped algal strains for the tropical high temperature conditions for larval rearing in our Panamanian laboratory and hatchery.

66 ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, DEPARTMENT OF LIMNOLOGY

Principal: Neal R. Foster, Ph. D., Coordinator, Aquaculture Program; practical and theoretical significance of prawn behavior patterns, collation of information on biology and culture techniques

Team: Edward K. Jankowski, Aquacultural and Ichthyological Assistant Ta Foo Chin, Research Associates; Fresident, Chinese and Oriental Food Product and Research, Inc., Philadelphia, PA 19107 Jean Liang, Student Assistant

Address: Nineteenth and Parkway, Philadelphia, PA 19103

Facilities: Laboratories, Taxonomic Research Collection, and Library in downtown Philadelphia

Interests: Initiated in late fall, 1974, with the help and cooperation of Public Service Electric and Gas Company of New Jersey, the following. studies are being carried out: (1) Aquarium studies on prawn biology and development, especially species-typical feeding and. reproductive behavior patterns and p0ssible ontogenetic changes. therein; (2) Similar studies are being carried out on Palaemonetes pugio; (3) Preparation of a synopsis and bibliography on the biology and culture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii, based primar ily on information gathered at appropriate libraries in Philadelphia, Washington, D. C., and New York.

ANUENUE FISHERIES RESEARCH CENTER, DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME, HAWAII DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Principal: Takuji Fujimura, Chief; aquatic biologist

Team: Michael Fujimoto, Biologist Gary Kasaoka, Food Technologist Chisty Hansen, Technician Biologist Alan Rietow, Bio Technician Dean Otani, Biologist

Address: Division of Fish and Game, Department of Land and Natural Re sources, 1179 :t>unchbowl Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96813

67 Facilities: Anuenue Research Center, Sand Island, Honolulu. Also, coopera tive projects conducted with private pond owners.

Interests: Development of commercial prawn culture for the State of Hawaii. In addition, the Anuenue Center is an international' resource for prawn culturists.

The Hawaii Division of Fish and Game, Anuenue Laboratory, con ducts cooperative projects with prawn culturists in Hawaii, under agreements between the culturists and the Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Resources. Terms of the agreements are as follows:

"2. The Cooperator authorizes the State, its officers, em ployees and agents to enter into and upon the said body of water for the purpose of introducing and rearing prawns and conducting all observations necessary to collect physical and biological data required for the development of a commercial prawn culturing industry, including but not limited to the construction and instal lation of any equipment, machinery or devices of any nature approved by the Cooperator.

"3. The Cooperator shall comply to the best of his ability with all prawn cultural and pond management procedures recom mended or approved by the Director of the Division of Fish and Game or his designated representatives.

"4. The Cooperator shall maintain the said body of water to insure its utility, provide security for the prawns, service the recording thermometers, feed the prawns, sell the prawns as authorized by the Director of the Division of Fish and Game, and keep records of prawn culture and pond management activities, including but not limited to the recording of the number and weight of prawns harvested and sold and the proceeds realized from said sales. Such records shall be made available to the said Director or his designated representatives.

"5. The prawns introduced shall be and remain the property of the State and maybe removed by the State or may be trans ferred to the cooperator for the purpose of determining marketa bility, consumer acceptance and prices.

"6. No rent or any other charge shall be assessed against the State of Hawaii for the use of said body of water or for ser vices rendered by the Cooperator and in consideration thereof the

68 Cooperator shall retain all proceeds realized from the sale of the prawns. In addition, all prawns remaining at the termination of the agreement shall become the property of the Cooperator.

"8. The Cooperator shall not1ibe held responsible for any accidental loss, liability, claim or demand for damage, destruc tion or theft of the introduced prawn or other property, or per sonal injury, including but not limited to death arising out of any injury or damage caused by or resulting from the activities of the State pursuant to this agreement.

"9. The State shall not be held responsible for any damage or injury occasioned by the prawns, nor shall the State be required to exterminate the prawns that may become established in the s~id body of water should such extermination be deemed advisable by the Cooperator.

"10. This agreement shall remain in effect for a period of three (3) years from the effective date of the agreement. Should· it be deemed advisable to conclude the agreement prior to the expiration date or to extend the agreement beyond the expiratio~ date, such termination or extension :shall be made upon mutual consent of both parties." .

As of June, 1975, the following organizations and individuals were operating under such Cooperative Agreements:

Boy Akana Fisheries, Inc., Kalihiwai Bay, Kilauea, Kauai--a I-acre pond just beginning operations.

Eden Corporation, 55523 Moana Street, Laie, Hawaii 96762--1. 5 acres of ponds on Oahu just beginning operations.

Gentaro Ota, P. O. Box 561, Kaaawa,. Oahu 96730--the well-known Ota's Ponds of 1. 5 acres have been in operation since 1972. These ponds harvest approximately S, 000 pounds of prawns per· acre per year.

Pacific Aquaculture Corp., doing business as Fish Farms Hawaii, P. O. Box L, Laie, Hawaii· 96762--20 acres in production, of which 18 are M. rosenbergii and 2 are catfish. Harvest is approximately 850 pounds weekly beginning March 1975.

69 Roberts' Pond, owned and operated by Henry Roberts, P. O. Box 993, Kaneohe, Hawaii 96744--a 1/2-acre pond which expects to begin harvesting operations in June, 1975.

Keneze K. Wood, Lot 21, Kahua Ranch Road, Honouliule, Ewa, Oahu, Hawaii--2 acres of ponds; expect to begin harvesting in March, 1976.

AQUACULTURE PRODUCTS AND RESEARCH, INC. (APARI)

Principal: Capt. Paul Mulvihill, President

Team: Michael Mulvihill James Mulvihill

Address: P. O. Box 1303, Homestead, Florida 33030

Facilities: Homestead, Florida

Interests: Commercial prawn production. As early as 1966, our firm was corresponding with Dr. S. W. Ling about the culture of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. In early 1969 the first juveniles of M. rosenbergii were received by our firm from Mr. Takuji Fujimura. They were reared in aquaria in McLean, VA, using water from various sites in Florida. Their feeding, growth, etc. were observed and the results were very encouraging. In 1969 our firm relocated to Florida and obtained a non-profit govern ment contract to develop the techniques of rearing freshwater shrimp in a controlled environment. We worked with Mr. Tom Costello and his staff at Tropical Atlantic Biological Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries, Miami. In 1971 our firm relocated to Homestead, Florida, where we established a hatchery. In 1972 we harvested our first crop of shrimp from the original M. rosenbergii shipped to us by Mr. Takuji Fujimura. We were restricted capital wise and only had available several ponds which yielded several hundred pounds. This past year we have expanded to a series of ponds to test various parameters to determine the optimum for commercial production. Even though at the southern most point of Florida, we are faced with possible ambient air temperatures that will reach 32 oF. This might well be offset by water table temperatures. In one of our experiments in Kansas we used power plant effluents but the generators were shut down for eight hours and the entire crop was lost. This is one of our

70 primary problems being in the sub-tI1opics with an animal that cannot withstand temperatures below iGOoF. .If our systems prove, out this winter then there is a good likelihood for further expan sion. Our present status could never have been achieved without the assistance and guidance of Mr. Takuji Fujimura, Mr. Tom Costello and the staff of National Marine Fisheries, and many others, including Federal, State and County government agencie~.

AQUAPRAWNS, INC. (Subsidiary of Sun Oil Co.)

Principal: Arch P. Stuart, Ph. D., President

Team: Durwood M. Dugger, Senior Biologist Lester Miyajima, Biologist, Aubrey M. Kirby, Project Engineer Robert G. Stewart, Project'Marketing Specialist

Address: P. O. Box 1135, Marcus Hook, PA 19061 P. O. Box AK, Port Isabel, Texas 78578

Interests: Biological engineering, and marketing research leading to com- , mercial prawn culture. Larval and pond facilities (Texas locatiQn) •

. AUBURN UNIVERSITY

Principal: Donovan D. Moss, Ph. D., Professor of Aquaculture and Assistant Director, International Center for Aquaculture; warm-water aqua"'; culture and pond construction methods ..

Associate: O'Neal Smitherman, Ph. D., Associate Professor of Aquaculture; warm-water aquaculture and fish breeding.

Address: Auburn University Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquaculture, or International Center for Aquaculture, Auburn, Alabama 36830

Facilities: University facilities at Auburn. Field facilities in other countries; Auburn's International Center works primarily in assisting lesser developed nations to improve '! and expand their aquatic protein production. For details, see or write the Center.

71 Interests: Personnel of the International Center for Aquaculture, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, have been mainly concerned with Macrobrachium~. through the cooperative program with U. S. A. I. D., Department of State. This program involves imple mentation of aquacultural research, demonstration and training in developing countries. Country programs which include, or may include, the freshwater prawns are those of the Philippines ~. rosenbergii), Thailand ~. rosenbergii), Brazil (M,. carcinus), EI Salvador (M. carcinus and M. americanum) , Panama (M. ameri canum) , Colombia (M,. americanum and M. tenellum). Only limited work, with M. americanum from Panama, has been done thus far at Auburn University.

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, BODEGA LABORATORY

Principal: Robert Shleser, Ph. D., Project Director; Genetics, Microbiology

Team: Robert Yates, Culturist Dennis Hedgecock, Geneticist Keith Nelson, Geneticist Michael Edridge, Physiologist

Address: Bodega Laboratory Bodega Bay, California 94923

Facilities: Bodega Bay Laboratory

Interests: Genetics and physiology of Macrobrachium in intensive culture systems using solar heat; application of economic model for Homarus culture to other crustaceans.

CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, DAVIS

Principal: Allen W. Knight, Ph. D., Project Director, hydrobiology, physi ological ecology of aquatic organisms, environmental factors in growth of prawns.

Team: Mary Ann Simmons, research associate, physiological ecology (respiration and growth) David Armstrong, research assistant, respiration and energetics related to environmental factors

72 James Sharp, research assistant, respiration and energetics Richard Sitts, rese~rch assistant, dynamics of growth James Allen, Ph. D. candidate, empirical mathematical modeling of growth response to environmental factors Siamak Khorram, research assistant, growth dynamics and mathematical modelirig.

Address: University of California, Hydrobiologlcal Laboratory, Department Water Science and Engineering, Davis:, California 95616

Facilities: Hydrobiological Laboratory at the University

Interests: Through funding by the Davis Aquaculture Group, the hydrobio logical laboratory is interested in the culture and potential use of the prawn (Macrobrachiumrosenbergij) and other species for valley aquaculture in California. The primary objective is to obtain ancillary physiological ecologibal information that would assist those actually involved in mass culture. Specifically, we are presently developing suitable methodology and data base for simultaneously evaluating the relationship between un-ionized ammonia, pH, dissolved oxygen concentration and water tempera ture. Standard bioassay as well as modified methods for tolerance. and tOxicity studies, developed in our laboratory, are employed. Respiration and growth studies will also be conducted evaluating the combined effect of the above factdrs and initial evaluations are currently underway. We propose to utilize empirical models (multi variate techniques), some pres ently under development for the opossum shrimp, to examine the problem of prawn tolerance where several factors vary simultaneously. Ultimately the model would be utilized to describe the prawn's simultaneous tolerance and growth in response to numerous environmental factors.

CARIBE KING SHRIMP, INC.

PrinCipal: John W. Parker, President

Team: James Williams, pond manager R andy Hagood, biolOgist

Address: BO Guaniquilla, Buzon Rural A 603, ,Aguada, Puerto Rico 00602 "

Facilities: Hatchery and Laboratory at Aguada. Ponds (50 acres of which 36 in ponds) at Cabo ROjo, Route 103, Km 2.4.

73 Interests: Commercial prawn production. Caribe King Shrimp, Inc. began operations in Puerto Rico in December, 1971, with a two-year study and research program on the feasibility of breeding, hatch ing, and raising the prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii on a com mercial scale. By October, 1972, a laboratory and hatchery were constructed on 4 1/2 acres of company-owned oceanfront property in Aguada, Puerto Rico. The initial breeding stock was flown in at that time to begin a larval rearing study consistent with local natural conditions. In March, 1973, two one-half acre ponds were constructed for the study of pond management, feeding, water quality, etc. Each pond was stocked with 25, 000 juveniles from the hatchery. Harvesting of these pilot ponds began in August, 1973, with periodic harvests through August, 1974, yielding a total of approximately 30,000 shrimp of 8-14/lb (whole). In January, 1974, construction was begun on a commercialpond facility, with 115 acres acquired to construct the initial 36 one acre ponds, four 1/4-acre research ponds, and an on-site research laboratory with cement tanks. Stocking of these com mercial ponds began in June, 1974, together with the expansion of the hatchery facilities to accommodate up to approximately 400,000 juveniles per month. Harvesting of the commercial ponds began in January, 1975, marketing only to the local Puerto Rican market initially. It is anticipated that additional ponds and further hatchery expansion will begin in the second quarter of 1975 for approximately 100 one-acre ponds in operation by the end of that year.

CLEMSON UNIVERSITY, SOUTH CAROLINA (Associated in prawn research with the Marine Resources Research Institute)

Principal: Paul B. Zielinski, Ph. D., Fluid mechanics, aquacultural engi neering, methods of water treatment

Associate: Walter E. Castro, Ph. D., Fluid dynamics, aquacultural engineering

Address: College of Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29631

Facilities: See Marine Resources Research Institute Engineering design facilities, College of Engineering, Clemson University

74 Interests: Aquacultural engineering; facility design for all aquaculture needs; application of air-lift pumps and their performance; waste-water treatment methods applicable to aquaculture.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

Principal: Cyrus Levinthal, Ph. D.

Address: Department of Biological Sciences, 754; Shermerhorn Hall, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. 10027

Interests: We propose to study neuronal connectivity and electrophysiological properties on an identified set of neurons during development. The main theme of this study is to correlat.e function with structure and ultra-structure during development. We will use the three dimensional reconstruction technique developed by Levinthal together with conventional electrophysiological techniques. The neurons to be studied include those controlling the abdominal muscles of the prawn because substantial information on these neurons is already available. In addition, we will cause small neuronal lesions, during development, to study the effects on the connectivity and membrane and synaptic properties of identified neuron and synapses. We propose to f3tudy the physiological, behavioral and anatomical consequences produced by lesions in the nervous system at embryonic stages. In order to carry out '1'1 such an investigation, it is necessary: to be able to study the complete three-dimensional anatomy of interconnected set of neurons during embryogenesis together with detailed electro physiological mapping of the same set of neurons. Until now, it was impossible to carry out both these approaches on the same organism in the same set of neurons. Techniques developed by Levinthal and his collaborators made it possible to reconstruct the nervous system of small (1-2mm) invertebrates. However, in such small animals it is impossible (at least with the available techniques) to carry detailed electrophysiological analysis because the individual cells of "the adult animals are too small. On the other hand, electrophysiological functional mapping of neuronal circuits is available for several adult ganglia. (Aplysia, leech, snails, cockroach, crayfish, lobster, etc.) We propose to combine these two methods of analysis using the thoracic and mainly the abdominal ganglia of the prawn Macrobrachium. We have selected this animal in spite of the fact that no detailed electrophysiological studies are available for its ganglia. This

75 animal has been bred successfully and grown under laboratory conditions and has in the adult form large neurons in the thoracic and abdominal ganglia. The female forms very large numbers of embryos (approximately 50,000) which all develop at the same time. It should be relatively straightforward to apply the ana tomical reconstruction methods of Levinthal to the different embryonic stages. Since Macrobrachium will be bred in the laboratory of Drs. M. Susman and D. Cohen at the Hebrew University in the long run, they will probably develop the tech niques for dotting genetics with this organism. This organism seems to be suitable for the electrophysiological studies and the anatomical reconstruction methods, which are now being used in other animals but which cannot be related to each other.

FLORIDA ATLANTIC UNIVERSITY

Principal: Sheldon Dobkin, Ph. D., Chairman, Department of Biological Sciences; larval culture, selective breeding, hybridization

Team: Denise H. Holland; larval culture, hybridization Peggy VanArman; larval culture Norman Chwang; pond rearing, larval culture

Address: Boca Raton, Florida 33432

Facilities: Laboratory for larval rearing on main campus of university. Pond work at Exotic Fish Laboratory of the Florida Fish and Game Commission also located on the campus.

Interests: Selective breeding of M. acanthurus and M. rosenbergii. Attempts to hybridize and produce polyploidy in these species.

The conclusions that we have come to based upon almost two years of study (1973 & 1974) are as follows:

1. Macrobrachium acanthurus can be easily reared in the laboratory and will grow readily in pond culture.

2. Two generations of M. acanthurus can easily be grown in an eight-month south Florida growing season (late March to late November).

76 3. Selective breeding should allow the production of two com mercial crops of male M. acanthurus during the eight-month growing season in south Florida.

4. It would be valuable to determine the optimum sex ratios (those resulting in highest pond production) for M. acanthurUs and M. rosenbergii. Experimentation with such things as monosex cultures, production of Bterile females, etc., seems desirable.

5. The rearing of Macrobrachium carcinus does not appear feasible at this time.

6. Hybridization experiments ought to be continued and accelerated.

FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES, MARINE RESEARCH LABORATORY

Principal: Joseph A. Quick, Jr., Mariculture Pathology Section Supervisor

Team: Scott Willis, leader, Macrobrachium research; nutrition, post- larval culture George Henderson, Pathology subsection leader Mark E. Berrigan, research biologist Walter Havens, marine science technician Kenneth Halscott, marine science technician Jean Williams, histologist Rena Futch, histologist George Eliason, student assistant for prawn culture projects Danny Desilet, student assistant, pathology

Address: 100 Eighth Street, S. E., St. Petersburg, Florida 33701

Facilities: Marine Research Laboratory, address above.

Interests: Mass culture of freshwater prawns, including nutrition, densities, systems. Quick has special interest and competence in prawn diseases.

The Florida species, Macrobrachium acanthurus, M. carcinus, and M. ohione, were subjects of the early Macrobrachium culture work by the FDNR Marine Research Laboratory. That work

77 sought to establish the basic biological background of ecology, habitats, feeding, growth, diseases and behavior of adult brood stock. We then successfully laboratory adapted and spawned the adults and reared the larvae of each species. Macrobrachium rosenbergii was then obtained for comparative purposes. The extensive subsequent larval work concentrated on M. acanthurus, M. carcinus, and M. rosenbergii and included experimentation with larval system design, growth rates, physical requirements, food preferences, and environmental tolerance levels of each species. A two-phase larval rearing procedure was designed and developed to maximize survival, optimize food usage, and main tain proper water quality. In phase one, 100-300 liter conical tanks are stocked at 250 larvae per liter. Larvae remain in this system for 10-12 days before being transferred to 1, OOO-liter phase two tanks at a density of 25-30 liter. Average larval sur- vi val and time to metamorphosis has been 50% and 40 days for M. rosenbergii and 25% and 40 days for M. acanthurus. Results of recently completed cost analyses for 5 rearing trials of each species in this system were $3.56 and $13.48 per 1,000 lab-reared juveniles for M. rosenbergii and M. acanthurus, respectively. Current work is concentrating on the post-larval stages, particu larly the P. L. -1 to P. L. -60 period. Objectives are to optimize stocking density, survival, growth rate, and diet. Initial density studies are now complete. About 10 different diets which are currently commercially available will now be used in trials with both M. acanthurus and M. rosenbergii. The next phase of research will center upon pilot scale pond studies using M. acanthurus and M. rosenbergii. These species will be raised in large quantities in the Laboratory to two-month post-larvae and then stocked into prepared ponds. Growth, diet, system design, and harvest methods will be optimized and compared between both species.

GENERAL MILLS, INC.

Principal: Dr. Wallace C. Wilsey

Address: 9000 Plymouth A venue North, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55427

Facilities: Honduras

Interests: Commercial prawn production.

78 - -~ ----~ ------

HARRELL INTERNATIONAL

Principal: George G. Kelley, Ph. D.

Team: Thomas D. Ghent, culture systems Wade H. Harrell, hatchery facilities Ed T. Thurman, economics

Address: Harrell International, 40161 Carmichael Drive, Jacksonville, Florida 32207 and Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, Florida

Facilities: Hatchery and 11 3/4 acres of ponds at Jacksonville

Interests: Commercial prawn production. Now in full production, sales to gourmet restaurants in Jacksonville, Boston, and other cities.

HAWAII INSTITUTE OF MARINE BIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII

Principal: Dr. John A. Bardach, Director

Team: Dr. Spencer Malecha, Genetics; Assistant Professor of Genetics, Department of Genetics, University of Hawaii, 1960 East West Road, Honolulu Dr. George Balasz, Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Nutrition Dr. M. E. Bitterman, Behavior; Associate Investigator, Tropical Animal Aquaculture, 1993 East-West Road, Honolulu Dr. Robert Nakamura, Diseases; Associate Animal Scientist, 1825 Edmondson Road Henke 141, Honolulu Dr. Jaw-Kai Wang, Aquacultural Engineering; Department of Agricultural Engineering, 3131 Maile Way, AEI101, Honolulu Dr. Yung C. Shang, Economist, Social Science Building

Addresses: Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, P.O. Box 1346, Kaneohe, Hawaii 96744 University addresses are Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Facilities: Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Coconut Island, Kaneohe, Hawaii See Anuenue Laboratory and Pacific Aquaculture, Inc.

79 Interests: Genetics of size variation in M. rosenbergii, including (1) herita bility of post-metamorphosis size; (2) mass selection; (3) ecotypic differences; (4) effect of rearing density on size; (5) inducement of early maturation (Malecha).

Nutrition and feeds (Balasz); effects of behavior on culture (Bitterman); disease problems (Nakamura); engineering and analysis of systems (Wang); and economics (Shang).

LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY

Principal: Samuel P. Myers

Address: Department of Food Science, LSU, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803

Facilities: Department of Food Science

Interests: Nutrition and feed development for shrimp, prawns, and other crustaceans. Major attention is directed toward development of least-cost water stable dietary formulations using alginate-base extruded techniques. Diets have been provided to various prawn researchers for testing and evaluation, including feeding response and relative conversion efficiency. Formulations are based on a range of available commodities with emphasis on commercial production in specific grow-out areas. Special attention is given to use of shrimp and other fisheries byproducts as well as such proteinaceous sources as yeast protein. An ancillary cooperative program involves analyses of scale-up production of extruded formulations to produce tonnage quantities needed for large-scale operations. Comparative studies of prawn diets are being made with penaeid species and with other marine benthic invertebrates.

Flake formulations, using drum-drying techniques, have been developed with application as a supplement to Artemia in larval culture and as a neutral density complete diet for larval to early post-larval crustacea in raceway systems. Capsular products, including those containing complete diets as well as vitamin sup plements, are being developed and evaluated.

Correlated work in progress on microbiological/ chitinolytic processes in the physiology and dietary response of penaeids parallels the prawn investigations, especially in analyses of chitin ingestion and moulting frequency and efficiency.

80 NEPTUNE'S NURSERIES, INC.

Principal: Frank Hoff, Executive Vice President

Team: Tom Frakes, Biologist, larval rearing William Hoff, Technician, maintenance, food rearing Donna Hastie, Technician, Secretary Robert Presley, Technician, juvenile rearing, water chemistry

Address: 1601 Third Street South, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701

Facilities: St. Petersburg: 8,500 ft.2 floor space, closed system, Instant Ocean used. Capacity total 56,000 liters.

Interests: Commercial prawn production. Neptune's Nurseries, Inc., is at present primarily engaged in mass spawning and rearing of ma rine tropical fish. In the future we are considering culturing various animals, including Macrobrachium, to be sold as experi mental animals. We are also planning to sell prime brood stock Macrobrachium. Frank Hoff formerly was in charge of the Mari culture division of the Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory. During this period (3 1/2 years) we were engaged in various mass rearing experiments on M. rosenbergii, M. acanthurus, and M. carcinus.

OCEANIC INSTITUTE, HAWAII

Principal: Colin E. Nash, Ph. D.

Team: Ching-Ming Kuo, Ph.D., Reproductive physiology William D. Madden, Juvenile rearing Craig L. Paulsen, Larval feeds Kenneth J. Findeisen, Larval rearing

Address: Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795

Facilities: At Makapuu Point, Waimanalo: single 2,440 ft2 environmental laboratory subdivided into hatchery building, breeding laboratory and photoperiod control laboratory. Semiautomated Artemia pro duction unit. Rubber-lined ponds outdoors. Free-standing tanks. Support laboratories for food preparation, cultured organisms and disease studies. Interests: Intensification of juvenile-rearing systems.

81 PUBLIC SERVICE ELECTRIC AND GAS COMPANY OF NEW JERSEY

Principal: C. R. Guerra, Ph. D., Project Manager; aquacultural water and waste treatment, control of thermal discharges, physical chem istry of cooling water

Team: Bruce L. Godfriaux, Ph. D., co-principal investigator, thermal aquaculture management and environmental stresses on feeding and survival Alfred Eble, Ph. D., Trenton State College, University investigator and Coordinator of University Aquaculture work; shrimp reproduction, feeding, larval rearing, behavior, and bac terial studies A. Farmanfarmaian, Ph. D., Rutgers University, winter aqua culture crop, physiology, growth, environmental stresses and feed conversion P. Campbell, Ph~ D., Long Island Oyster Farms, co-investigator, aquaculture, plant design and business affairs, provision of post-larval prawns Nils Stolpe, Trenton State College, Manager Mercer Generator Station Aquaculture Facilities; design of aquaculture systems and equipment Mark Evans, Trenton State College, Assistant to Manager, Mercer Generating Station Aquaculture Facilities.

Address: Research and Development Division, Public Service Electric and Gas Company, 80 Park Place, Newark, New Jersey 07101 Trenton State College, Department of Biology, Trenton, New Jersey 08625

Facilities: Mercer Generating Station, Hamilton Township, south of Trenton

Interests: Development of commercial prawn culture in heated power plant effluent. Public Service Electric and Gas Company is in charge of the project and is providing a plant site, aquaculture facilities, and engineering support. The research is being jointly carried out by Trenton State College; Rutgers, The State University; Long Island Oyster Farms (LIOF) and PSE&G; with the research funds prOVided jointly by NSF (RANN) and PSE&G. The major objective of the project is the integration of thermal and food processing residuals into a system for commercial culture of freshwater shrimp.

82 Trout (Salmo gairdneri) is to be evaluated as the aquaculture species for winter grow-out.

The Mercer Aquaculture facilities are 75% complete (as of November, 1974) and there are currently 2,200 shrimp growing in one pond. From June 11; 1974, to September 15, 1974, the shrimp have grown in size from 0.3" to 3.5" in the Mercer Gen erating Station discharge water. LIOF will carry out market evaluation of some of the shrimp. Shrimp maintained as breeding stock have successfully spawned in the Mercer discharge water. We estimate that 170,000 larval shrimp have been produced so far at Mercer. These larvae have successfully metamorphosed and some are being grown further.

COMMERCIAL F1SHERIES LABORATORY, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO j , ~I ,I :, Principal: Jose A. Suarez Caabro, Ph. D., Supervisor, Coordinator of Public Law 88-309 programs, Puerto Hico Department of Agriculture

Team: Donald S. Erdman, Assistant Coordinator, Department of Agri culture Representative for prawn 'projects Kenneth W. Watters, Ph. D., Principal Investigator, Puerto Rico Nuclear Center, University of Puerto Rico Vincent A. Price, Research Associate:. Puerto Rico Nuclear Center, University of Puerto Rico; and University of Washington

Address: Commercial Fisheries Laboratory, Apartado 3665, Marina Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708

Puerto Rico Nuclear Center, College Station, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708