Histoire Des Techniques

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Histoire Des Techniques Histoire des techniques L’histoire des techniques est l’étude de toutes les réalisations techniques de l’Homme, de leur contexte d’apparition comme de leur impact sur la société. Les techniques répondent à des intentions, des projets et leur histoire est intimement liée à l’évolution des sociétés humaines comme à leurs besoins. Elle a toujours précédé, et cela jusqu’à peu (vers le milieu du XIX siècle), l’histoire des sciences. Ce n’est que très récemment, que les sciences ont permis de faire progresser les techniques. Histoire de l’Energie A l’origine, la notion d'énergie était liée à celle de force agissante capable de modifier un état préexistant- la force qui permet de déplacer un poids vers le haut, de bander un arc, de tirer une charrue. Elle ne pouvait provenir que du muscle humain ou animal. Les peuples de la mer furent les premiers à utiliser l'énergie du vent pour mouvoir les navires et, plus tard, les ailes des moulins à vent. Puis, l'homme découvrit la force de l'eau des rivières pour faire fonctionner les moulins à eau. Ce furent là ses principales sources d'énergie motrice jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe s. Parallèlement, l'homme utilisait le feu et le bois pour se chauffer, travailler les métaux, etc., sans se rendre compte qu'il s'agissait là aussi d'énergie. Ce n'est qu'au début du XVIIIe s, avec l'apparition de la machine à vapeur, qu'on découvrit expérimentalement (Joule le prouvera 150 ans plus tard) que la chaleur peut produire de la force motrice, dans des quantités plus abondantes et à des coûts moindres que le muscle, le vent ou les chutes d'eau, et cela, malgré les faibles rendements (moins de 10 %) de la conversion. Pendant la plus grande partie du XVIIIe s, où les principales machines étaient les pompes des mines, le bois resta très utilisé et la houille ne fut employée que dans les régions où elle était particulièrement accessible. Locomotive à vapeur "The Rocket" de Robert Stephenson" (1829) Cependant, vers la fin du siècle, le nombre croissant des machines à vapeur et le développement des industries métallurgiques mirent en évidence le rôle économique essentiel de la houille dont la disponibilité conditionna, pour une grande part, l'essor industriel (décuplement de la production de houille de 1850 à 1900). Histoire des Techniques Page 1 L'électricité d'origine thermique commença à jouer un rôle considérable à partir de 1875 avec l'invention de la dynamo, des moteurs industriels et de l'éclairage. La découverte du transformateur électrique (1881), qui élargit considérablement le rayon de distribution (lignes à haute tension), et celle de la turbine à vapeur, supérieure à la machine alternative pour la production d'électricité, ne firent que renforcer la demande en charbon, qui devint de plus en plus difficile à satisfaire. La dynamo d’Edison Deux autres formes d'énergie arrivèrent alors en renfort: le pétrole et l'hydroélectricité. Le pétrole, presque exclusivement nord-américain à l'origine (1860), d’abord utilisé principalement pour l'éclairage, étendit peu à peu son champ d'applications. Devenu, à partir de 1880, l'égal du charbon pour nombre d'applications industrielles et thermiques, il prit, avec l'avènement du moteur à explosion et de l'automobile, sa place de carburant par excellence, facile à stocker, à distribuer, à utiliser. A partir de 1900, son importance n'échappa à personne et il devint l'objet d'une prospection intense à l'échelle mondiale, accompagnée d'efforts politiques pour en contrôler la production. L'hydroélectricité, née vers la fin du XIXe s., fut favorisée par la diminution de l'offre en charbon et l'apparition, vers 1895, des turbines hydrauliques qui s'avéraient un excellent moyen d'entraînement des génératrices électriques, mais désavantagée par l'importance des investissements requis pour la construction des barrages et par le nombre limité de sites exploitables. La houille, le pétrole (auquel s'ajoutera son dérivé, le gaz naturel, après 1945) et l'hydroélectricité resteront les trois piliers du développement industriel jusqu'en 1960, d'où leur appellation d'énergies conventionnelles. Depuis 1973, date à laquelle le prix du pétrole est passé arbitrairement du simple au triple, les États dont l'économie dépend largement de cette ressource se sont préoccupés de trouver à court ou à moyen terme des énergies de substitution, d'où un regain d'intérêt pour certaines formes d'énergie chère, mais dont l'exploitation est susceptible de réduire la dépendance vis-à- vis des combustibles fossiles: énergies solaire, géothermique, thermique des océans, des végétaux, du vent, etc. D'une façon générale, elles peuvent jouer un rôle non négligeable d'appoint. Nature de l'énergie L'énergie permet de mettre en mouvement, d'arrêter ou de soulever un objet. Equivalent de la chaleur et de la masse en mouvement, l'énergie peut prendre de multiples formes (chimique, électrique, nucléaire, etc), toutes transformables les unes dans les autres selon certaines lois et avec des rendements plus ou moins élevés; certaines sont stockables. Origines de l'énergie En l'état actuel des connaissances et des progrès techniques, elles sont au nombre de quatre : a- Le rayonnement solaire, phénomène résultant de la fusion thermonucléaire, fournit la plus grande partie de l'énergie sur Terre; il se manifeste sous forme de lumière ou sous forme de chaleur. Dans le premier cas, il permet la photosynthèse des végétaux; la lumière solaire est donc responsable, en fin de processus, de la constitution de nos réserves d'énergie directement exploitables (énergie musculaire, énergies fossiles). Dans le second cas, sous forme thermique, la chaleur provenant du Soleil est à l'origine de l'énergie hydraulique (évaporation), de l'énergie éolienne (échauffement différentiel des masses d'air), de l'énergie Histoire des Techniques Page 2 thermique des océans (échauffement des eaux); de plus, elle contribue à maintenir la planète à température constante. b- Les matériaux fissiles et fertiles extraits de la Terre (uranium et thorium) constituent une source potentielle d'énergie (nucléaire) relativement bon marché, dont les réserves (en équivalent calorifique) sont du même ordre de grandeur que celles de la houille. c- L'énergie thermique du centre de la Terre (énergie géothermique) est peu exploitée, mais représente un potentiel virtuellement inépuisable. d- L'énergie cinétique de la Terre et de la Lune est à l'origine des marées qui sont susceptibles de fournir une énergie abondante (énergie marémotrice), à condition de trouver des moyens rentables d'exploitation. Histoire de l'informatique Quand on parle d’informatique on pense souvent ordinateur. Pourtant, l’informatique existe depuis plus longtemps. Il s’agit avant tout de méthode technique pour améliorer le calcul. Ensuite sont apparues les manipulations de données non calculatoires, et la recherche de l’Intelligence Artificielle. Avant les ordinateurs : les calculateurs Le mot calcul vient du latin calculus, qui signifie “petite pierre”. Les romains, comme beaucoup de peuples antiques, utilisaient couramment de petites pierres pour éviter de mémoriser les termes d’une addition. Cette pratique se perfectionna et donna naissance à la machine à calculer la plus ancienne connue : le boulier, ou abaque. Elle permet d’entrer les données d’une opération simple (telle l’addition) et même temps que l’opération est effectuée, et a été d’une utilisation presque universelle jusqu’à tout récemment. Boulier chinois avec représentation du nombre 37 925 Un boulier élémentaire est toujours utilisé au Baby-foot Histoire des Techniques Page 3 Le boulier requiert quand même de compter les boules à manipuler, et il est serait plus simple d’inscrire sur une machine les nombres décimaux directement et de récolter le résultat avec le moins de manipulations possible. Des machines mécaniques visant précisément ceci furent mises au point dès le XVIIe siècle. La plus connue est la pascaline, construite par Blaise Pascal à l’âge de 19 ans pour soulager son père, collecteur d’impôts, du fardeau des calculs répétitifs. La mécanisme de la pascaline était à base de roues dentées et la machine était peu fiable; de plus, elle ne pouvait qu’additionner et soustraire. Avant Pascal, en 1623, un Allemand du nom de Wilhelm Schickard (1592/1635) avait déjà construit une machine supérieure. Après Pascal, Leibniz transforma la pascaline en une machine capable de multiplier, mais toujours sans la fiabilité requise. Il fallu attendre le milieu de XIXe siècle avant qu’une machine, inspirée de celle de Leibniz et construite par le Français C.X. Thomas de Colmar (1785/1870), fonctionne véritablement et connaisse un succès commercial. Le XIXe siècle est marqué par les efforts de l’Anglais Charles Babbage (1792/1871), qui travailla de longues années, soutenu par le gouvernement anglais, à mettre au point des calculateurs mécaniques plus perfectionnés. Sa première machine, appelée, difference engine, devait être utilisée pour calculer les tables de logarithmes. Elle ne fut pas complétée par Babbage lui-même, mais par un Suédois, P.G. Scheutz (1785/1873). Si Babbage avait abandonné la construction du difference engine, c’est qu’il s’était tourné vers un projet plus ambitieux : une machine pouvant effectuer toutes les opérations arithmétiques, surnommée analytical engine. Malheureusement, cette machine, conçue sur papier, ne fut jamais construite. Babbage avait prévu de pouvoir la programmer, c’est-à-dire de lui faire lire sur des cartes perforées les instructions du calcul et les données à traiter. A la suite de Babbage, les inventeurs seront plus modestes et commercialiseront des machines effectuant correctement les opérations élémentaires. Des inventeurs, tels le Français Bollée et l’Américain Burroughs, connaîtront un certain succès. Vers 1890, l’Américain Herman Hollerith (1860/1929) construira en plusieurs exemplaires une machine à cartes perforées destinée à compiler les résultats du recensement des ´Etats-Unis.
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