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A Joint World Bank-QEODStudy

Migration in West Africa

Demographic Aspects

A Joint World Bank-OECD Study With the assistance of Bonnie Lou Newlon and contributions by Chike S. Okoye M. L. Srivastava N. K. Nair Eugene K. Campbell Kenneth Swindell Remy Clairin Michele Fieloux K. C. Zachariah and Julien Conde

Migration in West Africa

Demographic Aspects

Published for the World Bank Oxford University Press Oxford University Press NEW YORK OXFORD LONDON GLASGOW TORONTO MELBR(OURNEWELLINGTON HONG KONG TOKYO KUALA LUMPUR SINGAPORE JAKARTA DELHI BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI NAIROBI DAR ES SALAAM CAPE TOWN

© 1981 by the InternationalBank for Reconstructionand Development/ The WorldBank 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington,D.C. 20433 U.S.A. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording, or otherwise,without the prior permissionof Oxford UniversityPress. Manufactured in the United Statesof America.

The viewsand interpretationsin this book are the authors' and should not be attributed to the OECD or the World Bank, to their affiliatedorganizations, or to any individual acting in their behalf. The maps have been prepared for the convenienceof readers of this book;the denominationsused and the boundaries showndo not imply, on the part of the OECD, the World Bank, and their affiliates,any judgment on the legal status of any territory or any endorsementor acceptance of such boundaries.

Library of Congress Catalogingin PublicationData Zachariah,Kunniparampil Curien, 1924- Migration in West Arica. Bibliography:p. Includes index. 1. Migration,Internal-Africa, West. 2. Africa West-Emigration and immigration.3. Rural-urban migration-Africa, West. 1. Conde, Julien, joint author. 11. InternationalBank for Reconstruction and Development.111. Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development.IV. Title. HB2125.5.A3Z32 804.8'2' 0966 80-21352 ISBN 0-19-520186-8 ISBN 0-19-520187-6(pbk.) Contents

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

1. Introduction 3 The Scope and Purpose of the Study 3 The Region 4 International Migration 5 Internal Migration 8 Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics 9 National Effects of Migration 10

2. Demographic Background 15 Population Growth by Main Natural Regions 17 National Demographic Characteristics 18

3. International Migration 31 Historical Background 31 Recent Trends 34 Consequences of External Migration 44 Causes of Migration 53 Prospects for Migration in West Africa in the 1980s 53

4. Internal Migration 57 Migration between Natural Regions 58 Interregional Internal Migration 58 Principal Areas of In- and Out-migration 59 Characteristics of Internal Migrants 66

5. Rural-Urban Migration 79 Urban Population 80 Rural-Urban Migration: Regional Picture 81 Conclusions 96

Statistical Appendix 99

Bibliography 124

Index 127

v Figures, Maps, and Tables

Figures 1. Percentage of Non-Ivoriansamong Total Workersin the Ivory Coast by Age, Sex,and Urban or Rural Residence, 1975 48 2. Ghana: Age Distributionof In-Migrantsto and Out-Migrants from Accra and Volta Regions,1970 68 3. Age Distributionof In-Migrantsto Brong-AhafoRegion in Ghana, 1970, and Gagnoa Department in the Ivory Coast, 1975 69 4. Togo:Net Migration to Urban Areas by Age and Sex, 1960-70 92 Maps (appear in a section following page 18) 1. West Africa 2. Ghana: Population Density by Local Authorities,1970 3. Ivory Coast: Population Densityby Departments, 1975 4. Upper Volta:Population Density by Department, 1975 5. Liberia: Population Density by County, 1974 6. Togo:Population Density by Region, 1970 7. Senegal:Population Densityby Region, 1976 8. Sierra Leone: PopulationDensity by District, 1974 9. The Gambia: PopulationDensity by Local Government Area, 1973 10. Ivory Coast:Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Region of Enumeration, 1975 11. Ghana: Foreign Nationalsin Ghana by Country of Origin, 1970 12. Senegal:Lifetime Immigrants in 1971 of African Origin in Senegalby Region of Residence 13. West Africa: Principal External Migration Streams,circa 1975 14. Ghana: Lifetime Interregional Migration to Accra and BrongAhafo,1960 and 1970 15. Ivory Coast:Principal Inmigration Streamsto Abidjan Department, 1975 16. Ivory Coast:Principal Outmigration Streamsfrom Bouake Department, 1975 17. Ivory Coast:Departments in Which Lifetime Immigrants Are in Excessof Lifetime Inmigrants, 1975 18. Liberia: Net Lifetime Migration Streams, 1962 19. Liberia: Net Lifetime Migration Streams, 1974 20. Sierra Leone: MigrationStreams to the Western Area from the Districts, 1975 21. Ivory Coast:Total Population.and ProportionUrban by vi Major Regions,1975 Figures, Maps, and Tables vii 22. Ivory Coast: Departments Accordingto Average Distance Movedby Migrants, 1975 Tables 1. Recent Population Censusesin West Africa 4 2. Demographic Indicators of Nine West African Countries 15 3. Trends in DemographicIndicators, 1950-75 16 4. Population by Natural Region, 1975 17 5. Ghana: Population Growth, 1921-70 19 6. Ghana: RegionalDistribution of the Population, Percentage Increase, and Density, 1960-70 19 7. The Ivory Coast: PopulationGrowth, 1920-75 20 8. The Ivory Coast: PopulationGrowth by Region, 1965-75 21 9. Upper Volta:Population Growth, 1961-75 22 10. Upper Volta: Population Distributionand Density by Ethnic Region, 1960-75 23 11. Upper Volta:Resident Population Growth by Ethnic Region, 1960-75 24 12. Liberia: Spatial Distribution,Growth of Population, and Density, 1962-74 25 13. Togo:Resident Population, 1960 and 1970 26 14. Senegal:Total Populationby Region and Density, 1976 27 15. Sierra Leone: Total Population by AdministrativeDistrict, 1963 and 1974 28 16. The Gambia: Total Population as Reported in the Censuses, 1901-73 29 17. The Gambia: Population in Local Government Areas, 1963 and 1973 29 18. Upper Volta:Emigration by Year of Departure and Country of Destination,Retrospective Data Collectedin 1960-61 32 19. Ghana: TogoNationals Born and Enumerated in Ghana, 1905-60 33 20. Foreign Nationalsby Country of Residence,circa 1975 34 21. Foreign Nationalsby Country of Nationality and Country of Enumeration, circa 1975 35 22. Foreign-bornPersons by Country of Birth, circa 1975 36 23. The Ivory Coast: Percentageof Immigrants by Region, 1975 37 24. Ghana: Distributionof Foreign National Immigrants by Region of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970 39 25. Senegal:Lifetime African Immigrants by Region of Residence,1971 40 26. Foreign Nationalsby Country of Nationality,circa 1975 41 27. Principal External Migration Streams,circa 1975 44 28. Net Migration Estimate, circa 1965-75 45 29. Sex Ratiosof Lifetime Immigrants by Age, circa 1975 46 30. Sex Ratiosof Migrants and Total Populationof WorkingAge, circa 1975 46 31. Age Selectivityof Immigrants,circa 1975 47 32. Percentage of Lifetime Immigrants in Total Population by Age Group, circa 1975 48 33. Employment Ratios by MigrationStatus and Sex,Ghana and the Ivory Coast Combined,circa 1975 49 34. Employed Immigrants Aged Fifteen Years and Over by Country of Residenceand Sex,circa 1975 50 35. The Ivory Coast: Percentageof Non-Ivoriansby Occupation, Sex,and Rural or Urban Residence, 1975 51 viii Migration in West Africa

36. The Ivory Coast: Employed Ivorians and Non-Ivorians by Department, 1975 52 37. Workers' Remittances in Selected West African Countries, 1970-74 53 38. Demographic Consequences of External Migration in Selected West African Countries, 1975-85 54 39. Areal Units Used to Define Internal Migration 57 40. Migration between Savanna and Coastal Regions, circa 1975 58 41. Interregional Internal Lifetime Migration, circa 1975 59 42. Principal Areas of Lifetime In-migration and Out-migration 60 43. Internal and External Migration Rates by Groups of Countries, circa 1975 60 44. Ghana: Lifetime Interregional Migration, 1960 and 1970, and Net Period Migration, 1960-70 61 45. The Ivory Coast: Lifetime Internal and External Migration, 1975 62 46. Liberia: Net Gain from Exchange of Population (Both Sexes) between Counties, 1974 62 47. Senegal: Lifetime Interregional Migrants, 1960 and 1971, and Net Migration, 1960-71 63 48. Senegal: Rates of Interregional Period Migration, 1960-71 63 49. Upper Volta: Number and Percentage of Interdepartmental Lifetime Migrants, 1975 64 50. Upper Volta: Net Interdepartmental Exchange of Lifetime Migration, Both Sexes, 1975 64 51. Togo: Lifetime Migrants among the Resident Population by Region of Residence, 1970 65 52. Sierra Leone: Net Migration by Administrative Area, 1963-74 65 53. The Gambia: Lifetime Internal Migration, 1963 and 1973 66 54. Percentage Age Distribution of Migrants and Nonmigrants in Five West African Countries, circa 1975 67 55. Age Distribution of Intraregional and Interregional Migrants and Nonmigrants: Ghana, 1970, and the Ivory Coast, 1975 68 56. Sex Ratios of Migrants and Nonmigrants by Age: Ghana, 1970, and the Ivory Coast, 1975 69 57. Upper Volta: Proportion of Single Male and Female Migrants by Age and Type of Migrant, 1975 70 58. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Migrants and Nonmigrants, 1960 and 1970 71 59. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Migrants and Nonmigrants by Urban or Rural Birthplace, 1960 71 60. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Adult Migrants and Nonmigrants by Region of Birth, 1960 72 61. Ghana: Educational Attainment of Male Migrants and Nonmigrants by Duration of Residence and Rural or Urban Origin and Destination, 1960 72 62. Togo: Percentage Distribution of the Resident Population Aged Twelve Years and Over by Sex, Education, and Migration Status, 1970 73 63. Togo: Percentage Distribution of the Resident Population Aged Twelve Years and Over in Lome Commune by Sex, Educational Level, and Migration Status, 1970 74 64. Internal Migrant Workers Aged Fifteen Years and Over by Country and Sex, circa 1975 75 Figures, Maps, and Tables ix

65. Employed Persons Aged Fifteen Years and Over by Migration Status, circa 1975 75 66. Ghana: Percentage of Migrants and Nonmigrants in Nonagricultural Sectors, 1960 and 1970 76 67. Ghana: Percentage Distribution of Migrants and Nonmigrants by Major Industrial Group, 1960 and 1970 76 68. Togo: Percentage Distribution of the Resident Population Aged Twelve Years and Over by Sex, Occupation, and Migration Status, 1970 77 69. Proportion of Urban Population in Africa by Region, 1975 79 70. Urban Population by National Definition, West Africa, circa 1975 79 71. Population of Cities of 100,000 or More in West Africa, circa 1975 80 72. Distribution of Urban Localities by Population Size, circa 1975 81 73. Annual Growth Rate of Urban Population and Total Population, Most Recent Intercensal Period, circa 1965-75 81 74. Net Rural-Urban Migration, Intercensal Period, circa 1965-75 82 75. Urban Growth by Components, Varied Periods, 1960-76 82 76. Ghana: Urban Localities and Urban Population, 1948, 1960, and 1970 83 77. Ghana: Adult Lifetime Migrants by Rural or Urban Origin and Destination, 1960 and 1970 83 78. Ghana: Net Migration to Urban Areas by Region Compared with Net Migration between Regions, 1960-70 84 79. Ghana: Net Migration to Urban Areas by Age, 1960-70 85 80. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Adult Migrants and Nonmigrants by Urban or Rural Birthplace and Place of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970 86 81. Ghana: Percentage Distribution of Migrants and Nonmigrants by Major Occupational Category, 1960 87 82. Ivory Coast: Composition of Urban and Rural Growth, 1965-75 88 83. The Ivory Coast: Percentage of Immigrants and Internal Migrants in Rural and Urban Areas by Department of Enumeration, 1975 89 84. The Ivory Coast: Percentage of In-migrants to Abidjan Ville and Bouake Ville by Department of Origin, 1975 90 85. Senegal: Lifetime Migration to Urban, Semi-urban, and Rural Areas, 1971 91 86. Togo: Net Migration to Communes, 1960-70 91 87. Upper Volta: Percentage Distribution of Urban Population by Department and Place of Birth, 1975 94 88. Upper Volta: The Composition of Growth of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, 1960-75 95 89. The Gambia: Population of Banjul, 1901-73 96 I Preface

Migrationpatterns acrossand within national boundaries affect the distribution of resources-especially human capital. When, as in West Africa, there is a large number of people involved, the economic and social effects of migration are significantfor the developmentof both the countriesof origin and the countries of destination. Data from the 1960 and 1970 series of censusesand surveys in West Africaindicate the magnitude of the flow. From 1965to 1975six countries (the Ivory Coast,Senegal, Sierra Leone,Togo, Liberia, and the Gambia)had a net gain of 1.3 million people from migration alone, while three countries (Upper Volta, Ghana, and Mali) experienceda net lossof 1.2 million. About4.4 million people migrated within their respective countries. For both international and internal movements, the direction of the flow-from the interior toward the coast and from rural to urban areas-affects the regional development of the individual countries and contributesto the problems of urban growth. For these reasons the World Bank and the Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development(OECD) agreed in 1975 to sponsora research project to investigateregional migration patterns and trends in West Africa. It was the first such study ever attempted in this area, where migration is of great importance to national development. The project was originallydesigned as an ambitious two-part study. The first part was to deal with the demographicdimensions and characteristicsof migration, and the second part was to lookat the causesand consequencesof migration in three countriesin West Africa-namely, Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and Upper Volta.The demographic aspect was to be studied from data existingat that time and from populationcensuses that were soon to be available.The analytical part was to be based on data espeeially collected for the purpose through sample surveys in selected eco-regionsin the three countries.' Plans for these sample surveyswere abandoned,however, because of disagreementon the arrangements with potential collaboratingorganizations in the region.The proposalto go ahead with the demographicelement of the project was approved by the WorldBank's Research Committee in 1975, and the OECD agreed to provide the part-time services of a francophone demographer. Within a few weeks the study was initiated with analysis of the census data for Ghana, but the project was pro- longed for two and a half years because two of the principal countries,the Ivorv Coast and Upper Volta, took their first census in 1975,and these data were not available until May 1977. Separate reports were prepared under this project for each of the nine countries covered. Each report contains sectionson the national demographicback- ground, international migration, rural-urban and interregional migration, and the socioeconomiccharacteristics of the migrants in the specificcountry. These

1. An eco-regionis a geographicallylimited area with a commonsystem of economicproduction or base of natural resources,or both; that is, with a shared economicand ecologicalbase. Xi xii Migration in West Africa reports are available in the series of World Bank Staff Working Papers.2 The present volume is based largely on the data contained in the country-specific reports and summarizes their findings. This first study of the distribution of population in the region as a whole is essentially descriptive of the demographic aspects of migration there. It discusses the volume and direction of external and internal migration in the selected countries and presents the socioeconomic characteristics of migrants and nonmigrants that are apparent from the available data. Although there is some attempt to point out how recent migratory flows represent changes from historical trends and reflect current patterns of economic opportunity and political stability, the purpose of this study is not to analyze the causes and consequences of migration, and any statement here on these issues is incidental to the primary concern. The book does, however, provide a necessary base for further research into the underlying reasons for migration and its social and economic effects. It is hoped that the findings will also be an asset to researchers and planners of economic and social policy in the countries considered.

2. World Bank, Development Economics Department, Population and Human Resources Division, Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa, vol. 1, The English-Speaking Countries (Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Gambia), World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 414; vol. 2, The French- Speaking Countries (the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Senegal, and Togo), World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 415 (Washington, D.C., 1980). Acknowledgments

Many people and institutions have contributed to the fulfillment of this study. The Ivory Coast Department of Statistics, Ministry of Finance; the Togo Depart- ment of Statistics; the Liberia Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs; the Gambia Central Statistics Division, Ministry of Economic Planning and Indus- trial Development; and Georges Sanogoh, director of the Upper Volta Service de la Statistique et de la Mecanographie, provided us with unpublished results from their latest censuses. In addition, E. A. Colecraft, head of the Demographic and Social Statistics Division, Ghana, Central Bureau of Statistics, and B. G. Garbrah, research fellow at the Regional Institute of Population Studies, Legon, gave us tabulations of data from the two most recent censuses in Ghana. Needless to say, this study would not have been possible without these data and the generosity and interest of the governments of the countries of West Africa. The resident representative of the World Bank in Abidjan, the Ivory Coast, Paul Geli, was most helpful in arranging for our meetings with the Ivory Coast Ministry of Finance, so that we could explain our interest in obtaining data. Similarly, L. Maaroufi, the resident representative of the Bank in Ouagadougou, Upper Volta, at the time we began our study, coordinated our receipt of data from that government's statistical office. This assistance helped us greatly in planning and carrying out the research. Many researchers worked on the data of specific countries, writing reports from which our regional study was developed. These include Chike S. Okoye (on Sierra Leone) and Eugene K. Campbell (Western Area, Sierra Leone); M. L. Srivastava (on Liberia); Michele Fieloux (Mali); N. K. Nair (on Senegal, Togo, and Ghana); and Kenneth Swindell (on the Gambian migrant farmers). Remy Clairin kindly provided historical background on migration in the region. Readers in the World Bank and other institutions shared with us their expertise on the countries we studied, giving us their insightful criticisms and suggestions for improvement of the manuscript. These have minimized our errors and added a depth to our findings and conclusions that we could not have achieved otherwise. Among the Bank staff, we would like to thank Johan de Leede, Althea Hill, Michael Lav, David Bovet, and Dean Jamison, in particular. R. Mansell Prothero of the University of Liverpool, Department of Geography; K. T. de Graft-Johnson, deputy chief, Statistics Division, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa; and N. 0. Addo of the University of Ghana, were most kind in giving their time and knowledge in this regard. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD),the Government of Upper Volta, and the World Bank jointly sponsored a seminar in Ouagadougou on the findings of our research. Its eighty-three participants represented statistical offices and research institutes in the region, as well as concerned international organizations. The criticisms and comments of the participants on our research provided many ideas for improving our analyses, especially the interpretation of our findings, for which we are most grateful. xiii xiv Migration in West Africa Our warmest thanks are offered to the government of Upper Volta for their cosponsorshipof the migationseminar in West Africa. The many kindnessesof the people and officialsof that country shown toward the participants were largely responsiblefor the successof the conference. Florent Agueh,the World Bank resident representative in Ouagadougou,was most generous in providing the servicesof his officeand staff to thoseof us attending as representativesof the Bank, We are personallygrateful for these kindnesses.In addition, his participation in the conferencewas most welcome for he underscored the World Bank's interest in present and future research on the topic. Nancy Birdsall,Smithsonian Interdisciplinary Population Project, and Robert Lucas,Economics Department, BostonUniversity, provided knowledgeable assistance in the preparation of the research proposal.We are very appreciative of their efforts and interest. We also wish to thank MichaelOwoeye and James F. Kaye for providing research assistanceon the Liberian data. Bonnie Newlon providedresearch and editorialassistance for the regionaland nine country reports prepared under this researchproject. She participated in the seminar and revised the manuscript on the basis of the commentsreceived there, as well as thosefrom other readers.We are extremely thankful for her substantive and editorial contributions. The administrative staff of the World Bank have given us inestimable assistance throughout the project. We would particularly like to thank Ulrich P. Boegli, Louis J. Valenti, and Pilar Garcia for producing the maps. Typography for the book was by Joseph F. Malloy, V. Clare Warren, and M. Jean Seleno. Raphael Blow prepared the figures; and design and productionwas handled by Joyce C. Eisen,and supervisedby Brian J. Svikhartand Elizabeth Dvorscak.Jane H. Carroll edited the final manuscript for publication. Subathra Thavamoney provided secretarial assistance,as the many drafts of the country and regional reports were produced. Her enthusiasmand attention to detail were an asset to our research. We are deeply grateful to Timothy King, chief of the Population and Human ResourcesDivision, Development Economics Department, for his personalinitia- tive, interest, and concern in presenting our project proposal to the Research Committee of the WorldBank for funding, as well as his help and encouragement throughout. To the many who have contributed, our sincere thanks. We alone, of course, are responsiblefor any errors contained herein.

K. C. Zachariah and Julien Conde Migration in West Africa

Demographic Aspects I CHAPTER 1 Introduction

West Africa is one of the few regions of the world where relatively large-scale free movement of people across international boundaries still takes place. Where once movement was compulsory because of wars, the slave trade in the precolo- nial period, and forced labor during the early colonial period, it has become, in recent years, a free migration of individuals and families as part of an effort to better their living conditions. The number of people involved in these movements is relatively large, and their economic and social consequences are substantial. Around 1975, there were 2.8 million foreign nationals in the nine countries of West Africa included in this study, constituting 7 percent of the total population. Another 4.4 million people were internal migrants in these countries. In the Ivory Coast, 30 percent of the male population aged fifteen to sixty-four years were foreign nationals, 24 percent were interdepartmental internal migrants, 11 percent were intradepartmental migrants, and only 35 percent were living in the localities in which they were born. In two of the countries, migration in recent periods was numerically larger than natural increase. The economic impact of this movement is most evident from the size of the migrant labor force in the destination countries and the amount of migrant workers' remittances sent to their countries of origin. About 1.3 million out of about 12 million workers in the region were immigrants; 2.1 million were internal migrants. External remittances during 1970-74 from the nine countries were US$709 million, an annual average of US$177 million that represents 7.4 percent of the average annual export earnings of these countries. Over the years, the workers' remittances have increased considerably. During 1967-69 the average remittance was only US$81 million a year or less than half the average for the following four years.

The Scope and Purpose Nine countries were selected for inclusion in this study, four anglophone coun- of the Study tries-Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Gambia-and five francophone countries-the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Senegal, Mali, and Togo. The most populous country in the region, Nigeria, was excluded because of the controversy regarding its recent census data, particularly those concerning its total population and geographic distribution. Niger, Benin, Guinea, and Guinea Bissau are excluded mainly because of the lack of recent data and the unavailability of schol- ars familiar with the migration situation in these countries. Nevertheless, a great deal of information on emigration from Guinea is presented. Until the early 1970s statistical information on migration in West African countries came mainly from sample surveys, typically encompassing selected regions of countries that were known to be affected by heavy emigration or immigration. Most countries have now conducted population censuses that collected information on migration, both internal and external. Table 1 gives the year of enumeration of all the recent censuses of the countries included in this study, and the type of migration questions asked. Although many of the tabulations from these censuses have been published, most have not, notably those from 4 Migration in West Africa

Table 1. Recent PopulationCensuses in West Africa

Yearof census Questionsrelated to migration Country enumeration in the census

Gambia 1973, Nationality,place of birth 1963 (countryor districtwithin the Gambia) Ghana 1970, Nationality,place of birth 1960 (countryor region within Ghana) IvoryCoast 1975 Nationality,place of birth (countryor district within Ivory Coast) Liberia 1974 Nationality,place of birth (countryor countywithin Liberia) 1962 Nationality,place of birth (countryor district,city, or townwithin Liberia) Mali 1976 Nationality,place of birth (regionor cercle[administrative unit]within Mali) Senegal 1976, Nationality,place of birth 1970,a (countryor regionwithin 1960a Senegal) SierraLeone 1974, Nationality,place of birth 1963 (districtand chiefdomwithin SierraLeone) Togo 1970 Country of birth, born in the sameregion or anotherregion withinTogo (region of birth in Togo not specified) UpperVolta 1975 Placeof birth (countryor de- partmentwithin Upper Volta)

a. Nationalsample surveys. the 1976 censuses of Senegal and Mali. This study is based mainly on the published and unpublished results of the 1970 series of population censuses in the selected West African countries. For several countries in the region, the recent census is also the first one, and thus demographic data at a national level is available for the first time. One of the objectives of this study, therefore, is to describe very briefly some of the demographic features of the region. The principal objective, however, is to analyze the new census data concerning migration, compare national and regional data, and reinterpret the migration data collected in earlier surveys using the emerging national and regional demographic framework. The census and survey data are used to derive estimates of migration between countries of the West African region and within them, from one region to another, and from rural to urban areas, and to analyze the socioeconomic characteristics of the migrants. Although the causes and consequences of migration in the region are sometimes suggested, it is difficult to draw any conclusions from these limited descriptive data, and a definitive analysis of these issues is not the purpose of this book.

The nine West African countries included in the study had a total population The Region of about 40 million in 1975. They vary in size and growth rate, but are fairly homogeneous with respect to fertility rates, mortality rates, and the rate of Introduction 5

natural increase. The total area of each country varies from 11,300 square kilometers in the Gambia to 1,240,000 square kilometers in Mali. Ghana has the largest population with 10.8 million in 1978, and the Gambia the smallest with 0.6 million people. The range of the growth rates was from 1.7 percent in Upper Volta to 6.0 percent in the Ivory Coast. These differences are caused by migration; the rate of natural increase varied in a narrow range (2.0 to 3.0 percent). The birth rate was quite high everywhere at about 49 per thousand population, and the death rate was moderate, averaging 26 in the interior countries and 22 in the coastal countries. The nine countries fall in two natural regions, the savanna in the interior, and the forest on the coast. Of the total of 40 million people, 15 million were living in the savanna and the balance of 25 million were in the coastal forest region. The rate of population growth in the savanna was 1.7 percent, only half that in the forest region (3.4 percent). The difference is explained mostly by migration between the regions; natural increase may account for a maximum difference of 0.4 percentage points. The region is more urbanized than East Africa, but less urbanized than other regions of Africa. The proportion of urban population varies from about one third in Ghana, Senegal, the Ivory Coast, and the Gambia to one-sixteenth in Upper Volta. There is no city with more than a million people, but there are fourteen cities with an estimated population of 100,000 or more. Altogether, 314 towns had a population exceeding 5,000, of which 135 were in Ghana and 96 in the Ivory Coast. The total urban population in 1975 was estimated at 8.9 million, growing at about 514,000 persons or 5.8 percent a year. These countries are as heterogeneous with respect to economic growth as they are with respect to population growth. In 1973 the highest gross national product (GNP) per capita (US$380) and the highest population growth were in the Ivory Coast, while the lowest GNP per capita (US$70) and the lowest population growth were in Upper Volta. The Ivory Coast, Liberia, Ghana, and Senegal are relatively rich, with a GNP per capita of US$280-US$380; Upper Volta and Mali are the poorest. The GNP per capita in the remaining countries in 1973 fell between US$130 and US$180. Recent economic growth rates show even sharper differences among these countries. Togo had the highest annual growth rate of per capita GNP (4.4 percent during 1960-73), and Senegal had the lowest (-1.8 percent). Togo, the Gambia, the Ivory Coast, and Liberia headed the list with rates ranging between 2.2 and 4.4 percent. Senegal, Upper Volta, and Ghana were at the bottom of the list with no growth or negative growth rates. Mali and Sierra Leone fell in between with growth rates of 1.0 and 1.6 percent respectively. The economic differences between countries largely explain the migration pattern between them.

International Migration The volume of international migration in the region has been quite high in recent years, as measured in several ways. The total number of foreign nationals living in these countries was 2.8 million around 1975, about 7 percent of the total population of the nine countries. This measure gives an upper limit of the demographic consequences of external migration, because it includes not only persons who have actually moved from one country to another at some time in their lives, but also children born to them in their country of adoption. The number who have ever moved (lifetime external migration) from one country to another is 2.2 million or 5.6 percent of the total population. Even this figure does not satisfacto- rily describe the extent of external migration in the region. Among lifetime migrants the period of migration is unknown and could have been anytime since birth. Data on yearly migration between these countries are simply not available. The best available indicator of current migration is net migration figures for the intercensal periods. For the period around 1965 to 1975, three countries together had a net loss of 1.15 million migrants and the other six countries had a net gain 6 Migration in West Africa of 1.27 million migrants. The difference of 120,000 is the net immigration to these nine countries from other parts of the world. Historically, the principal recipients of migration were Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Ghana started attracting immigrants very early in the century. Togo nationals living in Ghana during 1925-29 are estimated to have numbered 75,000, reaching a peak of 280,000 around 1960. In 1969 Ghana expelled a large number of aliens under the Alien Compliance Order, and by 1970 the number of Togo nationals had declined to 245,000.1 During 1960-70 there was a net emigration (return migration) of 83,000 persons from Ghana to Togo, and for the first time in this century the migration tide between the two countries turned in favor of Togo. Upper Volta was the second major exporter of emigrant labor to Ghana. In 1928 British sources in Ghana estimated that 60,000 Upper Volta nationals entered Ghana. An estimate for 1934 was 34,000-a decline caused by the world- wide economic depression and its repercussions on cocoa prices. By 1960 the number of Upper Volta nationals in Ghana had increased to 195,000, but as with Togo nationals, the number decreased after 1960 and reached 159,000 in 1970. There was probably an emigration of about 64,000 Upper Volta nationals from Ghana during that decade. Other countries that sent migrants to Ghana are Nigeria, the Ivory Coast, and Mali, but their individual contributions were not very large. Nigeria sent the most (192,000 in 1960), but as a result of the Alien Compliance Order the number decreased to 56,000 in 1970, the largest decline for any migrant group. Net emigration of Nigerian nationals from Ghana during 1960-70 was about 133,000. In the same decade, for the first time in this century, Ghana experienced net emigration. The net lossto all countries together is estimated to be about 400,000, principally foreign nationals returning to their place of origin. The Ghanaians were, and still are, nonmigratory; very few have migrated to other countries in the region for economic reasons, though some live in neighboring countries for family reasons, such as marriage to a foreign national. Since 1960 the Ivory Coast has replaced Ghana as the principal recipient of immigration in the region. In 1975 there were 1.43 million foreign nationals in the country, of which 726,000 or nearly half were Upper Volta nationals, 349,000 were Mali nationals, and 106,000 were Guineans. Unlike the situation in Ghana, the migration trend has not reversed in the Ivory Coast, and the number of immigrants continues to increase. In the early years of the century, migration to the Ivory Coast was not voluntary, but compulsory, and most migrants came from Upper Volta. In 1936 the plantations in the Ivory Coast employed about 20,000 migrant workers from Upper Volta. Though forced labor was formally abolished during the latter half of the 1930s, it was reintroduced during World War II. From 1940 to 1944 about 277,000 migrants entered the Ivory Coast from Upper Volta, of whom 171,000 were forced laborers. Between 1952 and 1959 about 163,000 Upper Volta laborers were recruited for work in the Ivory Coast. By 1965 the number of Upper Volta nationals living in the Ivory Coast increased to between 300,000 and 500,000. About 1.054 million foreign-born persons were living in the Ivory Coast in 1975, indicating that about 372,000 foreign nationals had been born there. In the past, migration to the Ivory Coast was temporary; migrants came in for one or more years, returned to their native land, and then came back again sometime later. Such migrations continue to take place, but the large number of foreign nationals born in the Ivory Coast and the increasing proportion of females and

1. The Alien Compliance Order was issued in November 1969 in an effort to stimulate the employment of Ghana's nationals. All foreign workers were required to obtain a valid residence permit or to leave the country within two weeks of the publication of the order. Introduction 7 other dependents among the migrants indicate that they are staying for longer periods and that more and more of them are settling down permanently in the host country. Senegal is the only other country with numerically significant immigration. In 1975 it had about 355,000 foreign nationals, nearly half from across its southern borders (Guinea and Guinea Bissau); 46,000 from the Gambia, which is surrounded on all sides by Senegalese territory; and 29,000 from Mali. The Guineans are refugees who left their country for political reasons, and the duration of their stay is therefore uncertain. Those from the Gambia are mainly temporary migrants who move back and forth between the two countries fairly frequently. A large number of Senegalese nationals are also in the Gambia. Many are "Strange Farmers," rural migrants from the Gambia, Senegal, Mali, and Guinea who have been coming into the Senegambian groundnut basin to cultivate groundnuts annually from April to December since the beginning of the nineteenth century when this crop was first exported.2 The principal country of emigration has been and still is Upper Volta. In the beginning of the century Upper Volta was a fairly rich agricultural country, but it is now the poorest of the nine countries. Over the years, several thousand Upper Volta workers were taken out of the country to work on plantations and in construction in the Ivory Coast and Mali, and several thousand more moved voluntarily to these countries and to Ghana. Whether the present poverty in the country and the large-scale emigration of workers over this extended period have any connection is debatable. Around 1975 the number of Upper Volta nationals abroad was 956,000 (17 percent of the native population of the country), of whom 726,000 were in the Ivory Coast, 159,000 in Ghana, and 48,000 in Mali. Most of the emigration has been for short periods, but recently the length of residence has increased considerably. A rough estimate of migration turnover is that during 1970-75 about 350,000 emigrated from Upper Volta, while 185,000 returned, leaving a net loss of about 165,000. Mali, Guinea, and Togo are other important countries of emigration. Around 1975 about 420,000 Mali nationals were living in other countries of West Africa. Of these, 349,000 were in the Ivory Coast, 29,000 in Senegal, and 22,000 in Upper Volta. The Togo nationals were concentrated in just one country, Ghana, where 94 percent of the emigrants from Togo were living. The Guinea emigrants were more spread out: 180,000 in Senegal, 106,000 in the Ivory Coast, 41,000 in Sierra Leone, 25,000 in Liberia, and so on. The average length of residence abroad among emigrant groups was highest for Guinea nationals; they also had the highest proportion of dependents. Togo is no longer a country of emigration; several thousand of its nationals have returned from abroad in recent years for a net gain of 70,000 persons between 1960 and 1970. Guinea and Mali continue to lose migrants; the loss from Guinea is of a more permanent nature, while that from Mali is only beginning to include an increasing proportion of permanent emigrants. Immigration to Sierra Leone and Liberia exceeded emigration from these countries, for a net marginal gain. Most of the immigrants came from Guinea, 41,000 out of a total of 79,000 to Sierra Leone and 25,000 out of a total of 56,000 to Liberia. Emigration from these two countries was mostly an exchange of Liberians going to Sierra Leone and Sierra Leone nationals going to Liberia. Although numerically small, immigrants from outside the continent formed an economically significant component of the immigrants in both countries.

2. See Kenneth Swindell, "A Report on Migrant Farmers in the Gambia," an annex to K. C. Zachariah, '"Migration in the Gambia,' in Demographic Aspects of Migration in West Africa, vol. 1, The English-Speaking Countries, World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 414 (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1980). 8 Migration in West Africa

There were 162,000 nationals of non-African countries living in these nine countries; most of them were French, Lebanese, British, and U.S. nationals. Of these, 123,000 (82 percent) were living in French-speaking countries: 63,000 in the Ivory Coast and 50,000 in Senegal. About 39,000 were living in English- speaking countries, of whom 16,000 were in Ghana and 12,000 in Liberia.

The total volume of internal migration for the nine countries was 4.4 million, Internal Migration double the volume of external migration. In general, internal migration is an extension of external migration. The overall direction was the same: from the interior parts of a country to the coastal areas. There is an overall negative relation between emigration and internal migration, and a positive relation between immigration and internal migration. The internal migration rate was low in Upper Volta and Togo where lifetime emigration rates were high; it was high in Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and Senegal where the emigration rate of nationals was relatively low. The positive correlation between the lifetime immigration rate of countries and internal population mobility is shown by the rank correlation +0.55 for the sample excluding Mali. A similar pattern is observed within countries. For the twenty-eight departments in the Ivory Coast, the correlation coefficient between in-migration and immigration was +0.56; in Ghana and the Gambia, too, areas with a high in-migration rate had a high immigration rate. The principal areas of in-migration were commonly the departments or regions in which the capital city is located: Accra Region in Ghana, Abidjan De- partment in the Ivory Coast, Montserrado County in Liberia, Cap-Vert Region in Senegal, Western Area in Sierra Leone, and Kombo St. Mary Area in the Gambia. Thus, much of the internal migration in these countries was also cityward. This was not true, however, in the two major countries of emigration, Upper Volta and Togo. Central Department in Upper Volta, where Ouagadougou is located, was only third among the ten departments with respect to in-migration. Maritime Region in Togo, where Lome is located, was the fourth among the five regions. Internal migration to the capital city areas of the countries has two general characteristics. The first is that none of these principal areas of in-migration had net losses through migration to any other region or department in the country. Thus Accra had net gains from all the other regions in the country, Abidjan had net gains from the other twenty-seven departments in the Ivory Coast, and so on. A second general characteristic is that although there is usually a secondary area of in-migration in each country, migration to the secondary center was very small compared with migration to the principal center. Net migration to Accra Region during 1960-70 was 196,000 while that to Brong-Ahafo, the only other region which had a gain through migration, was only 45,000. In the Ivory Coast, South Region had a net lifetime gain of 333,000 in 1975, while the gain in the Center- West Region was only 75,000, and no other region had net in-migration. Cap- Vert Region in Senegal had a net in-migration of 124,000 during 1960-70, while the combined net gain of Senegal-Oriental and Thies regions was only 21,000. In Liberia lifetime net migration in Montserrado County was 201,000 in 1974; the other eight counties had net losses through migration. Thus, secondary centers of in-migration were generally few, and migration to them was relatively insignificant. Almost the entire gain in population. from internal migration in West African countries occurred in capital cities and their suburbs. Out-migration in each country was generally from the interior of the country-usually far away from the capital city. In Ghana, for example, the principal regions of out-migration are Upper and Northern regions on the Upper Volta border; in the Ivory Coast, it is North Region, again on the Upper Volta-Mali border; in Liberia, it is Lofa County. Unlike in-migration, which was directed to one area, out-migration was shared by many areas. In Ghana the net loss from lifetime migration in 1970 was fairly evenly distributed among the losing regions: 186,000 in Northern (including Upper) Region, 169,000 in Volta Region, 100,000 Introduction 9

in Eastern Region, and so on. A similar pattern is observed in most countries. Thus, while the origins of internal migrants are widely scattered, their major destination is usually a single node. Between 1965 and 1975 net rural-urban migration in the region was 1.7 million. The total growth of the urban populationduring the period was3.6 million or about 5.8 percent a year. A little less than half the growth was from rural- urban migration, and the balance (52 percent) was from natural increase. The proportionof urban growth attributable to rural-urban migration varied from 28 percent in Ghana to about 65 percent in the Gambia and Sierra Leone. The largest city in a country attracted most of the rural-urban migrants, and the smaller towns sometimeshad net losses.In Ghana, the city of Accra had a net gain of 200,000 out of a total rural-urban migration of 226,000,while towns below 10,000population had a net lossof 152,000. Net migration to urban areas is a balance of a large rural-urban in-migration and some urban-rural out-migration. Among older people net migration to big citieswas generally negative and the return to rural areas more commonthan at younger ages. Asa result, the distributionof net migration by age indicatesvery sharp increasesat youngerages and sharp decreasesat older ages. Rural-urbanmigrants fall at one end of the socioeconomicspectrum. They are better educated and occupy higher status occupations than all other migrants, internal or external. The only exceptionsare urban-urban migrants who occupy as high a positionif not higher than rural-urban migrants.

Demographic and The demographic characteristics of migrants in West African countries are Socioeconomic more or lesssimilar to those found in other parts of the world. Migrantsinclude a Characteristics relatively high proportion of young adults of working age; short-distancemigrants include more females than males while long-distancemigrants include more males. Becausethe age differential generallyincreases with the distanceof the move, international migrants have the maximum differential and intraregional migrants have the minimum differential.These patterns are fairly univer- sal in all countries. One notable exception is immigration or in-migration to predominantly emigrating countries or out-migrating regions. These migrants include a very high proportion of children of former emigrants. The sex ratio of migrants,internal and external,tends to increasewith age; that is, the proportion of males is higher at older ages than at younger ages. One reason for this pattern is that recent migrants have a higher proportion of females, and since most migration takes place at younger ages, younger migrants include a higher proportion of females. Anotherreason is the relatively higher return migration of females at older ages. As a migrant cohort advances in age, relatively more of the females are lost through return migration and consequently the proportion of males increases. The dependency ratios of migrant groups in West African countries are increasing with time, and the average length of residence of migrants at destination is also increasing. These factors are evidence of an increasing tendency for migrants to settle permanently in the host country or area of in-migration within a country. The propensity to migrate, within a country or outside, was higher among the unmarried than among the ever-married. Among the ever-married, migration propensities were higher among the divorced. Literacy and educational attainment are relatively low in West African countries. Within the low range of educational attainment, there were significant differences between nonmigrants and migrants and among migrants themselves. On the one hand, external migrants have a lower educational level than nonmigrants in destination countries. On the other hand, internal migrants have a higher educational level than nonmigrants at origin and sometimes at destination also. Among the internal migrants, rural-urban migrants and urban-urban migrants have the most education. The scanty data that are available for Ghana 10 Migration in West Africa seem to indicate that the relatively higher educational attainment of rural-urban migrants is decreasing. A relatively higher proportion of illiterates and persons with fewer years of schooling are migrating into towns than before 1960. On the whole, employment rates were higher among migrants than nonmigrants. Among females, however, the proportion employed was lower among migrants. This difference is not entirely explained by differences in the age composition of the two groups; practically every adult male immigrant was employed (97 percent) while only 40 percent of the female immigrants found work. Agriculture is the principal economic sector in all the West African countries and was naturally the principal employment sector for migrants. A smaller proportion of the immigrants and internal migrants was employed in agriculture than among the indigenous population. The deficit of agricultural workers is particularly large among males. The other major immigrant-employing sectors were mining, commerce, and services in Ghana; services, commerce, and nonagricultural production in the Ivory Coast. The occupational status of the immigrant group is not the same in all countries. In Ghana, immigrants tend to be overrepresented in low-status occupations. Among those classified as farmers and fishermen, nearly 40 percent of the immigrants were actually farm workers, compared with 11 percent among the Gha- naians. Among craftsmen and production-process workers, 45 percent of the immigrants were "laborers not elsewhere classified." In contrast, nearly two- thirds of the specialized service workers in the Ivory Coast were immigrants, and nearly half the sales workers were non-Ivorians. In several other West African countries, but especially in the Ivory Coast, immigrants are indeed holding vital positions in the economic life of the host country. Among the nine countries, internal migrants and particularly rural-urban migrants tend to occupy relatively higher status occupations than do nonmigrants. Relatively fewer of them were employed in agriculture. The principal migrant- employing occupations were in services among males and commerce among females. Although the data available for this study are grossly inadequate for analyzing the determinants and consequences of migration, a few preliminary observations may be made on the basis of the covariance of migration rates and the differential characteristics of migrants. There is a general positive relation between the economic status of a country and the rate of lifetime immigration. Immigration rates are high in countries such as the Ivory Coast where economic conditions are relatively good, and immigration rates are low in countries such as Upper Volta where economic conditions are unfavorable. The rank correlation between the GNP per capita in 1973 and the lifetime immigration rate is +0.67. A similar positive relation between regional economic condition and rate of in-migration is observable in all countries. In Ghana, for example, the rank correlation between the in-migration rate and per capita gross value added by region was + 0.66. The corresponding coefficient for the departments in the Ivory Coast was +0.43 (statistically significant at the 5 percent level). Emigration rates and out-migration rates were negatively correlated with the economic condition of the country or area. At the country level, the rank correlation coefficient was -0.52. For the seven regions in Ghana the correlation was -0.62, and for the twenty-eight departments in the Ivory Coast it was -0.34. Together with the differentials in age-sex composition and labor force participation rates between migrants and nonmigrants, these correlation coefficients suggest that, in broad terms, economic factors play a major role in determining the extent and direction of migration, both external and internal.

It is even more difficult to analyze the economic consequences of migration National Effects of than to determine the causes with available data, but some of the direct conse- Migration quences (intervening factors in socioeconomic change) can be estimated from the Introduction 11 volumeand characteristicsof the migrants.The mostobvious consequence of migrationis, of course,on populationgrowth. The growthrate of the savanna regionwas reducedby 1.1 percentagepoints and that of the forestregion was increasedby 0.6 percent.At the countrylevel, migration increased the national growthrate by 79 percent(above the rate of naturalincrease) in the IvoryCoast, 30 percent in the Gambia,and decreasedit by 26 percent(below the rate of naturalincrease) in UpperVolta and 25 percentin Mali.Internal migration and interinationialmigration together have createdpockets of extremelylow ratesof populationgrowth side by sidewith pocketsof very rapid growthrates. On an average,nearly half the growthrate in urbanareas was contributed by migration. In citiessuch as Abidjan,where the growthrate was10 percenta year,migration playedan evengreater role. Some of the majorpockets of lowgrowth rates are in Upper Voltaand the interiorregions of the IvoryCoast. Migrationinfluences population growth indirectly through its impacton the birth rate and death rate. This comesabout becauseof the differentialage compositionof migrantsand the effect of migrationon fertilityand mortality rates. Since the individualeffects work in oppositedirections, the net effect appearsto be small:the birth and death rates at the regionallevel are slightly reduced,with evenless change in the rate of naturalincrease. Becauseof the differentialnature of migration,countries of emigrationand areasof out-migrationhave a higherproportion of femalesand a lowerpropor- tionof youngmen of workingage. The oppositesituation prevails in countriesof immigrationand areas of in-migrationwithin countries. The dependencyratio was106 in Upper Voltawhile it wasonly 93 in the IvoryCoast. A similarcontrast is observedbetween the dependencyratio of NorthernRegion (105) and Accra Region (82) in Ghana. Migrationhas reducedthe averagelevel of educationof countriesof immigration and, althoughstatistics are not available,possibly that of the countriesof emigrationas well.In the IvoryCoast, where 28 percentof the Ivorianssix years and older and only 13 percent of the immigrantswere literate,immigration reducedthe averagelevel of literacyfrom 28 to 25 percent.A similardecline couldhave happened in UpperVolta, where emigrants may be moreliterate than natives.In Ghanathose born in rural areas had an averageof 2.08 years of schoolingin 1960.With the exodusof relativelybetter educated individuals to urbanareas, the averageschooling of the rural nonmigrantgroup was reduced to 1.55years. The averagefor the urbanpopulation was 3.97 years compared with 4.02years for the migrantsfrom urban areas. When the bettereducated migrants left, the urban nonmigrantsremaining had an averageof only 3.91 years.In general,migration tends to reduce the averageeducational attainment at both destinationand origin,but thispattern may not holdfor urbanto ruralmigrants. The mostdirect economic consequence of migrationis the redistributionof the workingpopulation among countries and amongregions within countries and fromrural to urban areas.The migrants'contribution to the laborsupply is not strictlyproportional to their totalnumber because the age-sexlabor force partici- pationrates are higheramong migrants than amongthe indigenouspopulation, and the migrantshave a higherproportion in the workingages. The estimatedtotal employmentaround 1975in eight of the West African countries(excluding Mali) was 11.54 million. Of these,1.28 million were immigrants(foreign nationals), and 2.09million were lifetimeinternal interregional migrants.Thus, excluding short-distance migrants within countries,about 3.37 millionworkers or almost30 percentof the laborforce in the eightWest African countrieswere migrants. The impact of migrationon laborsupply was very much larger in the Ivory Coast. Amongmales aged fifteento sixty-fouryears, 30 percentwere immigrants, 24 percentwere interdepartmental migrants, and 11 percentwere intradepartmental migrants, leaving a balanceof only35 percentas nonmigrants.In someof the industrialsectors, immigrants alone constituted more than 50 percentof the total employedpersons (for example,in the specialized 12 Migration in West Africa service sector and in administrative, executive, and managerial occupations). The effects of migration on employment in the Ivory Coast are indeed all-pervasive. In Ghana and most other countries, interregional migrants have a much greater impact on employment than do external migrants, not only because of the numbers involved, but also because of their occupations. While about 66 percent of nonmigrants were employed in agriculture, only 40 percent of interregional migrants were employed in this sector. Among nonagricultural sectors, service was the principal migrant-employing sector in 1970; ten years earlier, it had been commerce. For countries of emigration (and regions of out-migration), one of the benefi- cial consequences of migration is the remittances received from the migrants. Very little is known about remittances within countries, about the transfer of money and goods through unofficial channels, friends, and relatives, or about what the migrants carry with them when they visit their place of origin. Avail- able information on remittances through official channels indicates that during 1970-74, US$705 million was sent out of the seven countries while US$232 million was received. Thus, a substantial portion of the remittances (US$473 million) went outside the region. It is very doubtful that the cost of bringing up migrants to working age in Upper Volta and other countries of emigration is being recovered from the remittances and other resource transfers from the countries of immigration. What do all these facts add up to for the migrants and for the countries affected by migration? Numerous studies have shown that migration improves the well-being of the migrants. After a review of several such studies, Yap con- cluded that "migrants who stay in cities seem to be better off, on average, than people who remain in the place of origin."3 A study of the "Strange Farmers" in the Gambia indicates that despite social disruption, migration brought tangible benefits to the migrants.4 How do the emigrating countries fare? Emigration has been a fact of life for much of this century in Upper Volta, Mali, and Togo, where it has kept down the rate of population growth and somewhat eased population pressures on local resources. There is little doubt that the migrants transferred a considerable amount of money and consumer goods back to these countries from their countries of immigration. In spite of this, emigrating countries remain at the bottom of the economic scale. Upper Volta has the longest tradition of migration and remains the poorest among the poor. The transfer of money and goods and the temporary easing of population pressures have not developed the country in any way. In the beginning, migration was forced and externally induced; now it has become voluntary and offers an easier way for the young to make a living than does the local economy. The more the young and the dynamic have moved out, the less the local economy seems to have developed. The recent experience of Togo and Ghana is instructive. When, as a result of Ghana's Alien Compliance Order in 1969, about 80,000 Togo nationals had to return home, this was a blessing in disguise. The Togo economy has not suffered as a result of this influx. On the contrary, cocoa production has increased from an average of 13,600 metric tons during 1960-63 to 22,800 metric tons during 1970-73. It is likely that the reversal of the migration trend between Togo and Ghana in the long run will work in favor of Togo. Among the aliens expelled from Ghana in 1969 were a considerable number of cocoa and other farm laborers. A study of cocoa farming areas in Ghana conducted after the Alien Compliance Order indicated an acute shortage of farm workers.' The reversal of the migra-

3. Lorene Y. L. Yap, Internal Migration in Less Developed Countries: A Survey of the Litera- tore," World Bank Staff Working Paper no. 215 (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1975). 4. Swindell, "Migrant Farmers in the Gambia." 5. Nelson 0. Addo, "Employment and Labour Supply on Ghana's Cocoa Farms in the Past-and Pre-Alien Compliance Order Era," Economic Bulletin of Ghana, vol. 2, no. 4 (1972). Introduction 13 tion trend may not be the main cause of the recent economic deterioration in Ghana, but the sudden exodus of essential farm workers seems to have accentu- ated it. The deterioration of the economy in turn precipitated further emigration. Migration is at the same time a cause and consequence of economic change. In the Ivory Coast, large-scale immigration does not seem to have retarded economic growth, but may have accelerated it. Non-Ivorian employment in 1975 was 719,000 (26 percent) out of a total of 2.8 million employed persons in the country. In some of the critical employment sectors, aliens outnumbered natives. Workers' remittances sent out of the country through official channels were US$100 million a year during 1970-75. In spite of this influx of foreign workers, population pressure on food, housing, and employment seems to be much less in the Ivory Coast than in Upper Volta or Mali. The per capita GNP in the Ivory Coast increased by 3.0 percent a year during 1965-73 while that in Upper Volta decreased by 1.1 percent. If today the Upper Volta workers, Mali workers, and Guineans were to leave the Ivory Coast as they did from Ghana in 1969, the economic consequences would be disastrous. If, as Songre and his coauthors contend, an employer in the Ivory Coast makes a profit of US$1.20 to US$2.30 a day on the labor of an immigrant worker, the Ivory Coast gains about US$250 million to US$450 million a year from its immigrants.6 Over the long term, migration in West Africa appears to have been of greater economic benefit to the countries of immigration than to the countries of emigration.

6. AmbroiseSongre, Jean-Marie Sawadogo, and GeorgesSanogoh, "Realites et Effetsde l'Emigra- tion Massivedes Voltaiquesdans le Contextede I'AfriqueOccidentale," in SamirAmin, ed., Modern Migrationsin Western Africa (London:Oxford UniversityPress for the InternationalAfrican Insti- tute, 1974),pp. 384-406. I I CHAPTER 2 Demographic Background

According to the United Nations' grouping of countries, West Africa includes sixteen countries with a 1975 total population of 115 million. Some countries, such as Nigeria, which has more than half the regional population, have very few reliable demographic data and lack migration data in particular. For eight countries, recent information on emigration and immigration is available, and for a ninth, Mali, there is substantial information on emigration alone. For the pur- poses of this book, these nine countries constitute West Africa (see table 2 and map 1).

Table 2. DemographicIndicators of Nine West African Countries

Estimated vital rates Recent 1970-75 Estimnated intercensal population growth rates Rate of in 1975 natural Birth Death Country (thousands) Period Percent increase rate rate

Gambia 522 1963-73 4.5a 2.0 50 30 Ghana 9,868 1960-70 2.4 2.7 49 22 Ivory Coast 6,770 1965-75 5.2 2.9 50 21 Liberia 1,572 1962-74 3.4 3.2 50 18 Mali 5,859 1965-75 1 .8b 2.4 50 26 Senegal 4,973 1960-70 2.7 2.6 48 22 Sierra Leone 2,792 1963-74 1.9 2.4 45 21 Togo 2,272 1960-70 3.0 2.7 50 23 Upper Volta 5,232C 1961-75 1.7 2.3 49 26 All countries 39,860 2.8 2.6 49 23

a. About1.9 percentagepoints are attributableto the relative underenumerationin the 1963census. b. Roughestimate c. Based on the residentpopulation present and enumeratedin the 1975census. Sources:World Bank estimatesbased on recent populationcensuses and surveyresults of each country;and United Nations,Population Division, Department of Economicand SocialAffairs, Selected World Demographic Indicatorsby Countries,1950-2000, ESA/P/WP.55 (New York,1975).

The nine countries had a combined population of 40 million in 1975.' The largest one is Ghana with nearly 10 million people and the smallest is the Gambia with only half a million. The yearly population growth for all countries together is about 1.1 million, and the average rate of growth during recent periods (table 2) was about 2.8 percent a year. The growth rates varied considerably from one country to another. The Ivory Coast had the highest rate, about 5.2 percent a year

1. The mid-1980 estimate is 46.6 million (K. C. Zachariah and My Thi Vu, "Population Projec- tions, 1980-2000, and Long-term Stationary Population" [Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, Development Economics Department, 1980; restricted circulation document], table 3; hereafter cited as Zachariah and Vu). 15 16 Migration in West Africa during 1965-75 and 6.0 percent during 1970-75; and the lowest rate was observed in Upper Volta, 1.7 percent a year during 1965-75. Such large variation is a reflection of the different effect of external migration on these populations. The vital rates were fairly uniform in all these countries. For most, the birth rate was close to 50 per thousand population. One exception is Sierra Leone, where the birth rate was reported to be 45. The death rates varied between a low of 18 in Liberia and a high of 30 in the Gambia, both of which are in the coastal forest region. With the exception of the Gambia, the death rates were more or less the same in all the coastal countries but were slightly higher in the interior countries, Upper Volta and Mali. The average rate of natural increase for the nine countries was about 2.6 percent, which was close to the rate of population growth.2 Much of the international migration in these countries therefore appears to have been between countries within the region. If Guinea were also included, the region would have a more or less closed population, with natural increase equaling the rate of population growth, and net migration for the region as a whole approaching zero. Thus, while population movements within the region were substantial, there was very little net migration between West Africa and other parts of the world.

Table 3. Trends in DemographicIndicators, 1950-75

Population (thousands) Birth rate Death rate

Country 1950 1975 1950-55 1970-75 1950-55 1970-75

Ghana 5,024 9,868 51 49 28 22 Upper Volta 3,769 5,232 50 49 33 26 Mali 3,426 5,859 50 50 33 26 Ivory Coast 2,822 6,770 46 50 27 21 Senegal 2,600 4,973 48 48 29 22 Sierra Leone 1,779 2,792 45 45 27 21 Togo 1,201 2,272 51 50 31 23 Liberia 1,066 1,572 45 50 29 18 Gambia 347 522 42 50 30 30 All countries 22,034 39,860 49 49 30 23

Sources: UnitedNations, Selected WoTrd Demographic Indicators by Countries, 1950-2000; and estimates based on recent population censuses and surveys in the countries.

The region had a fairly rapid population growth during the last quarter century. According to estimates made by the United Nations, the total population of these nine countries was only about 22 million in 1950, when the annual rate of population growth was about 1.9 percent. During the following twenty-five years the average growth rate was 2.4 a year, which is relatively high in view of the high mortality during the period. In 1950 Ghana had the largest population, and the order of the others is shown in table 3. In 1975 Ghana was still on top, but the ranks of Upper Volta, Mali, and the Ivory Coast had changed. In 1950 the population of the Ivory Coast was only 56 percent of the population of Ghana, 75 percent of that of Upper Volta, and 82 percent of that of Mali. At the end of the twenty-five-year period, the Ivory Coast's population increased to 69 percent of the population of Ghana and surpassed the total population of both Upper Volta (129 percent) and Mali (116 percent). If the present growth rates continue, the population of the Ivory Coast will exceed that of all the other countries in the region by 1990.

2. The periods for which these two sets of rates are shown are different. If they are adjusted for the same period, the difference between the rates of population growth and natural increase may be slightly larger. Demographic Background 17

Birth rates were not very much different twenty-five years ago, but the death rates were higher. The average birth rate was the same in 1950-55 (49) as in 1975. The crude death rate was about 30 in 1950-55, an excess of about seven points over the 1970-75 death rate. Reliable data on the rate of population growth in these countries were not available for 1950. For several of them, the growth rate and rate of natural increase were very close, but for others, such as Ghana, they were quite different. It is reasonable to conclude that intercountry differences in the growth rate have widened during the twenty-five-year period. The underlying factor is the increased tempo of migration across international borders. As a result of the impact of migration, the demographic situation in the various countries of the region and areas within countries has changed considerably in recent years. These distin- guishing characteristics are discussed in the following section.

Population Growth West African countries, and areas within countries, can be classified into two by Main Natural Regions main natural regions according to climate, vegetation, and distance from the coast. Of the nine countries in this study, three are completely in the coastal forest region, two are completely in the interior savanna, and four lie partly in both these natural regions. Table 4 shows which countries and areas within countries lie in each region by total population.

Table 4. Populationby Natural Region, 1975

Forest Savanna Country region region Total

Gambia 522 - 522 Liberia 1,572 - 1,572 Sierra Leone 2,792 - 2,792 Upper Volta - 5,232 5,232 Mali - 5,859 5,859 Togo 1,716 556a 2,272 Senegal 4,177 7 96 b 4,973 Ivory Coast 5,683 1,087e 6,770 Ghana 8,035 1 ,83 3 d 9,868 Total 24,497 15,363 39,860

a. Savanesand Kara regionsonly. b. Fleuveand Senegal-Orientalregions only. c. Northern Region, parts of Central Region(the departments of Dabakala and Katiola only), and Bouna Departmentin Eastern Region. d. Northernand Upper regionsonly Sources:Estimates based on recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

The total population in the savanna is about 15 million, or 39 percent of the total population of the nine countries. The entire population of Mali and Upper Volta live in the savanna, while the entire population of the Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Liberia live in the coastal region. In the Ivory Coast and Senegal about 16 percent of the population live in the savanna; in Ghana and Togo the corresponding proportions are slightly higher, 19 percent and 24 percent respectively. It is difficult to separate the rate of growth of the savanna population or their vital rates from those of the coastal inhabitants. Rough estimates of the average annual rates for 1965-75 are (in percent):

Region Growthrate Birth rate Death rate Savanna 1.7 49 26 Coastal 3.4 49 22 Both regions 2.8 49 23 18 Migration in West Africa

The average growth rate of the savanna region is approximately half the rate in the coastal region. But there is no reason to believe that the rate of natural increase would be very much different in the two regions; a maximum difference of 0.4 or so might be expected because of a slightly higher death rate in the savanna. Thus, a substantial proportion (about 25 percent) of the natural increase of the savanna was lost to the coastal region through emigration and out- migration.

Although Ghana has the largest population of the nine countries, with about National Demographic 10.8 million people in 1978, it may not keep this supremacy for long." If the Characteristics present trend continues, the Ivory Coast will overtake Ghana by 1990. Economi- cally also Ghana has lost ground in relation to some of its neighbors. In 1950 Ghana Ghana had the highest per capita income in the region, but in 1973 it was behind both the Ivory Coast and Liberia. During 1960-73 per capita GNP in Ghana did not increase at all, while its eastern neighbor, Togo, enjoyed a growth rate of 4.4 percent a year and that of the Ivory Coast to the west was 3.1 percent. Ghana still keeps its supremacy in social development. Literacy is highest and educational and health facilities are probably the best in the region. In 1970 primary enrollment in Ghana was 89 percent compared with 56 percent in Togo and 77 percent in the Ivory Coast. Ghana's demographic and socioeconomic conditions are better documented than those of the other West African countries. Although several population censuses have been taken since its first in 1891, Ghana did not have a reasonably detailed and accurate description of its population until 1960, when the first census under self-government was taken. Its latest census was taken ten years later in 1970. The 1970 population census enumerated 8,559,000 persons. With a land area of 92,100 square miles this gives a density of 93 persons per square mile (36 persons per square kilometer). During 1960-70 Ghana's population grew at the rate of 2.4 percent a year.4 The birth rate was estimated to be above 50, and the average death rate during 1960-70 was probably around 23. Net emigration from the country reduced a potential rate of growth (natural increase) of about 2.7 or 2.8 percent to the observed rate of 2.4 percent. The current growth rate should be close to the rate of natural increase since net migration would be negligible. Between 1965 and 1980 the death rate should have declined by three or four units. With a relatively constant birth rate, this should cause the annual rate of natural increase to rise to about 3.0 percent. The corresponding vital rates are a birth rate of 49 and a death rate of 19 per thousand population. Census results for earlier periods reflect a higher rate of population growth than in recent years (table 5). The growth rates shown in the table for the period since 1948 have been challenged on the basis of enumeration errors, and some analysts believe a truer pattern of growth would be an annual rate of 2.7 percent for 1948-60 and 2.6 percent for 1960-70. As reflected by the censuses, however, the average rate of growth during 1921-60 was about 2.8 percent a year-a relatively high rate of growth for the period. Given the high death rate that prevailed in the region during this time, it could not have been sustained except through immigration. The population of Ghana is unevenly distributed; the density and rate of population growth vary greatly by geographic region (table 6). The country was divided into seven administrative regions in 1960 (see map 2), but after 1960 Western Region was split into Western and Central regions, and Northern Region

3. The mid-1980estimate is 11.7 million(Zachariah and Vu). 4. Someanalysts believe this growth rate is too low for Ghana and prefer to use 2.6 percent (see note a to table 5). Map I IBRD13598 o' RPAAT 4 I - 2;CP JUNir1977

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U P P E R V 0 L T A .,Lj, GHANA j POPULATIONDENSITY BYLOCAL AUTHORITIES 1970

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MAY 1978

- i.19 , Voinjamo 7

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0 40 20 0 80 l I MARYLAND a 20 40 60toto I N, ALEMA SPA(Nf,SHWHAR4' 1 f-, LTOYA 116. M A U R I T N I A /

MAURkTANIA MALI SENEGAL a Ii.ME-11-A R E G I 0 N POPULATIONDENSITY GLAWA8 NIOERIA By Region,1976 0 77',77, SIERRA N A 7z AIVTIC Ea. X, OCEA A/ 12 60 60 100 0 2? z- .O KILOWYER$ 40 6 20 MILES

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LIFETIMEIMMIGRANTS BY COUNTRY OF BIRTH F .o AND REGIONOF ENUMERATION,1975 ,u- .Fwfmmg-ots q Q J . { ___ _ ~~~~~~~~~~~IJnit-I 000 persons (mes-r at base of -rro) e. >, _ I t 1 r n9re a r 1X/X-A 1 j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Lffefim,eimmigration below lOOO notshown \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- - 11 Rl,-4_AWej,Ih es/dolls \ 2 L $ g - . \ \\ e S\\ \ < = -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~gnero,ionbo-nd.,i-

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.' Thismap has Jeen preparedby the WorldBank's staff esclusivelyfor the convenience - N *. .. ' of thmreader,sof thereport to hich it is attached.The dei,ominations used and theB GUINEA° ° affiliates, any judgmanton the le.al statusof any tenito.r or any endorsementor G E I -) acceptance of such boundaries. ion 0 _ -;.I GABON 14 I I I . Pr E V D -;- T ;- *2

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Map 15 r IBRD13224

,f ~~C2p1 6t Sp0Ka P2;O '40 erV;__ PRINCtPALIN-MIGiRATION STREANl5 TO } t ;e 4 6,0; < - .f ~~~~ABIDJANDEPARTMENT, 1975 - FttisES \, ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Numbetrof%qam$l.s

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A A F A Ti A N 7't C 0 Cf A Al I I Map 17

MARCH 1979 IVO RY COAST DEPARTMENTSIN WHICH LIFETIMEIMMIGRANTS AREIN EXCESSOF LIFETIMEIN-MIGRANTS, 1975 (DENOTEDBY DARKSHADING)

1 24

NUMIBERS CORRESPOND)TO NAMflESOF DEPARTMENTS 1 ABIDJAN 2 ABOISSO 3 ADZOPE 4 AGBOVILLE 21 5~~~~~~~~~~~~DI'VO 6 SASSANDRA 19 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7BOUNDIALI 8 FERKESSEDOUGOU 25 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9KORHOGO 10 ODIENNE 11 SEGUELA 12 TOUBA 13 ABENGOUROU 18 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14BONDOUKOU 15 BOUNA 26 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~16BIANKOUMA 17 DANANE 18 GUIGLO 19 MAN 20 BOUAFLE 21 BOUAKE 22 DIMBOKRO 6 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~23KATIOLA 24 DABAKALA 25 DALOA 26 GAGNOA

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Len 'A % ,A F R I CA Sterra Leo n e W E S T E R N Gunea P R V I N C E

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'sr:*9- . -. 86 OCTPEEE4977

,- /i Voinjama lJ-r

S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Liberia Sierrca Leone Z AFRICA

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Net Lifetime Migration StreAsS, A974 GRAND GEDEH COUNMirratiorstr"TY . ' / ' ' ,COUNTY county boundories '%X. "<. Wa / , , . -- ernatirunoaboundores/ (23 county capitals$ -.- Migrationstreams / -COUNTYOUNTY CINOE Rivers

y4ig.uir strems persons. Green,ville (500 ~- r1000 A r-

500 AOTA AN T I C ' -'K 20,000I 40,000n CC L A IV

<-<~ MARYLAND a 20a 40 oO sO 100 ~ ~~ ~ NCOUNTY

q.. 2,e 40 60 m = = , _ ~ ~~e.;>H s Wile s vCe/en d Wee i Y e e I Map 20

StERnRAFLEONE ' MAURITAFI,f.J

MIGRATIC,NSTREAM TO THE WES,TERN AREA EtA Yr slE

,FRC,MTHFEDISTRICTS 1975 UA'f--' T

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IBRD12744 IVORY COAST TOTAIL APRiL1977 POPULATIONANC. REGIONS,PROPOkTION 1975 URBAN -BY MAJOR T,rJ A Totol pm,,aim Ubo. papuf ------7, 4- Rive,s / loms bo.oddves

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this -op has -ee Psanse br th,

1/ The INDEX s a eightedmean of the number of immig rants(wighted 4), inter-departmenalmigrants*3), intra-departmental migrants(2), Th.d5 DVO 1/nTer-prefectuemDaigrhtet nter-departmental ueandintra-departmentalnon-miguabtsro) migrants(3), inmigrants(2),ass each department. 4),a I d_t,eades,trots,,p Sea'a, thtshoh asp .ts rosarestata,hteann t inter-pref1) and non-mectu igrans(O)e m igrants( in each deartment.ta pestsiCh aos shat;fs I

I Demographic Background 19

Table5. Ghana: PopulationGrowth, 1921-70

Average annual Population growth rate Year (thousands) (percent)

1921 2,296 - 1931 3,164 3.2 1948 4,118 1.6 1960 6,727 4.1a 1970 8,559 2.4a 1977 10,502 2.9

a. The growth rates above are based on census results for the years shown (except 1977). The recorded growth rate of 4.1 percent between 1948 and 1960 is felt to be exaggerated by some experts. If allowance is made for underenumeration in 1948 and a slight overenumeration in 1960 (estimated at between 0.6 and 2.5 percent), the growth rate would bo about 2.7 percent. In addition, the figure of 2.4 percent as the growth rate between 1960 and 1970 is felt to be too low. If allowance is made for overenumeration in 1960 and underenumeration in 1970, the growth rate would be at least 2.6 percent (K. T. de Graft-Johnson, personal communication to K. C. Zachariah, October 26, 1978) Sources: J C. Caldwell, "Population Change," in Walter Birmingham and others, eds., Study of Contemporary Ghana, vol. 2 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1967), tables 1.1 and 1.2; and derived from Ghana Census Office, 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 2 (Accra, 1972), table 3.2; and United Nations, Selected World Demo- graphic Indicators by Countries, 1950-2000.

was split into Northernand Upper regions.Table 6 givessome basic population data for theseregions in 1960and 1970.The largest regions by sizeof population are Western (includingCentral) and Northern(including Upper); Accra and Brong-Ahaforegions are the smallest.The rate of growthvaries from 1.4 percent a year in Eastern to 5.5 in Accra.Three regions,Accra, Ashanti, and Brong- Ahafo,had a higherthan averagegrowth rate, whilethe remainderhad lower than averagegrowth rates. Populationdensities are lowerin the interior(northern) regionsand higherin the coastalregions.

Table6. Ghana:Regional Distribution of the Population,Percentage Increase, and Density, 1960-70

Density

Population Percent Growth 1960 1970 (thousands) of total rate ______Square Square Square Square Region 1960 1970 1970 1960-70 miles kilometers miles kilometers

Western and Central 1,377 1,660 19.4 1.9 106 41 128 49 Greater Accra 492 851 9.9 5.5 486 191 842 330 Eastern 1,094 1,261 14.7 1.4 142 55 163 63 Volta 777 947 11.1 2.0 98 38 120 46 Ashanti 1,109 1,481 17.3 2.9 118 45 158 61 Brong-Ahafo 588 766 9.0 2.7 38 15 50 19 Northern and Upper 1,289 1,590 18.6 2.1 34 13 42 16 Ghana 6,727 8,559 100.0 2.4 73 28 93 36

Note: After 1960 Western Region was split into Western and Central regions, and Northern Region was split into Northern and Upper regions. For the sake of easy comparison with the 1960 figures, we have grouped the 1970 figures for the appropriate regions. Sources: 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 2, table 3.2.

In 1960 there were 98 urban localities (those with a population of 5,000 or more) with a total population of 1.55 million. By 1970 the number of urban localitiesbad increasedto 135and the populationto 2.47million. These figures implyan increasein the urbanproportion from 23 percentin 1960to 29 percent in 1970.At presentGhana is oneof the mosturbanized countries in WestAfrica. 20 Migration in West Africa

Between 1960 and 1970 the urban population increased by 59 percent (4.7 percent a year), partly because of natural increase (54 percent of the total gain), partly because of migration (17 percent), and partly because of the reclassification of localities (29 percent). By contrast, the rate of growth of the rural population was only 1.6 percent a year.

In recent years the Ivory Coast has had the fastest growing population and The Ivory Coast economy. During 1965-75 the population grew at a rate of 5.2 percent a year and the GNP at a rate of 6.5 percent a year. Over the past twenty-five years the rate of population increase was slightly lower (3.6 percent a year), but the rate of growth of the economy was higher (7 to 8 percent a year in real terms). The economic performance of the Ivory Coast over this extended period has surprised many observers, and the rapid population growth through immigration may have played a significant role by bringing workers to areas of employment opportunity. The population of the Ivory Coast was estimated at 8.1 million in mid-1978, about three-quarters the size of its eastern neighbor, Ghana, but much larger than its western neighbors, Liberia and Guinea.s The resident population of the Ivory Coast was more than the population of Upper Volta and Mali, but if the Upper Voltans and Malians living in the Ivory Coast were added to their native countries, the Ivory Coast would be smaller than either one. The Ivory Coast has indeed grown at its neighbors' expense.

Table 7. The Ivory Coast:Population Growth, 1920-75

Annual growth Population rate Year (thousands) (percent)

1920 1,825 - 1930 2,075 1.3 1940 2,350 1.2 1950 2,775 1.7 1960 3,460 2.2 1965 4,000 2.9 1970a 5,000 4.5 1975a 6,770 6.0

a. Populationof 1975 is the July 1 estimatefor that year based on a censuscount of 6.7 millionand a growth rate of 6.0 per year for two months.The populationfor 1970 was estimatedusing the censuscount for 1975 and a populationof 4 millionin 1965 and applyingrelative growth rates previouslyused for 1965-70and 1970-75. Sources: La CMte d'Ivoire en Chiffres:Annuaire Statistique (Dakar: SocieteAfricaine d'Edition, 1975), p. 10; and unpublisheddata from the 1975 populationcensus of the Ivory Coast.

Until very recently the size of the population of the Ivory Coast was not precisely known. The first census, conducted in April and May 1975, enumerated a total of 6,702,866 persons, a number much higher than the United Nations or the Ivory Coast government had estimated. The new total from the census casts doubt on the estimates for previous years. On the basis of a series of sample surveys conducted in different parts of the Ivory Coast during 1960-66, the total population of the country was estimated as 4 million for 1965. This and other estimates for previous years (see table 7) leave no doubt that the Ivory Coast had the highest growth rate of any country in the West African region. As a matter of fact, few countries in the world had comparably high growth rates. The growth rate has accelerated considerably in recent years and during 1960-65 was only half as much as it was ten years later.

5. The mid-1980estimate is 8.3 million(Zacbariah and Vu). Demographic Background 21 The growth has not been uniform in all regionsof the country (see table 8 and map 3). The two principal poles of growth were Abidjan Ville and the forest region. The population of Abidjan increased from about 340,000 to 920,000 during 1965-75,or by about 10 percent a year. SouthRegion in which Abidjanis located had the highest growth rate of any major region, 8.4 percent a year, followedvery closelyby East Region where the growth rate was 7.6 percent, and Central-WestRegion with a growthrate of 6.2 percent. In contrast,North Region grew hardly at all. Although it adjoinsUpper Volta and Mali, which are sources of immigrants, this proximity did not influenceits growth rate. Only in West and Central regions were the rates of populationgrowth closeto the rates of natural increase. These rates give an approximateindication of the extent of internal and external migration in the various regions of the country. In 1975 there were ninety-sixlocalities with a populationof more than 5,000 persons.If these localitiesare defined as urban, the total urban populationin the Ivory Coast was2.3 million, or 34 percent of the total population.In this respect, the Ivory Coast compared closely with Ghana but had a very much higher proportion of urban populationthan Liberia or Upper Volta.

Table 8. The IvoryCoast: Population Growth by Region,1965-75

Population Averageannual (thousands) growthrate 1965-75 Region 1965 1975 (percent)

South 1,000 2,313 8.4 North 810 859 0.6 East 260 559 7.6 West 460 662 3.6 Central 1,130 1,681 4.0 Central-West 340 629 6.2 Ivory Coast 4,000 6,703 5.2

Sources: Based on Ivory Coast, Ministry of Planning, Ivory Coast 1965 Population: Summary of Regional Sample Surveys, 1962-65, Louis Roussel. ed. (Abidjan, 1967): and unpublisheddata from the 1975 population censusof the Ivory Coast.

The United Nationsestimated a crude birth rate of about 46 and a crude death rate of 21 for 1970-75.5These estimateswere made beforethe results of the 1975 censuswere available,and more recent data indicate that the birth rate of 46 was an underestimate. Indirect estimates prepared from the 1975 census age data give a birth rate of 50 and a crude death rate of 21, with a rate of natural increase of 2.9 percent a year. A rough estimate of the rate of net immigrationof the Ivory Coast during 1965-75 was 2.3 percent, or slightly less than half the net growth during the decade.

Upper Volta Upper Volta has the lowest rate of populationgrowth and one of the lowest rates of economic growth in the region. During 1965-75 its populationgrew at the rate of 1.7 percent a year and its GNP at the rate of 0.5 percent a year. As a result,the GNP per capita declined at an average annual rate of 1.2 percent. The country's poor performance on the economicfront may be related to its slowrate of population growth, which affects the size and compositionof its labor force. As in the Ivory Coast, the first national populationcensus of Upper Voltawas carried out in 1975. Until then, demographic information concerning Upper Volta came from surveys-principally the 1960-61 National DemographicSam- ple Surveyconducted by the government, a 1973migration survey of the Mossi

6. United Nations, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Selected World DemographicIndicators by Countries, 1950-2000,ESA/P/WP.55 (New York, 1975). 22 Migration in West Africa

region conducted by the Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM)of Paris, and a 1974 national socioeconomic and migration survey conducted by the International Development Research Center (IDRC)of Canada.7 What was the population of Upper Volta according to the 1975 census? It depends on the type of population figure used. The enumerated population (which includes residents both present and absent, visitors, and in- and out- migrants) was 6,148,000; the resident population (de jure, or those both present and absent) was 5,638,000, and the de facto population (only residents who were present) was 4,998,000.5 There were 359,000 resident absentees, 335,000 emigrants, 117,000 dtmenagts (persons reported to census interviewers as having changed their place of residence, leaving empty houses and compounds), and 57,000 passagers (passengers and visitors). Comparison with past data is possible for the resident population. The number in 1961 was 4.4 million, which gives a growth rate of 1.7 percent a year during 1961-75 (table 9). Between 1961 and 1973 the Mossi population grew at a lower rate (1.3 percent a year), indicating a relatively high emigration rate among- them.

Table 9. Upper Volta: PopulationGrowth, 1961-75

Average annual increase Absolute Percentage 1961-75 Population 1960-61 1975 increase increase (percent)

Upper Volta Resident 4,442,770 5,638,203 1,195,433 26.91 1.7 Total enumerated 4,487,000 6,147,508 1,660,508 37.01 2.1 Residentpresent 3,932,345 4,997,880 1,065,535 27.09 1.7 Mossi region Residentpresent 2,204,100 2,575,900a 3,370,800 16.87 1 3b

a. For 1973. b. For 1961-73. Sources: Upper Volta, Service de la Statistique et de la M&anographie, Enquete emnographique par Sondage en R'pubitque de Haute Volta, 1960-61, 2 vols. ([Paris]: Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economi- ques and Secretariat d'Etat aux Affaires Etrangeres, 1970); unpublished data from the 1975 population census of Upper Volta; and Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre-Mer (ORSTOM,Paris), Enquete sur les Mouvements de Population t Partir du Pays Mossi (Haute-Volta), fascicle1 (Ouagadougou, 1975).

The 1960-61 survey gave information not only on the total population, but also on most other demographic indicators:

Crude birth rate 50 per thousand Crude death rate 32 per thousand Natural increase 1.8 percent Growth rate 1.4 percent Infant mortality 189 per thousand Total fertility 6.1 per woman Gross reproduction rate 2.96 per woman Net reproduction rate 1.6 per woman Life expectancy at birth males, 33.0 years; females, 31.9; both sexes, 32.5

7. Not all of these data are available in published form; those relating to migration appear in ORSTOM, Enqu2te sur les Mouvements de Population a Partir du Pays Mossi (Haute Volta), fascicle 1 (Ouagadougou, 1975); and Upper Volta, Service de la Statistique et de la M6canographie, Enquete Denwgraphique par Sondage en Republique de Haute Volta, 1960-61, 2 vols. and Les Emigrations ([Paris]: Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques and Secr6tariat d'Etat aux Affaires Etrangeres, 1970). 8. A mid-1980 estimate of the resident population present is 5.9 million (Zachariah and Vu). Demographic Background 23

The demographic survey undertaken in 1973 in the Mossiarea gave average figures for the region lower than those in 1961:the crude birth rate was 44 per thousand; the crude death rate was29 per thousand;and the natural increasewas 1.5 percent. Upper Volta is administrativelydivided into 10 departments, 44 sous-prefectures, 97 arrondissements,and 7,500 villages.In order to compare regionalpopu- lation data from the 1961 survey, the 1973 survey, and the 1975 census, it is necessary to use the same strata as the surveys, which were based on ethnic groups or regions,some of which correspondto departments and sous-prefectures as defined in table 10. Table 10 and map 4 showthat in 1961and 1975 the Mossi Plateau in the central part of the country was the most denselypopulated area, especially Yatenga (North Department). To the north and east of the Mossi Plateau wasa vast zone of low density, the Sahelianarea. To the south and westof the plateau the density was uneven, with some areas densely populated and others mostly uninhabited.

Table10. UpperVolta: Population Distribution and Densityby Ethnic Region,1960-75

Populationb Density per Area 1960 1975 square kilometer Square Percent Number Percent Number Percent Ethnic regiona kilometers of total (thousands) of total (thousands) of total 1960 1975

Northern 40,600 14.8 245 5.5 364 5.9 6 9 Yatenga 11,800 4.3 540 12.0 598 9.7 46 51 Central Mossi 51,700 18.8 1,715C 38.2 2,557 41.6 33 49 Bissa 7,300 2.7 238 5.3 267 4.4 33 37 Gourma 48,200 17.6 215 4.8 422 6.9 4 9 Gourounsi 23,800 8.7 287 6.4 224 3.6 12 9 Western 48,600 17.7 737c 16.4 1,022 16.6 15 21 Senoufo 19,700 7.2 281 6.3 297 4.8 14 15 Lobi 22,500 8.2 229 5.1 396 6.5 10 18 Upper Volta 274,200 100.0 4,487 100.0 6,147 100.0 16 22 Mossi regiond 70,800 25.8 2,493 55.5 3,422 55.7 35 45

a. The ethnicregions correspond approximately to departmentsand sons-prefecturesas follows:Northern - Sahel,Yatenga - North; Central Mossi= North-Central,Central (minusthe sous-prefectures of Po and Tiebele),and West-Central(minus the sous- prefecturesof Leo and Tenado);Bissa = the sous-prefecturesof Po, Tiebele,and Zabre;Gourma = East; Gourounsi= the sous- prefecturesof Leo and Tenadoin West-Central;Western = BlackVolta, South-West, and High Basins(minus the sous-prefectures of Orodaa and Banfora);Senoufo = the sous-prefecturesof Orodara and Banforain High Basins;and Lobi = South-West. b. The populationreferred to here is the total enumeratedpopulation. c. The 1960population figure for Central Mossiincludes the estimatedpopulation of Ouagadougou(70,000); that for Western includesthe estimated populationof Bobo-Dioulasso(55,000). d. The Mossiregion comprisesthe ethnic regionsof Yatenga,Central Mossi,and Bissa. Sources: Upper Volta, Servicede la Statistiqueet de la Mecanographie,Enqutte Drrwographiquepar Sondageen Republique de Haute Volta, 1960-61,vol. 1, table 4.

The total enumerated population in Upper Volta increased by 37 percent during 1961-75,or about 2.1 percent a year (table 11). Five ethnic regions had relatively higher rates: Gourma, Lobi, Central Mossi,Northern, and Western. The high growth in the Northern region, which correspondsto Sahel Depart- ment, wassomewhat of a surprise.It seems that Upper Volta did not suffer from the drought as much as its two neighbors, Mali and Niger. The rapid increase recorded for East (Gourma,4.5 percent a year) and Sahel departments (North- ern, 2.6 percent a year) may be owing to the immigration of nomads from neighboringcountries. Similarly,the lowergrowth rates in other regionsand the negative rate in the Gourounsiregion were owing to a relativelyhigher emigration or out-migration rate. Differentials in the rate of natural increase cannot account for all the difference in the regionalgrowth rates. 24 Migration in West Africa

Table 11. Upper Volta: Resident PopulationGrowth by Ethnic Region, 1960-75

Populationb (thousands) Annual Percentage growth Ethnic regiona 1960 1975 increase rate

Northern 245 364 48.6 2.6 Yatenga 540 598 10.7 0.7 Central Mossi 1,715 2,557 49.1 2.7 Bissa 238 267 12.2 0.8 Gourma 215 422 96.3 4.5 Gourounsi 287 224 -22.0 -1.7 Western 737 1,022 38.7 2.2 Senoufo 281 297 5.7 0.4 Lobi 229 396 72.9 3.7 Upper Volta 4,487 6,147 37.0 2.1

a. The ethnic regionsare defined in table 10. b. Figuresare for the total enumeratedpopulation. Sources: Same as table 10.

Before the first census of Liberia in 1962, there had been several guesses about Liberia the size of its population, ranging between 1.6 and 2.5 million people. The lowest guess turned out to be larger than the census count of 1974. The population growth is revealed by recent censuses:

Census date Total population

April 2, 1962 1,016,000 February 1, 1974 1,503,000 Intercensalgrowth rate 47.8 percent Average annual growth rate 3.4 percent The annual rate of population growth of 3.4 percent is very close to the 3.5 percent estimated by the Liberian Population Growth Survey (LPGS) for 1970. The LPGS estimate of the 1971 growth rate was greatly affected by the high mortality caused by a cholera epidemic that year, and hence it cannot be compared with any average rate over the intercensal period. The consistency of the figures obtained from the two sources suggests that the population is now growing at an annual rate of about 3.5 percent.9 Data from the LPGS for 1970 and 1971 provide detailed information on the level and pattern of fertility and mortality prevailing in those years. They suggest that the level of fertility is quite high: the crude annual birth rate is estimated at around 50 per thousand population, and the average Liberian female bears around six children during her reproductive lifetime. The estimates of the level of mortality obtained by LPGS are not as definitive as those of fertility because the 1971 cholera epidemic raised the crude death rate six points above the 1970 level of 15 per thousand. Since epidemics are not very common in Liberia, the 1971 crude death rate of 21 per thousand cannot be taken as representative. Liberia's high crude birth rate and low crude death rate give it one of the highest rates of natural increase (about 3.2 percent a year) among the West African countries. With a total land area of 97,920 square kilometers (38,250 square miles) and a total population of 1.0 million in 1962 and 1.5 million in 1974, the density of population was relatively low: 10.4 persons per square kilometer in 1962 and 15.4 persons in 1974. The 1974 figure is about half that of the world as a whole, about 5 persons per square kilometer lower than the average for West Africa, but slightly above the average (13) for Africa. Among the English-speaking countries

9. The mid-1980 estimate of Liberian population is 1.9 million (Zachariah and Vu). Demographic Background 25

of West Africa, Liberia has the lowest density of population. In 1975 Sierra Leone, its western neighbor, had a population density of 42 persons per square kilometer, Ghana had a density of 41, and the Gambia a density of 45.1O The population of Liberia is very unevenly distributed among its counties (table 12 and map 5). In 1974 Montserrado County had the highest share (nearly 30 percent) of the entire population and the highest density-slightly more than four times that of the entire country. The density was about half as great in this county in 1962, though it was three times the average noted for the whole country. In addition to doubling in density, Montserrado gained six percentage pointsin its shareof the country'spopulation over the 1962-74period. On the other extreme,Grand Cape Mount County had the smallestshare of the country's population(3.8 percent),and Grand GedehCounty had the lowestpopulation density(four personsper squarekilometer). These two countiesoccupied similar ranks with respectto populationshare and densityin 1962as well.Although all the countiesexperienced an increasein populationdensity over the period,the gainswere relativelysmall (one to sevenpersons), except in Montserrado.

Table12. Liberia:Spatial Distribution, Growth of Population,and Density, 1962-74

1962 1974 Density per square Annual Percent Males Percent Males Area kilometer population of per 100 of per 100 (square growth ratea County Population total females Population total females kilometers) 1962 1974 (percent)

Bong 139,762 13.8 92 194,186 12.9 96 9,344 15.0 20.8 2.8 Grand Bassa 128,322 12.6 93 151,146 10.0 101 12,992 9.9 11.6 1.4 Grand Cape Mount 32,190 3.2 101 56,601 3.8 110 5,760 5.6 9.8 4.9 Grand Gedeh 48,256 4.8 78 71,823 4.8 89 16,832 2.9 4.3 3.4 Lofa 131,554 12.9 81 180,737 12.0 92 19,136 6.9 9.4 2.8 Maryland 76,085 7.5 93 91,598 6.1 98 4,288 17.7 21.4 1.6 Montserrado 243,240 23.9 129 439,991 29.3 116 6,528 37.3 67.4 5.2 Nimba 162,855 16.0 95 249,692 16.6 96 11,904 13.7 21.0 3.7 Sinoe 54,179 5.3 93 67,594 4.5 102 11,136 4.9 6.1 1.9 Liberia 1,016,443 100.0 98 1,503,368 100.0 102 97,920 10.4 15.4 3.4

a. Geometricaverage Sources: The 1962 and 1974 figuresfor populationdistribution are taken, respectively,from M. L. Srivastavaand K. H. Hasselmann,"Population Growth in Liberia, 1962-1974," Seminar on PopulationGrowth and DevelopmentPlanning, Monrovia,August 15-21, 1976;and Liberia,Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs, Population Bulletin no. 2, 1974 Census of Population and Housing (Monrovia, 1976). The area was derived from Liberia, National Planning Council, National Socio-Economic Development Plan, 1976-1980 (Monrovia,1976), p. 5.

The intercensalrates of populationgrowth also varied in the differentcounties. The averageannual rate for the nation(3.4 percent) was well below the ratesfor Grand CapeMount (4.9 percent) and Montserrado(5.2 percent), and marginally closeto thosefor Nimba(3.7 percent) and GrandGedeh (3.4 percent). Maryland CouIIty,which had the secondhighest density af populationin bothcensuses, experiencedone of the lowest(1.6 percent)annual rates of populationgrowth over the intercensalperiod. Togo Togois a longstretch of land sandwichedbetween Ghana and Benin.The Germans ruled the country until World War I. In 1919 the Allies divided the country, giving nearly two-thirds to France and one-third to Great Britain. In 1956 the area under British administration was annexed to the Gold Coast (Ghana), and French Togo became the first autonomous republic of French- speaking black Africa. The country became independent in 1960.

10. United Nations, Selected World Demographic Indicators by Countries, 1950-2000. 26 Migration in West Africa

Like many other countries on the continent, Togo's demographic situation is not adequately documented,but its censusdata are better than thoseof its eastern neighbor, Benin, and several other countriesin the region such as Upper Volta and Niger. Togo has taken two censusesin recent years. The first was carried out at different times in different places during 1958-60. The second and most recent was more or less a one-time operation in March and April 1970.These censuses were followed by demographic sample surveys that provided more detailed information on the population.The census reportsof 1960and 1970and the reports on the demographic survey in 1961 are the principal sources used here. The report on the demographicsurvey conductedafter the 1970census was not available at the time of this writing. Accordingto these censuses,the resident population of Togo increased from about 1.44 million in 1960 to 1.95 million in 1970, representing an average growth rate of 3 percent a year during 1960-70 (table 13).11The United Nations estimated the crude birth rate and death rate of Togo for 1965-70 at 50.9 and 25.5 respectivelyper thousand population. These rates imply a net immigration of 0.5 percent a vear to Togo during the 1960s.According to the results of the 1961 demographic sample survey, the crude birth rate was 55 and the crude death rate was 29 per thousand, giving a rate of natural increase of about 2.6 percent a year. There is, however, no reason to believe that fertility has declined in Togo in recent years, although the birth rate could have declined because of changes in the age distribution. A slight decline in the mortality rate during this period would be consistent with the experienceof some other African countries, but the magnitude of the decline would probably be smaller than that indicated by the figures noted above.In short, while the fertility and mortality trends and levelsin Togo are not precisely known, a fair guessis that fertility remainsstable and high, and though mortality is high compared with non-Africanstandards, it is perhaps declining very slowly.Despite the rate of natural increaseof 2.6 to 2.7 percent a year, the populationhas been growingat a slightlyhigher rate because of net immigration.

Table13. Togo:Resident Population, 1960 and 1970

Population (thowsands) Annual 1960 1970 rate of Percentage increase Region Total Total Male Femnale increase (percent)

Maritime 495.5 703.9 333.0 370.9 42.1 3.5 Plateaux 367.3 469.8 230.2 239.6 27.9 2.5 Centrale 189.7 298.9 144.5 154.4 57.6 4.5 Kara 201.2 237.2 110.5 126.8 17.9 1.6 Savanes 187.5 240.7 119.2 121.5 28.3 2.5 Togo 1,441.1 1,950.6 940.6 1,015.1 35.4 3.0

Note: The 1960population figures are estimatessupplied by the Togo Directionde la Statistique,based on data from the 1958-60general censusof the population.Since Kara Regionwas establishedafter the 1958-60 census, estimatesfor the populationwithin its presentarea were also derived for 1960.The 1970population total excludes 47,634internal and externalvisitors. Sources;Togo, Directionde la Statistique,unpublished estimates based on Service de la StatistiqueG6neral, Recensement General de la Population de Togo, 1958-60, fascicles 2-6 (Lome: Minist&re des Finances et des Affaires Economiques, n.d.); Direction de la Statistique, Recensement GenOral de la Population (March-April 1970), vol. 2, Resultats Detailles par Circonscription (Lome: Ministere du Plan, 1975), table 1.

In 1970 the country was divided into five administrative regions which are, from north to south, Savanes,Kara, Centrale, Plateaux,and Maritime. The most

11. The mid-1980 estimate is 2.6 million (Zachariab and Vu). Demographic Background 27

populousof these is Maritime,which had about 36 percent of the total population of the country in 1970. The relative size of the regions and populationdensity decrease as the distance from the coast increases(see map 6). The country is predominantlyrural, with 87 percent of the populationliving in villages. The urban population lives in seventowns with a combined population of 254,000in 1970.The low level of urbanization is one reason for the relatively low level of Togo's internal migration in relation to its external migration.

Senegal During the first decade of this century, Senegalcomprised in effect the communes of Dakar, Saint-Louis,Goru, Rufisque,and small areas on either side of the Senegaland CasamanceRivers and the Dakar-Saint-Louisrailway line, with a combined area of about 1,135 square kilometers.Present Senegalis about 170 times this area. Until very recently, the total population of the country was not known precisely, and the official agencies tended to underestimate the total population and growth rate. The first census,taken in April 1976, gave a total populationof 5 million.12Previously, the principal sourcesof migration and other demographic data for Senegal were national demographic surveys,the first of which was carried out in 1960-61,and the second in 1970-71. With a total land area of 196,200square kilometers,the density of population in 1976 was about 26 persons per square kilometer, which is relatively low compared with the world average(29), but high compared with the West African level (19) or the average for the whole of Africa (13). During 1960-70 the population was growing at a rate of 84,000persons a year, or about 2.7 percent annually. This rate is average for the West African region (2.8 percent). The crude birth rate (48)and the crude death rate (22) are therefore not very much different from those of other countriesin the region or the continent. Senegalis divided into sevengeographic regions(see table 14 and map 7), and the total population of the country is unevenly distributed among them. Sine- Saloum contains the largest and Senegal-Orientalcontains the lowest proportion of the total population. When allowance is made for the differences in area, however, Cap-Vert Region,in which the capital city Dakar is located,emerges as the densest (1,540persons per square kilometer). Senegal-Orientalhas not only the lowestproportion of the total population,but also the lowestdensity (lessthan five personsper square kilometer).In general,the densityof populationdecreases systematicallyas one moves away from the capital city and the Atlantic coast.

Table14. Senegal:Total Population by Regionand Density,1976

Density Population Percentage per square Region (thousands) distribution kilometer

Cap-Vert 985 19.4 1,970 Casamance 737 14.5 26 Diourbel 843 16.6 25 Fleuve 528 10.4 12 Senegal-Oriental 286 5.6 5 Sine-Saloum 1,008 19-8 42 Thies 699 13.7 106 Senegal 5,085 100.0 26

Source:Based on Senegal,Direction de la Statistique,-Resultats Provisoires du RecensementGeneral de la Populationd'Avril 1976"(Dakar, 1976).

Sierra Leone Sierra Leone is a narrow belt of coastal swampland, plains, and low plateaus surrounded by hills. It is less than one-third the sizeof Guinea, its northern and

12. The mid-1980 estimate is 5.7 million (Zachariah and Vu). 28 Migration in West Africa

eastern neighbor, and three-fifths that of Liberia, its southern neighbor. As with other countries in the region, Sierra Leone is inhabited by diverse ethnic groups, but the Mende and Temne account for more than 60 percent of the total population. Creoles, descendants of freed slaves, constitute less than 2 percent. The country is largely rural, with the population engaged in subsistence agriculture. Small-scale diamond digging has been an important source of income since the late 1950s. In 1976, 32 percent of GDP was contributed by agriculture, 23 percent by industry, and the balance of 45 percent by services. Sierra Leone has taken two censuses in recent years; the first in 1963 and the second eleven years later. The total population of the country according to these censuses was 2.2 million and 2.7 million respectively. An estimate of the population of the country in mid-1978 is about 3.0 million." The growth rate and birth rate in Sierra Leone are relatively small by West African standards. The birth rate is estimated to be 45 compared with 49 for the region, and the death rate was relatively low at 21 during 1970-75. The intercensal growth rate was 1.9 percent a year compared with 2.8 for the region. Sierra Leone is divided into fourteen administrative districts. Among these, Kono has the largest population and the highest growth rate (table 15 and map 8). Western Area, where the capital city, Freetown, is located, is second in rank with respect to both total population and growth rates, although Sherbro Urban has the highest density. In only two districts is the growth rate above the national average.

Table 15. Sierra Leone: Total Populationby AdministrativeDistrict, 1963 and 1974

Implied average 1974 annual density Administrative growth rate per square district 1963 1974 (percent) kilometer

Bo 209,754 217,711 0.32 42 Bonthe 73,245 80,606 0.82 23 Moyamba 167,425 188,745 1.03 27 Pujehun 84,869 102,741 1.63 25 Sherbro Urban 6,894 6,955 0.08 696 Kailahun 150,236 180,363 1.56 47 Kenema 227,428 266,636 1.36 44 Kono 167,915 328,930 5.75 58 Bombali 198,776 233,626 1.38 29 Kambia 137,806 165,341 1.56 53 Koinadugu 129,061 158,626 1.76 13 Port Loko 247,463 292,244 1.42 51 Tonkolili 184,460 206,231 0.95 29 Western Area 195,023 316,312 4.14 569 Sierra Leone 2,180,355 2,735,159 1.94 38

Note: The period between censuseswas 11.69years. Sources: Derived from Sierra Leone,Central StatisticsOffice, 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone, vol. 2 (Freetown:Ministrv of Informationand Broadcasting,1965); and unpublisheddata from the 1974 population censis

The Gambia is the smallest of the countries in this study in both area and The Gambia population. It forms an enclave inside Senegal, 200 miles long and 10 miles wide on either side of the Gambia River. The boundaries of the country were dictated not by ethnic or geographic considerations but by European politics of the latter part of the nineteenth century.

13. A mid-1980estimate is 3.5 million(Zachariab and Vu). Demographic Background 29 The totalpopulation of the countryis estimated at about550,000 for 1977.The latestcensus of the countryconducted in April1973 enumerated 493,000 persons and indicateda growthrate of 4.5 percenta year between1963 and 1973.'4At the beginningof this century,the totalpopulation of the countrywas lessthan 100,000,but the growth rate was as high as that observedduring the latest intercensalperiod. For mostof this centurythe rate of growthhas not beenvery high, and in fact around1930 there was a net decreasein the totalsize of the country's population (table 16). Table16. The Gambia: Total Population as Reportedin the Censuses,1901-73

Average annual Intercensal growth Census Total percentage rate year population change (percent)

1901 90,404 - - 1911 146,101 61.6 4.8 1921 210,611 44.2 3.7 1931 199,520 -5.3 -0.5 1963 315,486 58.1 1.4 1973 493,499 56.4 4.5

Source: The Gambia, Central Statistics Division, Office of the President, Provisional Report of the 1973 Census of Population (Banjul, 1973), p. 5. The high and fluctuatingrate of growthindicates that populationgrowth in the Gambiahas been influencedby externalmigration. In 1973,although the crude birth rate wasvery high (about 50 per thousand),the crudedeath rate was also very high (about 30 per thousand).Thus, natural increasemay not have been higherthan 2.0 percent.Of the balanceof 2.5 percentagepoints, 0.6 pointswere due to net immigrationand the remaining1.9 pointsto relativeunderenumera- tion in the 1963 census. Banjulis the largesttown and the capitalof the country.Its populationin 1973 was only39,000, or 8 percentof the total(table 17). Between 1963 and 1973the

Table 17. The Gambia: Population in Local Government Areas, 1963 and 1973

Percentage Population share of Average density total annual per square Local Population population rate of kilometer government growth, area 1963 1973 1963 1973 1963-73 1963 1973

Banjul 27,809 39,179 8.8 7.9 3.4 2,142 3,077 Kombo St. Mary 12,208 39.404 3.9 8.0 11.7 162 522 Brikama 55,393 91,013 17.6 18.4 5.0 32 52 Mansakonko 34,227 42,447 10.8 8.6 2.2 22 27 Kerewan 63,045 93,388 20.0 18.9 3.9 29 43 Kuntaur 29,003 47,669 9.2 9.7 5.0 20 33 Georgetown 35,752 54,232 11.3 11.0 4.2 26 39 Basse 58,049 86,169 18.4 17.5 4.0 29 43 Gambia 315,486 493,499 100.0 100.0 4.5 30 47

Sources; H. A. Oliver, Census Controller, Report on the Census of Population of the Gambia Taken on 17th./18th., April 1963, Sessional Paper no. 13 (Banjul: Central Statistics Division, 1965), table 3, p. 42; and the Gambia, Central Statistics Division. Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, Population Cen- sus of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, vol. 3, General Report (Banjul, 1976), table 1, pp. 73-77

14. This high growth rate is partly a reflection of the relative underenumeration in the 1963 census. A mid-1980 estimate of the population is 601,000 (Zachariah and Vu). 30 Migration in West Africa

population of Banjul grew by 3.4 percent, 1.1 percentage points less than the national growth rate. The influx of external migration was obviously less intense in Banjul than in the rest of the country. The highest growth rate of Banjul occurred from 1921 to 1930 (4.4 percent) at a time when the national population decreased by 0.5 percent a year. The Gambia is divided into four divisions and eight local government areas. Kerewan in the Lower River Division is the most populous of the eight areas. Although this area contains the most suitable land for groundnut cultivation, in 1973 the density of population here was only 43 persons per square kilometer, 4 less than the national average. Density was highest in Banjul (map 9), which supported a population of 39,000 in 12.7 square kilometers. In general, the western regions were more densely inhabited than the eastern regions. The rates of population growth varied from 11.7 percent a year in Kombo St. Mary to 2.2 percent in Mansakonko. With a prevailing high death rate in the country, it is most likely that the differences in regional growth rates are partly explained by differences in natural increase. It is, however, difficult to isolate this effect. The possible contribution of internal and external migration is analyzed in later chapters. CHAPTER 3 International Migration

Long-distance migration is not new in West Africa; it has been a way of life for many young men in several parts of the region during much of this century. The initial impetus for migration came mainly from external sources, but its continua- tion and growing momentum are owing to other reasons: demographic trends that increase population pressure on the land; unequal economic opportunities, especially for the young, in the different countries of the region; laissez-faire attitudes of the governments on questions of migration; and the contacts and channels of communication established at the time of compulsory migration.

Historical Background International migration in the region developed to the present state in several stages. In the early period, entire villages or clans moved to escape tribal warfare or famine, and the number of people who fled was substantial in some years. Then came the colonists, wanting soldiers for their armies and manpower for their plantations. When they could not recruit men where they were needed (in Ghana and the Ivory Coast), labor was brought in from countries such as Upper Volta, often by force and with the connivance and assistance of local tribal chiefs. In this stage migration was not of people, but of labor and soldiers. Forced movements eventually gave way to the migration of contract laborers, at which stage the force was only indirect; local leaders were paid for providing a fixed number of workers for plantations or public works. When forced migration was finally abolished, migration had become custom- ary among the young men of Upper Volta and other interior parts of the region, a folkway sustained by economic and social pressures at home and incentives at the places of destination. Life under the head of a compound for a younger brother or grown son or with an oppressive tribal chief is not entirely satisfactory even in ordinary circumstances, and it can become untenable when more attractive alternatives exist in the cocoa farms of Ghana, the plantations or forest industries in the Ivory Coast, the groundnut fields in Senegal, or in the large and glamorous cities in all these countries where migrants might lead a life of their own with assurance of a better income. Many young men opted for these alternatives and many continue to do so today. The principal migration streams were the movement of Upper Volta nationals to Ghana and the Ivory Coast, Togo nationals to Ghana, and Mali nationals to Senegal and the Ivory Coast. Upper Volta has been the main source of migrants in West Africa in recent history. The present boundaries of Upper Volta were carved out of Upper Senegal and the Niger Territory by the French in 1919. In 1932, however, the territory was divided among Mali, Niger, and the Ivory Coast; the eastern part going to Niger, the densely populated Yatanga going to Mali, and the Ivory Coast receiving the rest. The early colonial period was characterized by the largest migration ever recorded in this region. Entire villages moved to Ghana during the second decade of the century as a result of tribal uprisings, military recruitment, forced labor, and famine. An official British document put the number of Upper Volta nationals who entered Ghana during 1927-28 at 120,000. The 1931 census of Ghana 31 32 Migration in West Africa estimated that between 1921 and 1931 about 287,000 Upper Volta nationals had moved into Ghana. Between 1948 and 1960 the percentage of the population in Ghana who had been born abroad had practically doubled. In 1960, 195,000 Upper Volta nationals and 133,000 persons born in Upper Volta were living in Ghana. The national retrospective demographic survey conducted in Upper Volta gave data concerning the emigration of Upper Volta nationals (see table 18). As these figures indicate, the migration of Upper Voltans to the Ivory Coast was slow to start, but picked up momentum rapidly. Until 1935 the Ivory Coast was second only to Ghana in its economic attractiveness; ever since then it has remained the major destination of Upper Volta nationals.

Table 18. Upper Volta:Emigration by Yearof Departure and Country of Destination, RetrospectiveData Collectedin 1960-61

1923 and 1924- 1933- 1940- 1946- 1951- 1956- Not Destination before 32 39 45 50 55 60 declared Total

Ivory Coast 310 1,480 4,100 8,750 10,020 21,280 33,960 210 80,110 Ghana 930 3,450 3,910 5,210 7,810 12,630 15,470 700 50,110 Mali 130 500 690 1,580 610 170 350 ... 4,030 Senegal 530 920 750 1,010 910 290 420 ... 4,830 Other African countries5a 1,570 3,170 2,840 2,040 970 640 950 ... 12,180 France 1,130 2,700 3,620 1,710 410 250 100 ... 9,920 Othernon-African countries 150 450 500 280 450 410 100 ... 2,340 Not declared 10 ... 50 50 80 50 50 80 370 Total 4,760 12,670 16,640 20,630 21,260 35,720 51,400 990 163,890

... Zeroor negligible. a. OtherAfrican countries include mainly Niger and North African countries where soldiers were sent. Source: Uppervolta, Service de la Statistiqueet de iaMeanographie, Enquate Demographique par Sondage en Rpubtlique de HauteVolta, 1960-61: Les Emigrations([Paris]: Institut National deia Statistiqueet des Etudes Economiques andSecr6tariat d'Etataux Affaires Etrang&res, 1970), table 13.

Recruitment of workers for forestry and plantation work in the Ivory Coast began in 1928 and accelerated in 1932 when Upper Volta was partitioned so that colonial planters in the Ivory Coast were free to recruit Upper Voltans without any administrative formality. In 1933 about 3,000 Upper Volta workers moved into the Ivory Coast; by 1936 there were 20,000, of whom half had come voluntarily and the remainder, compulsorily. At the end of 1936, when compulsory recruitment was officially abolished, many workers returned to their native country, but economic problems at home and economic opportunities in the Ivory Coast sustained an increasing voluntary migration. Administrative inter- vention in manpower recruitment for the Ivory Coast was resumed in 1940 when about 6,000 workers were officially recruited. Along with them, another 3,000 migrated on their own. The total number of emigrants to the Ivory Coast increased to 15,000 in 1941 and to 36,000 in 1942. By 1944 there were 59,000 Upper Voltan recruits in the Ivory Coast. In 1951 the employers' associations in the Ivory Coast set up a recruitment organization, Syndicat Interprofessional d'Acheminement de la Main d'Oeuvre (SIAMO),to get workers from Upper Volta. The numbers of workers recruited by contract through this official channel were as follows:'

1. AmbroiseSongre, Jean-Marie Sawadogo, and Georges Sanogoh, -Realitgs et Effetsde l'Emigra- tionMassive des Voltaiques dans le Contexte de l'AfriqueOccidentale," in SamirAmin, ed., Modern Migrationsin Western Africa (London:Oxford UniversityPress for InternationalAfrican Institute, 1974). International Migration 33

Year Recruits 1951 50,017 1952 39,860 1953 24,930 1954 28,696 1955 27,317 1956 20,586 1957 17,430 1958 20,740

For various reasons the activities of SIAMO were prohibited in Upper Volta in 1960, the year of independence. Emigration of Togo nationals to Ghana began early in the century and continued at an accelerated rate until the 1960s. Togo had been a French protectorate under a League of Nations mandate for forty years before independence. Be- cause the long-term prospects for the administering authority were uncertain, developmental efforts were altogether neglected during this period, and few investments were directed toward using the country's natural resources or build- ing up the necessary infrastructure for industrialization. The result was a com- plete stagnation of employment opportunities in the country. To add to the problem, a large number of Dabomeans migrated to Togo along with the French administrators to take jobs in civil service and other paid employment. The French preferred the Dahomeans to the Togolese because of their greater profi- ciency in the French language and their higher general education. Dabomey (now Benin) had come under French influence in 1870, several decades before Togo did. Some of the activities of the foreign administrators in Togo were resented by the Togolese. For example, many villages were reportedly compelled to produce predetermined quantities of palm oil and other agricultural products much against the will and interest of the inhabitants. Such repressive policies, in the context of acute employment problems, led a large number of Togolese to seek their fortunes elsewhere in the region. As a result, a large number of them left the country for Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Historical data on Togo nationals in Ghana are not plentiful, but some indirect evidence is available that suggests substantial migration took place early in the century. The 1960 census of Ghana enumerated about 6,200 Togolese aged thirty years and older who were born in Ghana (see table 19). These were no doubt children of early migrants and therefore indicate the extent of early migratory movements from Togo to Ghana. A rough calculation indicates that at least

Table 19. Ghana: Togo NationalsBorn and Enumerated in Ghana, 1905-60

Number Year of enunerated birth in 1960

1955-60 43,876 1950-55 25,857 1945-50 12,303 1940-45 6,821 1935-40 5,356 1930-35 4,151 1925-30 2,523 1920-25 1,587 1915-20 851 1910-15 492 1905-10 266 Before 1905 515

Source: Derived from Ghana CensusOffice, 1960Population Census of Ghana, vol. 3 (Accra, 1964), table 14. 34 Migration in West Africa

75,000 Togo nationals were living in Ghana during 1925-30; by 1960 the number had increased to 280,000. Migration of Mali nationals to other African countries, apart from the tradi- tional movements of trading and nomadic pastoralism, has been determined by conditions in the neighboring countries. The development of groundnut cultivation and the concomitant demand for labor made Senegal the principal destination of Malian emigrants after World War I. With the expanded cultivation of coffee, cocoa, and bananas in the years following World War II, Malians emigrated to the Ivory Coast and Ghana. Of the 350,000 Malians who were residing outside the country in 1960, as many as 250,000 were living in the Ivory Coast. The choice of host country among Malian emigres has varied according to their place of origin; those from Kayes Region emigrated mainly to Senegal, and those from Nioro mainly to the Ivory Coast.

Information on recent migration across international boundaries in West Af- Recent Trends rica comes from census data on foreign nationals, foreign-born persons, and total population. These are stock data, that is, they give the number of migrants in a given place at the time of the census, but they cannot give direct information on migration flows during a given period. Period migration may be different from that indicated by stock data. In fact, external migration flows in some parts of West Africa have changed course in recent years, and for these streams even the direction of movement shown by stock data is different from that of recent migration flows. One reason for this reversal is that political independence in some countries was followed by the return of their nationals.

Around 1975 about 2.8 million foreign nationals (immigrants and their chil- Immigration dren) were living in the nine West African countries included in this study. Table 20 gives the number of immigrants in each country and table 21 gives their distribution by country of origin. Most of the immigrants were nationals of countries in West Africa; that is, 2.66 million, or 95.2 percent of the total. Foreign nationals from outside the region numbered about 134,000, or 4.8 percent of the total. For the nine countries together, immigrants constituted 7.0 percent of the total population. Only three countries had a proportion of foreign nationals equal to or above the national average: the Ivory Coast had 21 percent of its population

Table 20. Foreign Nationalsby Country of Residence,circa 1975

Foreign nationals Foreign nationals Foreign From from outside nationals outside as percentage as percentage Country the of total of total of residence Year Total region immigrants population

Ivory Coast 1975 1,425,900 34,700 2.4 21.3 Ghana 1970 562,100 15,000 2.7 6.6 Senegala 1975 355,000 51,000 14.4 7.1 Upper Voltaa 1975 100,000 2,900 2.9 1.9 Malia 1976 100,000 5,000 5.0 1.7 Sierra Leone 1974 79,400 10,000 12.6 3.0 Togo 1970 60,000 2,000 3.3 3.1 Liberia 1974 55,700 11,600 20.8 3.7 Gambia 1973 52,300 1,900 3.6 10.6 All countries 2,790,400 134,100 4.8 7.Ob

a. Rough estimates based on foreign-born persons. b. Base used is 1975 estimate. Sources: Recent population censuses and surveys of each country. International Migration 35

Table 21. Foreign Nationals by Country of Nationality and Country of Enumeration, circa 1975

Country of enuneration

Country of Total nationality Ghana Ivory Coast Upper Voltaa Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Liberia Gambia Maltia emigrants

Ghana - 42,500 17,300 1,000 4,600 30,000 6,600 ... .. 102,000 Ivory Coast 18,300 - 44,400 1,400 ... 1,500 ... 7,900 73,500 Upper Volta 159,300 726,200 - 13,700 800 8,000 - ... 47,700 955,700 Senegal 100 19,200 2,100 - ...... 200 25,300 11,500 58,400 Sierra Leone 3,000 1,100 400 800 - ... 4,800 400 1,000 11,500 Togo 244,700 12,100 2,900 ...... - 100 ...... 259,800 Liberia 4,600 3,400 700 700 11,000 ... - 300 1,000 21,700 Gambia 100 100 100 45,600 3,400 - 1,000 50,300 Mali 13,400 348,500 21,800 28,900 ...... 1,400 5,500 - 419,500 Guinea ... 105,800 ... 180,200 41,000 ... 25,400 17,000 24,100 396,100 Nigeria 55,500 49,600 2,000 ... 7,300 ... 1,700 ...... 116,100 Other 63,100 117,400 8,300 82,700 11,300 22,000 14,000 3,800 5,800 325,800 Total immigrants 562,100 1,425,900 100,000 355,000 79,400 60,000 55,700 52,300 100,000 2,790,400

Negligible. - Not applicable. a. Estimateonly. Sources: Basedon recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

from outside the country; the Gambia, 11 percent; and Senegal, 7 percent. Until very recently, Ghana was the major country of immigration in West Africa, but the proportion of foreign nationals has been declining and in 1970 it was more or less the same as the regional average. The number of foreign nationals in Ghana was 562,000 in 1970 and 828,000 in 1960. These are large numbers, especially in comparison with the Gambia and Senegal, and represented 12.3 percent of the total population in 1960 and 6.6 percent in 1970. Togo, Mali, Upper Volta, Liberia, and Sierra Leone have relatively fewer immigrants. The number of foreign-born persons in these countries was 2.2 million, of whom 162,000 were born outside Africa. The distribution of the foreign-born by country of birth is shown in table 22 and is similar to that of foreign nationals. In countries of immigration the number of foreign-born is usually less than the number of foreign nationals, but in countries of emigration such as Upper Volta and Togo this is not true because the foreign-born are mostly nationals born abroad who have returned to their country of origin.

THE IVORY COAST. The Ivory Coast is undoubtedly the principal country of immigration currently. The number of foreign nationals enumerated in the Ivory Coast in 1975 was 1.4 million. Every fifth person in the country was a foreign national, either born outside the country or born inside to parents of foreign origin. At present, this is the highest proportion of foreign nationals in any country in West Africa. The number of foreign-born persons in the Ivory Coast was 1.1 million, or 16 percent of the total population in 1975. One out of every six persons in the country was an immigrant. The Ivory Coast led all the other countries in the region with respect not only to the number of immigrants but also the proportion of immigrants in the country. Nearly half the immigrants in the Ivory Coast in 1975 came from Upper Volta and about one-fourth from Mali. These two northern neighbors contributed three out of every four immigrants in the country, or one out of every nine persons living there in 1975. Guinea was the next sending country in order of importance, followed by Ghana. About 86 percent of the immigrants originated in one of these four contiguous countries, while fairly large numbers also came from Ni- geria, Benin, Niger, and Senegal (see map 10). 36 Migration in West Africa

Table 22. Foreign-born Personsby Country of Birth, circa 1975

Country of enumeration

Country of birth Ghana Ivory Coast Upper Volta Senegal Sierra Leone Togo Liberia Gambia Mali Total

Ghana - 38,600 19,200 700a 4,600 100,000 8,000a ...... 171,100 Ivory Coast 16,300 - 49,100 1,000a - 2,000a 1,800a ... 7,900a 78,100 Upper Volta 105,200 520,500 - 10,000a 900a 2,000a - ... 47,700a 686,300 Senegal 100a 15,600 2,500 - ... 200 27,200 11,500a 57,100 Sierra Leone 2,000a 1,000a 500a 600a .. 6,400 600 1,OOOa 12,100 Togo 133,300 9,300 3,500 ...... 200 ... N 146,300 Liberia 4,100 3,900 900a 500a 11,100 ... - 600 1,o0a 22,100 Gambia looa 1ooa 200a 33,300 3,400 ...... 1,000a 38,100 Mali 9,500 236,800 24,000 21,100 - ... 1,600 5,500 - 298,500 Total 270,600 825,800 99,900 67,200 20,000 104,000 18,200 33,900 70,100a 1,509,700

Guinea N 67,200 N 1 31 ,6 0 0 b 41,300 10,000a 26,400 1 7 ,6 0 0 b 23,200a 317,300a Nigeria 31,600 32,400 2,300 N 7,500 20,000a 1,900 N N 95,700a Other African countries 31,700 66,000 15,100 23,200 1,200 7,600a 1,100 1,700 1,700a 149,300a Total 63,300 165,600 17,400 154,800 50,000 37,600 29,400 19,300 24,900a 562,300 Other 16,000 62,600 3,500 50,000 10,000 2,000 11,800 1,300 5,000a 162,200 Total 349,900 1,054,000 120,800 272,000 80,000 143,600 59,400 54,500 100,000a 2,234,200

... Negligible. - Not applicable. N Not known separately. a. Roughestimate. b. IncludingGuinea Bissau. Sources: Based on recent population censuses and surveys in the countries.

The number of foreign-born persons in the Ivory Coast was less than the number of foreign nationals by 372,000, a difference mainly explained by the children born in the Ivory Coast to foreign nationals. About 26 percent of the foreign nationals were born in the Ivory Coast, though this proportion varied somewhat by nationality. As many as 38 percent of the Guinea nationals were born in the Ivory Coast itself. The proportion of foreign nationals born in the Ivory Coast may be taken as a rough indicator of the length of residence of the immigrant group. On this basis, it appears that Guineans have the longest average length of residence in the Ivory Coast of any immigrant group, followed very closely by Nigerians, Malians, and Benin nationals. About half the immigrants lived in urban areas in the Ivory Coast, compared with only 30 percent of the Ivorians:

Proportion living in urban areas Foreign nationals 49.7 Foreign-born 49.0 Foreign nationalsborn in the Ivory Coast 51.5 Ivory Coast nationals 30.2 Total, all nationalities 34.5

More than half the immigrants lived in South Region in 1975; 21 percent lived in Abidjan Ville and 36 percent in Abidjan Department (including Abidjan Ville). Another 20 percent lived in Central Region. These two regions also have a relatively high proportion of nationals (see table 8 and map 3). Table 23 gives the proportion of immigrants in each region in relation to total population. South Region ranked first in both the absolute number of immigrants and the propor- International Migration 37 Table 23. The Ivory Coast: Percentageof Immigrantsby Region, 1975

Percentage of total population

Foreign nationals Foreign Foreign- born in Region nationals born Ivory Coast

South 32.0 23.8 8.2 North 5.7 4.5 1.2 East 24.7 17.8 6.9 West 9.0 7.5 1.5 Central 17.9 12.4 5.5 Central-West 22.0 17.1 4.9 Ivory Coast 21.3 15.7 5.6

Source: Basedon unpublisheddata fromthe 1975population census of the IvoryCoast.

tion of immigrants in the total regional population. North and West regions were those least affected by immigration. At the departmental level, Abengourou had the highest proportion of lifetime immigrants-more than a third of its population-with 70 percent of the immigrants born in Upper Volta. Abengourou was, however, not the department with the largest number of immigrants. Abidjan Department (including Abidjan Ville) had about 381,000 immigrants compared with 63,000 in Abengourou, and Dim- bokro Department had about 84,000. The proportion of immigrants was 32.5 percent in Abidjan Ville and 27 percent in Abidjan Department as a whole. The departments with a relatively high proportion of lifetime immigrants (above the national average) are shown below:

Department Percentageof lifetime immigrants Abengourou 35.6 Abidjan Ville 32.5 Aboisso 29.2 BouakeVille 25.4 Abidjan (excludingVille) 22.5 Sassandra 19.4 Gagnoa 18.6 Agboville 18.4 Dimbokro 17.6 Daloa 16.1

Although it is contiguous to the major sources of immigrants in the Ivory Coast, North was the region least affected by immigration. It has the least number of immigrants (less than 50,000), and they formed the smallest proportion (4 percent) of the total population. Segu6la Department in this region had only 4,000 immigrants, which is 2.6 percent of the total population of the department. The various immigrant groups are not evenly distributed among the geographic regions of the Ivory Coast; each migrant group had its own center of concentration in 1975. For the country as a whole, 49 percent of the total immigrants came from Upper Volta, but nearly 70 percent of the immigrants in East Region and only 11 percent in West originated in Upper Volta.

GHANA. Until recently, Ghana was the principal country of immigration in West Africa. In 1960 there were 828,000 persons of foreign origin, representing 12 percent of the total population. The flow of immigrants to Ghana was inter- rupted during the 1960s, first by economic problems in Ghana and the better 38 Migration in West Africa economic opportunities in other countries in the region; and second and more abruptly, by the enforcement of the Alien Compliance Order of 1969, which required all foreign workers without a valid residence permit to leave the country immediately. The actual number of those who left because of the order is not known, but the evidence indicates that it was substantial. According to the 1970 census, the total number of foreign nationals in Ghana decreased to 562,000 (from 828,000 in 1960), and the number of foreign-born persons to 315,000 (from 537,000 in 1960). Although the gross flows are not known, a few observations about their magnitude can be made: -At least 198,000 of the foreign-born enumerated in Ghana in 1960 moved out of the country between 1960 and 1970. -At least 166,000 of those born in Ghana to foreign nationals moved out of Ghana between 1960 and 1970. -At least 13,000 foreign-born Ghanaians returned to Ghana between 1960 and 1970. -Net migration of foreign nationals ten years of age or more in 1970 was on the order of 364,000 between 1960 and 1970. -Immigration to Ghana continued during 1960-70; at least 31,000 children under ten years of age and an unknown number of adults who accompanied them moved into Ghana during the period. These categories do not cover all the migration streams and are therefore insufficient to estimate the net effect of migration on the population growth of the country. But they seem to indicate that the country had a negative migration balance during 1960-70, almost entirely because of the return migration of foreign nationals. The Ghanaians were not very migratory, and international migration to and from Ghana during 1960-70 was essentially a movement of non-Ghanaians. Most of the immigrants to Ghana came from neighboring countries; 75 percent in 1970 and 65 percent in 1960 (see map 11). Togo has been and still is the principal source of immigrants; its share of total migrants to Ghana increased from 34 to 44 percent between 1960 and 1970.2 Second in importance were the Upper Volta nationals who contributed 24 percent in 1960 and 28 percent in 1970. The Nigerians were the third largest group in 1960, 23 percent of the total, but their number decreased to 10 percent in 1970, the maximum decrease for any migration stream. Rough estimates of net emigration during 1960-70 of the various nationalities are:

Nationality Net emigration Nigerian 134,000 Togolese 97,000 Upper Voltan 58,000 Ivorian 36,000 Other 39,000 Total 364,000 No extreme concentration of immigrants is noticeable within Ghana; they are fairly evenly distributed among the regions and between rural and urban areas. Ashanti had the largest number of foreign-born both in 1960 and 1970, but Greater Accra had the highest proportion in relation to its total population. Between 1960 and 1970 the number of migrants decreased in all regions, but the decrease was much larger in some regions than others. Nationally, the number of foreign-born decreased by 41 percent, and the number of foreign nationals born

2. This larger proportion is not because the number of Togo nationals in Ghana increased but because it decreased less than that of nationals from some other countries. For example, the number of Nigerian nationals decreased by 71 percent, while the number of Togo nationals decreased by only 13 percent. International Migration 39 in Ghana by 15 percent. But the decrease of foreign-born was as much as 63 percent in Northern Region and 58 percent in Eastern Region. Volta, Ashanti, Greater Accra, and Brong-Ahafo were the least affected. In fact, the number of foreign nationals born in Volta increased by 34 percent, while that in Ashanti by 10 percent (see table 24).

Table 24. Ghana: Distributionof ForeignNational Immigrants by Regionof Enumeration,1960 and 1970

Foreign nationals born in

Ghana Outside

Percentage Percentage change change Region 1960 1970 1960-70 1960 1970 1960-70

Western 38,894 25,419 -35 82,860 39,981 -52 Greater Accra 33,873 35,156 4 72,696 53,713 -26 Eastern 55,842 41,971 -25 93,236 39,412 -58 Volta 34,827 46,810 34 69,180 50,712 -27 Ashanti 47,010 51,650 10 96,430 67,557 -30 Brong-Ahafo 20,583 22,310 8 54,404 38,643 -29 Northern 60,309 23,711 -61 67,337 25,087 -63 Ghana 291,338 247,027 -15 536,143 315,105 -41

Sources: Derived from 1960 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 3, table 11; and Ghana Census Office, 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 3 (Accra, 1975), table C.14.

Migrants from the different countries were unevenly distributed among the different regions. Immigrants from Togo were living predominantly in Volta and Eastern regions; those from Upper Volta were living predominantly in Ashanti, Northern, and more recently in Brong-Ahafo regions. More than half the Niger- ians were living in Accra and Eastern regions. Immigrants have been slightly more urbanized than natives in the past, but between 1960 and 1970 the difference narrowed considerably. In 1960, 23 percent of the population in Ghana were urban, while 33 percent of foreign nationals were living in urban areas. By 1970, 29 percent of the Ghana population were in urban areas, an increase of about 6 percentage points; while the proportion of immigrant population in urban areas remained more or less the same, 35 percent. The different migrant groups are highly heterogeneous with respect to the proportion living in urban areas. Among immigrants from Liberia, Nigeria, and Mali, more than half live in urban areas, while most migrants from Togo, Benin, and the Ivory Coast live in rural areas.

SENEGAL. The number of foreign nationals in Senegal in 1975 was about 355,000, of whom 300,000 were African nationals. A 1970-71 survey enumerated about 220,000 who were born in an African country outside Senegal, or about 5.7 percent of the total population of Senegal. As indicated in table 25, the largest number of immigrants came through the southern borders of the country; about 75,000 from Guinea Bissau and 57,000 from Guinea. The Gambia, which is surrounded by Senegalese territory, sent about 33,000. These emigrants represented a significant proportion of the population of these countries. For example, the Guinea Bissau immigrants represented about 15 percent of the population of that country; the Gambian immigrants were 7 percent of the population of that country in 1971. Thus, migration between Senegal and its neighbors has been significant in relation to the population of the countries of origin as well as of the country of destination. 40 Migration in West Africa

Table 25. Senegal: Lifetime African Immigrants by Region of Residence, 1971

Country of origin

Region of Guinea residence Gambia Guinea Bissau Mali Mauritania Other Total

Cap-Vert 1,680 15,604 2,386 6,235 7,243 4,829 37,977 Casamance 15,881 12,260 71,470 1,074 355 362 101,402 Diourbel ... 519 59 568 2,140 120 3,406 Fleuve 46 398 193 648 7,346 380 9,011 Senegal-Oriental 6,611 12,055 71 4,256 2,020 244 25,257 Sine-Saloum 8,657 14,816 255 6,7S7 1,896 6,478 38,839 Thies 406 1,168 339 1,596 2,242 699 6,450 Senegal 33,281 56,820 74,773 21,114 23,242 13,112 222,342

... Negligible. Source: Senegal,Direction de la Statistique,unpublished data from the 1970-71National Demographic Survey.

The immigrants are distributed unevenly within Senegal. More than 100,000 of them, or 46 percent of the total, settled in Casamance Region which borders principally Guinea Bissau and the Gambia (see map 12); Cap-Vert and Sine- Saloum each received 17 percent of the total, and Senegal-Oriental, 11 percent. In relation to the 1970-71 population of these regions, the impact of immigration was greatest in Casamance and least in Diourbel. The 100,000 immigrants in Casamance represent about 16 percent of the total population of the region, and the 35,000 African immigrants in Senegal-Oriental region were 15 percent of its population. On the whole, the impact of immigration is greatest in these southern and southeastern regions that border the principal countries of origin. The destination of immigrants within Senegal varies significantly with their origins. On the one hand, practically all (96 percent) the Guinea Bissau migrants went to the province adjoining their country, namely, Casamance. On the other hand, migrants from Guinea were more evenly distributed; 27 percent in Cap- Vert, 26 percent in Sine-Saloum, 22 percent in Casamance, and 21 percent in the province adjoining their country, namely, Senegal-Oriental. The preference for the capital city seems to be much stronger for migrants from Mali and Mauri- tania than for any other group. The number of lifetime African immigrants increased from about 129,000 in 1960 to about 222,000 in 1971. When deaths among immigrants are taken into consideration, these figures imply a net immigration of about 114,000 persons during 1960-71, or an average gain of 10,400 persons a year. Thus, African immigration contributed roughly 15 percent of the annual population growth of Senegal during this period. The greatest impact of immigration on population growth was in Casamance, where lifetime immigrants increased from 37,000 in 1960 to 101,000 in 1971, or roughly a net gain of 70,000 during 1960-71. The total increase in population in this region during the same period was only 88,000 although the expected natural increase was as much as 140,000. Thus, it appears that the region lost through internal migration and probably emigration of Senegal-born persons as many as 122,000 persons at a time when it gained 70,000 through immigration from other African countries. It is not altogether surprising that although Senegal-Oriental showed the highest growth rate during 1960-71 for any region in Senegal and has common boundaries with Guinea, which is one of the major countries of origin of immigrants in Senegal, net immigration to this region during 1960-71 was only about 3,000. Senegal-Oriental includes areas subject to river blindness and has no developmental infrastructure, such as the provision of drinking water. Similarly, Thies International Migration 41

Region, where the population increased by a third during 1960-71, had no net gain from immigration. Immigration and in-migration were not complementary; regions which gained significantly through immigration had losses through out- migration, and regions which gained significantly through in-migration did not gain greatly through immigration. The driving forces behind African immigration to Senegal probably differed from those which prompted the Senegalese migrants to move from one region of the country to another. Most likely, a substantial proportion of recent immigration to Senegal has been the result of internal strife and economic problems in Guinea Bissau and Guinea.

LIBERIA. Immigration was relatively small in Liberia. In 1974 there were 59,000 (4.0 percent of the total population) foreign-born living there, of whom 13,000 were Liberian citizens born abroad and the balance were aliens. The corresponding figures in 1962 were 11,000 and 21,000 respectively, giving a total of 32,000 foreign-born. In that year about 76 percent of the citizen immigrants came from neighboring countries: Guinea (44 percent), Sierra Leone (25 percent), and the Ivory Coast (7 percent). Among aliens, however, a large percentage (38) came from outside Africa (United States, Lebanon, and European countries), and a lesser percentage (31) from the neighboring countries of Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and Sierra Leone. More recent census information on the origin of immigrants in Liberia is not available. Most immigrants in Liberia were living in Montserrado County where the capital city of Monrovia is located, or Central Province where the major iron ore mines are.

SIERRA LEONE. Foreign nationals in Sierra Leone represented 2.9 percent of the population in 1974 and 2.7 percent in 1963. Their number increased from 59,000 to 79,000 at a rate faster than the rate of increase of nationals. In 1963 more than 87 percent of the foreigners in Sierra Leone came from other West African countries, mostly from neighboring Guinea. Guineans constituted more than half the non-national residents in 1963. Other countries of origin included Liberia and the former British colonies of Nigeria, Ghana, and the Gambia. Among migrants of non-African origin, Lebanese were predominant, followed by citizens of the United Kingdom. As in other countries, the region of the capital city (Western Area) had the highest number of foreign nationals-more than a quarter of the total immigrants. Other areas of attraction for foreign nationals included the diamond mining districts of Kono and Kenema.

Table 26. Foreign Nationalsby Country of Nationality,circa 1975

Emigrantnationals Nationalsliving as percentage outsidethe country of the population Countryof of nationality,but of the country nationality withinWest Africa of nationality

Gambia 50,300 10.2 Ghana 102,000 1.2 Guinea 396,100 6.2 Ivory Coast 73,500 1.1 Liberia 21,700 1.4 Mali 419,500 7.0 Senegal 58,400 1.1 Sierra Leone 11,500 0.4 Togo 259,800 13.3 Upper Volta 955,700 17.0 Total 2,348,500

Sources:Recent population censuses and surveysof the countries. 42 Migration in West Africa

THE GAMBIA. Immigrants in the Gambia numbered 52,000 in 1973. Although few compared with migrants in other countries, foreign nationals represented 10.6 percent of the population of the country. Nearly half came from Senegal and 20 percent originated in Guinea. Most of the immigrants were living in the western part of the Gambia: Banjul, Kombo St. Mary, and Brikama.

Nearly all the immigrants originated in other countries in the region (see tables Emigration 21 and 22), particularly Upper Volta, Mali, Guinea, and Togo. Table 26 gives total emigrants from each country as estimated from the statistics of destination countries. The number of emigrants is less than the number of immigrants, since the latter includes those originating from outside the nine countries, while the former includes only those residing in the nine countries.

UPPER VOLTA. Undoubtedly, Upper Volta is the principal country of emigration. Nearly a million Upper Volta nationals were living in some other West African country, and the emigrants were as much as 17 percent of the native- born population of Upper Volta in 1975. The number of emigrants from this country has increased substantially in recent years. One estimate puts the 1960 figure at about half the number in 1975. Emigration has been and still is an integral part of the social and economic life of young Upper Voltan adults, but some significant changes in the pattern of migration are emerging. Ghana used to be the principal destination of Upper Voltan emigrants in the past, but because of its economic problems and the 1969 Alien Compliance Order, many aThgrantshave either moved on to the Ivory Coast or returned to Upper Volta. At present, the Ivory Coast is the principal country of destination. Relatively more females are emigrating than in earlier years, and their period of residence outside the country is longer. But the habit of returning to their native land still continues, and return migration amounted to as much as 43 percent of emigration during 1968-72. Within Upper Volta, the five departments that have been most affected by emigration are, in the order of magnitude, West-Central, North, North-Central, South-West, and East-Central. The departments with less than the national average emigration ratios are East, Sahel, High Basins, Central, and Black Volta. East and Sahel, the two departments which suffered most from the drought since the early 1970s, are areas of insignificant emigration. Rural people tended to emigrate more than the semiurban and urban. The Mossi tended to emigrate more than other ethnic groups, accounting for 55 percent of the total emigrants, although they represented 48 percent of the total population. Ethnic groups living near the frontiers of the Ivory Coast and Ghana -the Dagari, Lobi, and Bissau-also had relatively high emigration rates. The Senoufo, Gourmantche, and Fulani, however, did not tend to emigrate.

MALI AND GUINEA. The second country in order of importance for emigration is Mali. Around 1975 about 420,000 Malians were living outside the country, of whom 348,000 were in the Ivory Coast. Although groundnut cultivation in Sene- gal and the Gambia initially attracted Malians, recent figures indicate that devel- opments in the Ivory Coast have drawn more and more Malian emigrants away from Senegal. The number of emigrants from Guinea is also substantial, but these are more evenly distributed: 180,000 in Senegal, 106,000 in the Ivory Coast, 41,000 in Sierra Leone, and 25,000 in Liberia. The origin of these emigrants within Guinea is not known.

TOGO. Although fewer Togolese are living abroad than are Mali or Guinea nationals, emigration had a larger impact on the total population of Togo than on the population of the other two countries: in 1970, 13 percent of the population of Togo had emigrated. The principal destination of Togo emigrants has been and International Migration 43 remains Ghana because of the tribal and linguistic affinities of the two countries. In fact, the eastern region of Ghana was part of Togoland before World War I and became part of Ghana only in 1956. In recent years, because of the restric- tions imposed on foreign nationals in Ghana and the general economic problems in that country, the migration of Togo nationals to Ghana has decreased considerably. The 1960 census of Ghana enumerated about 280,000 Togo nationals in Ghana. Not all were migrants, since about 104,000 of them had been born in Ghana, making the number of lifetime migrants in Ghana about 176,000. By 1970 the number of Togolese nationals in Ghana decreased to 245,000 and the number of Togo-born persons in Ghana decreased to 122,000. During 1960-70 there was a net emigration from Ghana of 28,000 Togo-born persons, presumably back to Togo. Correspondingly, the number of Ghana-born persons in Togo increased from about 51,000 in 1960-61 to about 100,000 in 1970 (the 1970 figure is estimated), with a net immigration to Togo of 55,000 Ghana-born persons during 1960-70. At the same time, emigration to Ghana continued, but at a slower pace. The 1970 census of Ghana enumerated about 15,000 Togo-born children under ten years of age, who would have emigrated to Ghana during 1960-70. Since children usually do not move, except with their parents, an emigration of 6,000 children four years old and younger and 9,000 aged five to nine years indicates a total emigration of approximately 52,000 persons. On the basis of recent population censuses, the balance sheet of migration between Togo and Ghana is as follows:

Lifetime Togo-born migrants in Ghana, 1960 176,000 Lifetime Togo-born migrants in Ghana, 1970 122,000 Lifetime Ghana-born migrants in Togo, 1960-61 51,000 Lifetime Ghana-born migrants in Togo, 1970 100,000 Emigration of Togo-born to Ghana during 1960-70 52,000 Immigration of Togo-born to Togo from Ghana during 1960-70 80,000 Net immigration to Togo of Togo-born from Ghana 1960-70 +28,000 Net immigration to Togo of Ghana-born 1960-70 +55,000 Net migration to Togo from Ghana, 1960-70 +83,000

Migration Streams Since the principal country of immigration is the Ivory Coast and the principal country of emigration is Upper Volta, needless to say, the principal migration stream in the region is between these two countries. In 1975 there were 726,000 Upper Volta nationals and 521,000 Upper Volta-born persons in the Ivory Coast. The second major stream, that from Mali to the Ivory Coast, was not even half as large as this. Migration streams with at least 10,000 persons are shown in table 27 and map 13. There are twenty-five such streams, seven with destinations in the Ivory Coast, and five with destinations in Ghana.

Period Migration In 1970 about 6.6 percent of Ghana's population were foreign nationals, and only 1.0 percent of the Ghanaians were living outside their country. Yet, for the 1960-70 period Ghana had a net emigration of about 400,000. In contrast, 260,000 Togo nationals were living abroad but only 60,000 foreign nationals (approximate estimates) and 143,000 foreign-born persons were living in Togo in 1970. During the 1960-70 period, however, Togo is estimated to have gained 70,000 persons through external migration. Thus, the stock of foreign nationals or foreign-born persons is not necessarily a good indicator of recent migration trends. An approximate estimate of net migration for each country for the ten- year period just before the census is given in table 28 along with an estimate of net lifetime migration. For the Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, and Mali, there is some close resemblance between net lifetime migration and net period migration. The duration of residence of migrants is relatively short, and most of the lifetime immigrants arrived during the ten-year period. This pattern might change in the coming years, however, even for these countries. 44 Migration in West Africa

Table 27. PrincipalExternal MigrationStreams, circa 1975

Number of Origin Destination emigrants Total emigrantsa

Gambia Senegal 45,600 49,300 Ghana Togo 100,000 Ivory Coast 42,500 Upper Volta 19,200 Subtotal 161,700 173,900 Guinea Senegal 180,200 Ivory Coast 105,800 Sierra Leone 41,000 Liberia 25,400 Gambia 17,000 Subtotal 369,400 369,700 Ivory Coast Upper Volta 49,100 Ghana 18,300 Subtotal 67,400 72,300 Liberia Sierra Leone 11,000 21,300 \Iali Ivory Coast 348,500 Senegal 28,900 Upper Volta 24,000 Ghana 13,400 Subtotal 414,800 421,900 Nigeria Ghana 55,500 Ivory Coast 49,600 Subtotal 105,100 116,400 Senegal Gambia 25,300 Ivory Coast 19,200 Subtotal 44,500 47,300 Togo Ghana 244,700 Ivory Coast 12,100 Subtotal 256,800 260,500 Upper Volta Ivory Coast 726,200 Ghaina 159,300 Senegal 13,700 Subtotal 899,200 908,100

Note: Principalstreams are thoseof 10,000or moreforeign-hom or foreignnationals, whichever isgreater. Streamsrequiring estimates not basedon recentcensus or surveydata are excluded. a. Includngunspecified streams. Sources: Estimatesbased on recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

Three countries-Upper Volta, Ghana, and Mali-had net losses from migration in recent years, and the others had net gains. The Ivory Coast had a net gain of nearly a million persons during 1965-75, which is about four times the gain in the other five gaining countries together. Upper Volta had the largest net loss -half a million-and the losses in Ghana and Mali were also substantial. Over the ten-year period, net migration for the region as a whole is a positive balance of about 120,000, or about 3 percent of the nine-country population of 40 million.

The populations from which migrants depart and to which they migrate are Consequences of External affected principally by the volume of the flow, but also by the differential Migration characteristics of the migrants. The most obvious demographic consequence of migration is its effect on population growth in the sending and receiving areas. As Demographic Impact indicated earlier, the impact of migration was relatively small for the nine West African countries as a region; the rate of population growth was slightly in excess of the rate of natural increase. If Guinea were added to the nine countries, the net International Migration 45

Table 28. Net Migration Estimate, circa 1965-75

Net decadal migration Foreign nationals in the country Lifetime Percentage of minus net Net intercensal Country nationals abroada migrationb Period migration growth

Gambia 2,500 16,400 1968-73 100,000 55 Ghana 463,200 181,400 1960-70 -400,000 -22 Ivory Coast 1,340,000 958,600 1965-75 1,000,000 56 Liberia 34,000 37,300 1964-74 12,000 2 Mali -318,100 -199,100 1966-76 -250,000 -20 Senegal 296,800 215,100 1961-71 70,000 8 Sierra Leone -67,400 68,400 1964-74 18,000 3 Togo -199,700 -2,500 1960-70 70,000 14 Upper Volta -862,100 -572,300 1965-75 -500,000 -40 All countries 701,100 669,700 - 120,000 5

a. Foreign nationalsinclude those from outsideWest Africa; nationalsabroad includeonly those enumeratedin the nine countriesof West Africa. b. Immigrantsinclude those from outsideWest Africa,but emigrantsexclude those who went outsidethe region. Sources: Estimatesbased on recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

migration for the region would have been even closer to zero. In individual countries, however, population growth rates were modified substantially by migration. For example, without migration the population growth of the Ivory Coast between 1960 and 1975 would have been only about 1.5 million, but the actual growth was 3.3 million or 128 percent larger. Table 28 shows that in recent years external migration contributed 56 percent of the population growth in the Ivory Coast and 55 percent in the Gambia, while it eliminated 40 percent of the growth in Upper Volta, 22 percent in Ghana, and 20 percent in Mali. Migration influences the population growth rate indirectly through its impact on the birth rate and death rate. Since migrants included more than a proportional share of males, and among both males and females more than a proportional share of adults, the demographic structure of the population was modified at origin and destination. Since birth rates (and death rates) depend on the demographic structure as well as on fertility rates (mortality rates), migration modifies the vital rates in countries of immigration and emigration. On the one hand, the relatively high proportion of males among immigrants tends to reduce the birth rate in countries of immigration and increase it in countries of emigration. On the other hand, the relatively high proportion of female immigrants in the reproductive ages tends to increase the rate at destination and reduce it at origin. Since these two forces work in opposite directions, the net effect of demographic structural changes on the birth rate is not very large. The propensity to migrate is higher among unmarried males than married males. Migration of the unmarried tends to postpone marriage and that of married males results in separation of husbands from wives. On both accounts, migration should reduce fertility. But migration may facilitate marriage by providing the necessary bride money. Data on the various facets of this interrelationship are not available, but it seems that the net effect of migration would be a reduction in the regional birth rate. It is perhaps significant that although in East Africa birth rates show substantial increases in several countries, those in West Africa have not experienced any such increase. Migration also influences the death rate through compositional changes and changes in sex- and age-specific death rates. Immigrants include a relatively high proportion of young adults among whom death rates are relatively low. Immigra- tion should, therefore, decrease the death rate and emigration should increase it. Migration alone should not affect the risk of death among migrants or nonmigrants, but since migration takes place from low-income regions to relatively 46 Migration in West Africa higher-income regions, the effect may be some reduction in the death rate. In any case, any influence of migration on the rate of natural increase is apt to be insignificant because changes in the birth rate and death rate are likely to be not only small, but also in the same direction, and hence would cancel one another. The demographic structure of the population at origin and destination is substantially affected by the sex-age composition of the migrants. For all migration streams together, there were 143 males for every 100 females (table 29). Thus, countries of immigration had relatively fewer females and countries of emigration had relatively more females than would have been the case without migration. Not all immigration streams had an excess of males, however. Among immigrants to Upper Volta and Togo, two traditionally out-migrating countries, there were more females. The sex ratio of immigrants in Upper Volta was 92 males per 100 females compared with 101 among the total population, thus exacerbating the low sex ratio of the country.

Table 29. Sex Ratiosof Lifetime Immigrants by Age, circa 1975

Males per 100 females

60 and Country 0-14 15-39 40-59 over All ages

Gambia 91 155 259 235 157 Ghana 97 125 263 294 152 Ivory Coast 97 159 310 190 162 Liberia 103 146 276 272 151 Senegal 105 98 157 170 121 Sierra Leone 102 166 300 208 156 Togo 99 75 126 141 93 Upper Volta 107 71 93 108 92 All countries 100 137 228 203 143

Sources Basedon recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

The sex ratio of immigrants of working age (fifteen years and over) exceeds that of the indigenous population by 59 males per 100 females (table 30). Sex ratios also differ between immigrants in the various age groups. The predomi- nance of males is greatest in the 40-59 age group (see table 29) where for every 100 females there were 228 males. Among children under fifteen years of age, the number of male and female migrants was more or less the same, but at the prime ages of migration the disparities become evident. Part of the increase in

Table 30. Sex Ratiosof Migrantsand Total Populationof Working Age,circa 1975

Males per 100 females

Total Immigrants population Difference Country (A) (B) (A-B)

Gambia 181 104 77 Ghana 166 96 70 Ivory Coast 177 110 67 Liberia 164 103 61 Senegal 119 84 35 Sierra Leone 187 97 90 Togo 88 105 -17 Upper Volta 79 94 -15 All countries 156 97 59

Sources: Basedon recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries. International Migration 47

the sex ratio with age could be explained by a decreasing trend in the ratio over time; there were fewer females among earlier migrants and a higher proportion more recently. This trend is evident in Ghana, where the sex ratio of lifetime immigrants was 175 in 1960 and 152 in 1970, and possibly in the Ivory Coast; but not so in the Gambia where the sex ratio among immigrants increased from 140 in 1963 to 157 in 1973. As expected, the sex ratios of foreign nationals born in the country of enumeration were fairly balanced. Two examples are available. The sex ratio of foreign nationals born in Ghana was 106 in 1970, and those born in the Ivory Coast was 103. One inference that can be made from these ratios is that there is very little sex differential in the return migration of foreign nationals born abroad. Migration increases the proportion of adults in countries of immigration and reduces it in countries of emigration because of the excess of adults among migrants. For those aged fifteen years and over the excess of male immigrants over male nonmigrants (total population) was 29 percentage points, and among females the excess was slightly less, about 20 percentage points (table 31).

Table 31. Age Selectivityof Immigrants,circa 1975 (percent)

Males Females

Total Total Age Immigrants population Difference Immigrants population Difference

0-14 16.7 45.6 -28.9 24.0 44.0 -20.0 15-39 55.9 35.4 20.5 58.3 38.8 19.5 40-59 21.4 13.3 8.1 13.4 12.2 1.2 60 and over 6.0 5.6 0.4 4.2 5.0 -0.8 Total 100.0 100.0 - 100.0 100.0 -

Note: Columnsmay notadd to 100because of rounding. Sources:Based on recentpopulation censuses and surveysin the countries.

The relative excess of adults among immigrants in each of the countries is shown in table 32, and the pattern of variation by sex and urban or rural residence is shown in figure 1 for the Ivory Coast, which accounts for nearly half of the immigrants in the region. In most countries the highest proportion of immigrants was observed in the 15-39 age group or 40-59 age group. But in the traditionally emigrating countries such as Upper Volta and Togo, the proportion of immigrants in the 0-14 age group was relatively very high because of the return migration of families; in fact, in Upper Volta that age group had the highest proportion. One implication of the age differences between migrants and nonmigrants is that immigrants include a relatively larger proportion of workers (see below under "Labor Supply" for further discussion).

Marital Status Information on the marital status of international migrants is very limited, but what is available indicates that the propensity to emigrate was greatest among the single. In Upper Volta, for which some data are available, the probability of a single person emigrating was almost three times that of a married man. Propensi- ties to emigrate were least among the widowed and those who had more than one wife, and relatively high among the divorced. Among females, the differences by marital status were, on the whole, smaller; 6.4 percent of the single women were away from the country, and 4.1 percent of the married. Data on other migration streams are not available, but there is no reason to believe that the pattern would differ greatly in other countries. 48 Migration in West Africa

Table 32. Percentage of Lifetime Immigrants in Total Population by Age Group, circa 1975

60 Country 0-14 15-39 40-59 and over Total

Gambia 5.127 14.378 14.287 16.928 10.696 Ghana 1.392 5.795 8.380 6.874 4.088 Ivory Coast 4.836 27.161 18.291 15.613 15.725 Liberia 1.965 6.055 4.529 2.290 3.955 Senegal 2.654 7.758 16.077 6.805 6.835 Sierra Leone 1.969 4.006 2.738 2.932 2.903 Togo 7.140 8.154 7.140 5.234 7.367 Upper Volta 2.440 1.981 1.687 1.848 2.142 All countries 2.973 10.349 9.577 6.725 6.755 Relative ratios Gambia 0.48 1.34 1.33 1.58 1.00 Ghana 0.33 1.41 2.05 1.68 1.00 Ivory Coast 0.31 1.73 1.16 0.99 1.00 Liberia 0.50 1.53 1.15 0.58 1.00 Senegal 0.39 1.14 2.35 1.00 1.00 Sierra Leone 0.68 1.38 0.94 1.01 1.00 Togo 0.97 1.11 0.97 0.71 1.00 Upper Volta 1.14 0.92 0.79 0.86 1.00 All countries 0.44 1.53 1.42 1.00 1.00

Sources: Recent population censuses and s-rveys in the countries.

Migration reduces the average level of education in the countries of immigra- Educational Attainment tion because West African immigrants have, in general, a lower level of schooling than the populations which they join. For example, 38 percent of Ivorian males six or more years of age were literate, while only 15 percent of non-Ivorian males

Figure 1. Percentage of Non-Ivorians among Total Workers in the Ivory Coast by Age, Sex, and Urban or Rural Residence, 1975

50-

:E8 ~ ~~.* *

eMales

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Age International Migration 49

in the country could read or write in 1975. The corresponding proportions among females were 19 and 9 percent respectively. In Ghana in 1970, 43 percent of the Ghanaians six years old and over had attended school while only 21 percent of the immigrants had any schooling. Ten years earlier, 27 percent of the Ghanaians and 15 percent of the immigrants had attended school in that country. In the Gambia in 1973, 15 percent of Gambian males aged five or more years and 7 percent of the females had completed primary education. The corresponding proportions among non-Gambians in the country were only 7 percent for males and 5 percent for females. About 35 percent of the lifetime male immigrants in Togo in 1970 were illiterate, while only 16 percent of nonmigrants and 18 to 21 percent of internal migrants were in this category. Similarly, 31 percent of nonmigrants had completed primary education while only 23 percent of immigrants had done so. Because persons who migrated from one country to another in West Africa generally had relatively little education, they tended to occupy low-status jobs in the countries of destination (as discussed below). Several factors might explain these differentials. First, countries of emigration do not have a large stock of educated persons; in fact, their level of education is much lower than that of Ghana and other countries of immigration. Second, job opportunities in Ghana, the Ivory Coast, and other labor-importing countries are mostly in agriculture, forestry, or the unskilled service sectors. These occupations do not require literacy or higher educational attainment, and because they are unfilled by the better educated local persons, they are available to immigrants.

Labor Supply The migrants' contribution to the labor supply in the country of destination is not strictly proportional to the size of the total migration. As already indicated, the migrants' age and sex composition is different from that of the nonmigrants, and their age- and sex-specific labor force participation rates also differ from those of nonmigrants.

Table 83. EmploymentRatios by Migration Statusand Sex,Ghana and the Ivory Coast Combined,circa 1975

Total Item population Immigrants Difference

Male Employed 3,474,900 746,300 Total 7,726,800 863,200 Employment ratio All ages 45.0 86.5 -41.5 15 and over 83.1 97.5 -14.4

Fenale Employed 2,233,800 176,800 Total 7,535,600 540,600 Employment ratio All ages 29.6 32.7 - 3.1 15 and over 54.5 40.2 14.3

Both sexes Employed 5,708,700 923,100 Total 15,262,400 1,403,800 Employment ratio All ages 37.4 65.8 -28.4 15 and over 69.0 76.4 - 7.4

Sources: 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 4 (Accra,fortheoming); and unpublisheddata from the 1975 population census of the Ivory Coast. 50 Migration in West Africa

Statistical Appendix (SA) table 1 gives the age composition by sex of immigrants in eight West African countries, and table 32 shows the age composition of both sexes together as a percentage of the total population in each country. Migrants constituted about 6.8 percent of the total population around 1975, but only 3.0 percent among children less than 15 years of age, 10.4 percent among young adults 15-39 years, and 9.6 percent among adults 40-59 years of age. About 80 percent of the migrants were more than 15 years of age, while only 55 percent of the total population was of working age. Thus, migrants are overrepresented in the working ages by 25 percentage points. The employment ratio (the employed as a ratio of the total population) of immigrants is higher than that of the total population of various countries. Table 33 gives combined data for two principal countries-Ghana and the Ivory Coast -and shows the employment ratio (at age 15 and over) was 76.4 among the immigrants and 69.0 among the total population. If all ages are considered, the ratios would be 37.4 percent among the total population and 65.8 percent among immigrants, an excess of 28.4 percentage points among immigrants. About 75 percent of this difference is due to age and sex composition, and the balance of 25 percent is due to differences in age- and sex-specific employment ratios. Employment differentials between immigrants and native-born are much larger when the comparison is confined to males, among whom the two components reinforce one another; among females they tend to cancel each other. The difference among males is 41.5 percentage points, two-thirds of which is due to age differences and one-third of which is due to differences in participation rates. Among females the difference is only 3.1 percentage points. Had there been no differences in age-specific participation rates, the overall difference would have been 19.8 percentage points. But since relatively fewer women were employed among the immigrants than among the native-born, most of the effect of age difference is eliminated.

Estimated total employment around 1975 among immigrants in eight of the Employment by Sectors West African countries (excluding Mali) is 1.3 million, of which 700,000 or 55 percent was in the Ivory Coast, 224,000 in Ghana (17.5 percent), and 157,000 in Senegal (12.3 percent). Together these three countries accounted for 1.1 million or 84 percent of employed immigrants (table 34).

Table 34. EmployedImmigrants Aged Fifteen Yearsand Over by Country of Residenceand Sex,circa 1975

Country Total Male Female

Ivory Coast 698,800 580,900 177,900 Ghana 224,300 165,400 58,900 Senegal 157,200 116,600 40,600 Togo 49,800 33,900 15,900 Sierra Leone 43,700 35,800 7,900 Upper Volta 38,200 25,100 13,100 Liberia 35,400 28,300 7,100 Gambia 32,700 26,600 6,100 Total 1,280,100 1,012,600 267,400

Sources:Based on recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

Agriculture, the principal industry in West Africa, employed 77 percent of the labor force in the Ivory Coast in 1975, and 57 percent in Ghana in 1970. Nat- urally, agriculture is also the principal employment sector for the immigrants. Proportionately fewer immigrants than native-born were employed in agriculture, however. Fifty-two percent of the immigrants and 77 percent of the native- born were so employed in 1975 in the Ivory Coast, and 45 percent as opposed to International Migration 51

Table 35. The Ivory Coast:Percentage of Non-lvoriansby Occupation,Sex, and Rural or Urban Residence,1975

Occupation Male Fermle Total

Total Professional,technical 30.6 41.9 32.4 Administrative,executive 50.3 40.0 49.8 Clerical 19.0 25.5 20.2 Sales 71.4 32.4 50.3 Specializedservice 67.3 59.7 65.6 Farming, cattle breeding 23.5 9.7 18.2 Nonagriculturalproduction, labor 46.6 17.6 44.4 Not classified 25.4 15.5 23.6 Total 31.3 13.8 25.0

Rural Professional,technical 12.5 29.6 13.5 Administrative,executive 70.0 ... 69.9 Clerical 20.6 19.7 20.5 Sales 56.8 23.6 31.6 Specializedservice 45.1 57.9 49.3 Farming, cattle breeding 22.0 9.4 17.1 Nonagriculturalproduction, labor 42.8 11.5 30.6 Not classified 21.0 6.5 18.4 Total 25.6 10.4 18.6 Urban Professional,technical 37.9 43.1 39.0 Administrative,executive 45.8 40.0 45.5 Clerical 18.8 25.9 20.1 Sales 74.2 38.9 58.4 Specializedservice 69.6 60.1 67.5 Farming, cattle breeding 43.0 15.8 36.2 Nonagriculturalproduction, labor 47.8 206 46.0 Not classified 27.2 19.4 25:8 Total 47.5 32.0 44.4

... Negligible. Note: The tablecovers those aged six years and over. Source:Unpublished data fromthe 1975population census of the IvoryCoast.

64 percent in Ghana in 1960. The difference becomes larger when males are compared separately. In Ghana, for example, instead of a difference of only 3 percentage points for both sexes in 1970, among males alone the proportion of immigrants in agriculture was less by 15 percentage points than among Ghanaian males. Within agriculture, immigrants occupy relatively low status occupations. In Ghana 38 percent of the immigrants classified as "farmers and fishermen" were actually "farm workers," while the corresponding proportion among the general population was only 11 percent. Similarly, the proportion of "laborers not elsewhere classified" was as high as 45 percent of the total number of "craftsmen and production process workers" among immigrants but only 21 percent among the native-born. The situation in the Ivory Coast is not exactly similar to that in Ghana. As mentioned earlier, 21 percent of the population of this country were immigrants in 1975, but foreign nationals were as much as 25 percent of the total employed (six years of age and over), and more than 60 percent of some occupational groups and of total employment in several departments (see tables 35 and 36). Two-thirds of the specialized service workers and half the sales workers were foreigners. In Abidjan Ville more than half of all workers (55 percent) were non- Ivorians. Such a preponderance of non-Ivorians was not confined to large cities 52 Migration in West Africa such as Abidjan or Bouak6; in fact, the highest proportion of non-Ivorian workers was in Abengourou Department where the urban population was only 33 percent of the total. Immigrants are indeed holding vital positions in the economic life of the Ivory Coast.

Table 36. The Ivory Coast:Employed Ivorians and Non-Ivorians by Department, 1975

Non-Ivorian

Region and department Total Ivorian Number Percent

South Abidjan Ville 272,827 122,786 150,041 55.0 Abidjan 270,003 163,033 106,970 39.6 Aboisso 56,776 26,493 30,283 53.3 Adzope 72,092 57,437 14,655 20.3 Agboville 49,956 32,527 17,429 34.9 Divo 80,309 57,129 23,180 28.9 Sassandra 63,653 40,006 23,647 37.1 North Boundiali 76,907 71,962 4,945 6.4 Ferk6ss6dougou 41,513 35,720 5,793 14.0 Korhogo 157,335 152,045 5,290 3.4 Odienn6 46,670 43,234 3,436 7.4 S6gu6la 88,669 85,775 2,894 3.3 Touba 47,274 42,484 4,790 10.1 East Abengourou 95,162 39,174 55,988 58.8 Bondoukou 135,938 115,202 20,736 15.3 Bouna 45,947 40,712 5,235 11.4 West Biankouma 39,966 38,347 1,619 4.1 Danan6 67,631 54,266 13,365 19.8 Guiglo 71,570 63,077 8,493 11.9 Man 143,847 133,672 10,175 7.1 Central Bouafl 93,346 70,110 23,236 24.9 Bouake Ville 59,450 33,924 25,526 42.9 Bouake 336,273 304,527 31,746 9.4 Dimbokro 221,593 156,217 65,376 29.5 Katiola 34,844 32,346 2,498 7.2 Dabakala 33,844 32,653 1,191 3.5 Central-West Daloa 104,535 71,463 33,072 31.6 Gagnoa 73,714 46,460 27,254 37.0 Total 2,881,644 2,162,781 718,863 25.0

Note: The table coversthose aged six years and over. Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975population census of the IvoryCoast.

One of the benefits of emigration is the remittances the home countries receive Remittances from their citizens abroad. Some remittances come through official channels, but a substantial portion comes as goods and cash when the migrants return home. Available information on remittances through official channels is given in table 37. During the five-year period 1970-74, the seven countries listed sent out US$705 million in remittances, while they received only US$232 million. Thus, a considerable portion of the remittances (US$473million) went outside the region. The largest amount was sent from the Ivory Coast, the country with the highest proportion of immigrant workers; and the largest receipt was in Upper Volta, the International Migration 53

Table 37. Workers' Remittances in Selected West African Countries, 1970-74 (millions of U.S. dollars)

Amount Amount Net Country received sent out receipt

Gambia n.a. 7.9 -7.9 Ghana n.a. 35.9 -35.9 Ivory Coast 18.8 502.3 -483.5 Mali 44.6 n.a. 44.6 Senegal 32.1 111.8 -79.7 Togo n.a. 21.0 -21.0 Upper Volta 137.0 26.3 110.7 Net gain 155.3 Net loss -628.0 Total 232.5 705.2 -472.7

n.a. Notavailable. Source:International Monetary Fund, unpublished consolidated balance of paymentsstatements.

country with the highest rate of emigration. The receipts for all the emigrating countries are likely to be underestimates. Because there are few currency restric- tions-in fact, the francophone countries in the region use the same currency- and because migrants move frequently between their countries of origin and destination, private remittances would be much larger than indicated by the transfer through official channels. These figures may be taken as a minimum estimate, but they clearly show that a considerable amount of money goes out of the region, although the proportion of immigrants from outside is relatively very small.

Causes of Migration Although the data available for this study are inadequate for analyzing the determinants of migration, a few observations may be based on the covariance of migration rates and the differential characteristics of the migrants. There is a general positive relation between the economic status of a country and the rate of lifetime immigration. Immigration rates are high in countries such as the Ivory Coast where economic conditions are relatively good, and immigration rates are low in countries such as Upper Volta where economic conditions are unfavorable. The rank correlation between GNP per capita in 1973 and the lifetime immigration rate was +0.67. But emigration rates are negatively correlated with the economic condition of the country or area; the rank correlation coefficient was -0.52.

Prospects for Migration The description of recent international migration in West Africa gives some in West Africa in clue as to the direction of future migration trends. Historically, Ghana has been the 1980s the principal importer of foreign labor in West Africa. Foreign nationals and foreign-born persons are still numerous, but they have markedly decreased in number in recent years. During 1960-70 Ghana had substantial net emigration, but this trend is likely to be a temporary phenomenon since the figures reflect the departure of foreign nationals after the Alien Compliance Order of 1969. At present, foreign farm laborers are actually welcome in Ghana, but a cursory comparison of its economic situation with those of neighboring countries makes it unreasonable to assume that many immigrants will select Ghana as their destination. Nor is there much evidence that Ghanaians will emigrate to other countries in the region in large numbers. A constant number of just enough immigrants to replace returning emigrants is perhaps the best guess that can be made for Ghana during the 1980s. The principal country of immigration in the region is the Ivory Coast, and it is likely to remain so during the 1980s. The stock of foreign nationals will undoubt- 54 Migration in West Africa

edly increasebecause of natural increaseamong them. Recent immigrant cohorts in the Ivory Coastincluded more femalesand children than earlier, indicating a shift toward family migration. Will the flow of immigrationalso increase?There are some reasons to think that it will. The pace of economic and social development in the Ivory Coast will pull migrants, who will be simultaneously pushed by economic problems in Ghana and other neighboring countries and by the increasing population pressure in the interior. The proportion of foreign workers is already very high in Abidjan and other major urban centers in the Ivory Coast, however, and in some economic sectors nearly two-thirds of the workers are foreign nationals. Political and economic pressure against foreigners can easily develop, as in Ghana, and block the path of fresh immigration. On the whole, continued migration, at least at recent levels, is the best assumption that can be made about future migration to the Ivory Coast. In the past, Senegal has attracted a large number of immigrants from Guinea and Mali. The net gain during 1961-71 was relatively small because of emigration to the Ivory Coast and France. Immigration from Guinea may not continue at the previous rate, but that from Mali is likely to increase. It is difficult to estimate the possible migration trends in other countries. Except for the Gambia, net migration in these countries is unlikely to be large. The demographic implication of migration in four countries in the region is worked out in table 38 by preparing population projections with and without migration. It is expected that as a result of migration during 1975-85, the total population of the Ivory Coast will be higher by 1.3 million in 1985, the population of working age (15 years and over) will be higher by 906,000, the growth rate among the adult population will be higher by 1.4 percentage points, the birth rate by 1.8 points per thousand, and the death rate by 0.2 points per thousand. The

Table 38. DemographicConsequences of External Migration in Selected West African Countries, 1975-85

Ivory Coast Upper Volta Mali Senegal Demographic With Without With Without With Without With Without measure migration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration

Total population(thousands) 1975 6,770 6,770 5,232 5,232 5,859 5,859 4,973 4,973 1985 10,335 9,011 5,838 6,498 6,919 7,497 6,425 6,303 Growth rate (percent) 1975-80 4.37 2.96 1.19 2.17 1.79 2.44 2.56 2.37 1980-85 4.11 2.76 1.00 2.17 1.54 2.49 2.57 2.37 Populationaged 15 and over (thousands) 1975 3,746 3,746 2,960 2,960 3,281 3,281 2,813 2,813 1985 5,853 4,947 3,249 3,718 3,748 4,149 3,660 3,572 Growth rate (percent) 1975-80 4.21 2.26 0.84 2.18 1.33 2.30 2.58 2.31 1980-85 4.71 3.31 1.02 2.38 1.34 2.40 2.68 2.46 Birth rate (per thousand) 1975-80 49.2 48.3 44.9 45.4 48.2 48.6 45.7 45.6 1980-85 46.1 44.3 42.4 43.6 46.3 47.4 43.3 43.7 Death rate (per thousand) 1975-80 18.8 18.7 23.7 23.7 24.2 24.2 21.9 21.9 1980-85 16.8 16.6 21.9 21.9 22.4 22.5 20.0 20.0

Note: The net migrationfor each country is estimatedas follows: Ivory Coast: +500,000 during 1975-80and +550,000 during 1980-85 Upper Volta: -250,000 during 1975-80 and -300,000 during 1980-85 Mali: -200,000 during 1975-80and -300,000 during 1980-85 Senegal:+50,000 during 1975-80and +60,000 during 1980-85. Source: Authors'estimates based on recent censusesand surveysin the countries. International Migration 55 changes in Upper Volta and Mali, which are emigrating countries,would be in the opposite direction. The effect on the labor supply is somewhat similar to that upon the adult population. If employment ratios remain constant (not an unrealistic assumption), immigrationwould add 495,000workers in the Ivory Coastduring 1975-85 and 46,000in Senegal,and wouldremove 247,000workers from Upper Voltaand 217,000 from Mali. Workers' remittances through official channels averaged US$81 million annually during 1967-69 and US$176million during 1970-74. The increase was not entirely because of growth in the number of migrants; changes in the destination of workers (from the cocoa farms in Ghana to the market economyin the Ivory Coast, for example),a shift from private to official channels of remittance,and other structural factors could have playeda role. Asa result, it is unrealisticto assumethat the past trend of doublingremittances will continue into the 1980s,or that future changes in migration will entirely determine any change in remittances.A 25 percent increaseover the 1970-74average would raise the remittances to $1,760million in the ten yearsfrom 1975 to 1985, but not all this money would stay in West Africa.If the past pattern is any guide, the official remittances to other countries in the region would be only about US$388million, an average of US$40million a year. I CHAPTER 4 Internal Migration

International comparison of internal migration is beset with several problems, some of which are unsolvable even with the best of data. Internal migration is usually defined with respect to fixed administrative subdivisions such as regions, districts, or cercles in each country. The volume of internal migration is very closely related to the number, size, and shape of these areal units. The larger the number of areal units, or the smaller the area of the units, the larger will be the volume of migration. With more units, more migrants may be generated, while with smaller units, short-distance migrants, which are usually more numerous than long-distance migrants, inflate the interareal figures. Inasmuch as the areal units used for defining migration in West African countries vary considerably from country to country and migration data cannot always be reworked for comparable units, it is extremely difficult to compare migration rates.

Table 39. Areal Units Used to Define Internal Migration

Number Average area Average of per unit population Country Areal unit units (square kilometers) per unit, 1975

Gambia Local government area 8 1,412 62,200 Ghana Region 7a 34,075 1,409,000 Ivory Coast Departmentb 28b 11,516 242,000 Liberia County 9 10,880 174,700 Mali Region 6 206,667 976,500 Senegal Region 7 28,027 711,000 Sierra Leone District 14 5,124 199,400 Togo Region 5 11,200 454,400 Upper Volta Department 10 27,420 559,100

Note: For countriessuch as the Ivory Coast,where data are given for smallunits, it is possibleto combine two or more unitsand give migrationdata forlarger unitssuch as regions.But it is not possibleto go from large units such as regionsin Ghana to smallersubdivisions of those units. a. The 1960division of regionsis retainedto keep the data comparable. b. AbidjanVille and BouakeVille are added to the twenty-sixdepartments.

Table 39 lists the areal units used to define migration in the various countries, with their average area and population in 1975. Since Mali and Ghana have the largest areal units (regions), other things being equal, they should have the fewest internal migrants. The way migration data are tabulated in Ghana there is no possibility of splitting up the regional information and presenting it for smaller subunits; for Mali, this will be possible when 1976 census data on cercles become available. The Gambia has the smallest unit with an average of only 1,400 square kilometers, compared with Ghana's 34,000 square kilometers, for instance. It is possible to combine some of the Gambia's eight local government areas into larger regions, but the area of the entire country is only one-fourth the area of an average region in Ghana. There is no easy solution to the noncomparability of migration rates between countries. 57 58 Migration in West Africa

The movement between the interior of West Africa (the savanna region) and Migration between the coastal or forest area is partly external and partly internal and is not greatly Natural Regions affected by areal subdivision.As mentioned earlier, two countriesare entirely in the interior, three are entirely in the coastalregion, and the remaining four span both regions (see table 4). As shownin table 40, an estimate of the total migration from the savanna to the coastal region was 1.9 million around 1975.This movement was from Mali, Upper Volta, and the savanna region of the Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Senegal to the coastal parts of those countries and to other coastal countries in West Africa. These figures represent an emigration rate of 12.3 percent of the total populationin the savanna region, and an immigrationrate of 7.8 percent of the total populationof the coastal region.

Table40. Migrationbetween Savanna and CoastalRegions, circa 1975

Origin

Destination Savanna Coastal

Savanna International - 130,500 Internal - 164,500 Coastal International 1,234,100 - Internal 642,200 - Total 1,876,300 295,000

Sources:Based on recent censuses and surveys inthe nine West African countries included inthis study. Mostof the migration from the savanna to the coastalregion is acrossinterna- tional boundaries-1.2 million of a total of 1.9 million. Much of the internal migration was in Ghana (40 percent) and the Ivory Coast (35 percent), and the balance in Senegal and Togo. Migration from the coastalregion to the savanna was only 295,000,of which 56 percent was internal and only 44 percent across international boundaries.Net lifetime migration between these two natural regions was about 1.6 million. Net period migration for 1965-75was not far below the lifetime migration, about 1.5 million.

The overallinterregional internal migration for the areal units defined in table Interregional Internal 39 was about 4.4 million, or 15 percent of the native populationsat their latest Migration censuses(table 41). This was twice the number of foreign-bornpersons in these countries. When the areal units are not standardized, it appears that the Ivory Coasthas the highest percentage of migrants (22 percent, table 41). The highest volume of internal populationmobility occurs in Ghana, however,where 1.4 millionpeople, or 17 percent of the native-born,had migrated among its sevenregions in 1970.' For the twenty-eight departmentsin the Ivory Coast, with an averagearea which is 34 percent of that of Ghana's regions, internal migration was 1.3 million in 1975. If the departments in the Ivory Coastwere combined into six regions,of an average size comparableto that of Ghana's regions,the volumeof internal migration would be only 852,000, or 15 percent of the native population. Although Upper Volta has ten departments, its overall migration rate is lessthan 5 percent.

1.Ghana was divided into seven administrative regions in 1960,but tworegions were further dividedbetween 1960 and 1970so that the 1970census lists nine. For comparability of data, the originalseven regions are retained here. Internal Migration 59

Table 41. InterregionalInternal Lifetime Migration,circa 1975

Interregional internal migration

Percent of total Country Year Number native-born

Gambia 1973 60,800 13.8 Ghana 1970 1,401,900 17.1 Ivory Coasta 1975 1,264,800 22.4 Liberia 1974 303,000 21.0 Mali 1976 n.a. n.a. Senegal 1971 503,000 13.8 Sierra Leone 1963 385,200 18.3 Togo 1970 182,000 10.1 Upper Volta 1975 263,200 4.8 All countries 4,364,000 14.9

n.a. Notavailable. a. For sixregions which would be comparablein size tothe regionsin Ghana,migration was 852,500or 15 percentof the nativepopulation. Sources:Based on recentpopulation censuses and surveysin the countries.

Thus, with respect to internal migration, the Ghanaiansare the most mobile,and the Upper Volta nationals are the least mobile. There appears to be a negative relation between the external migration rate and internal population mobility. Upper Volta has the highest emigration rate and the lowestinternal migration rate. The situationin Togois somewhatsimilar. The Ivory Coasthas the highest immigration rate, but its internal migration rate is less than that of Ghana, which has a much lower rate of economicgrowth. In Ghana, between 1960 and 1970, the proportion of foreign nationals decreased from 12.3 to 6.6 percent, and the proportion of internal migrants increasedfrom 13.5 to 17.1 percent. Thus, where external migration is low, internal migrationis high, and where external migration is high, internal migration is low.

Principal Areas of In- Areas that have experiencedsubstantial in-migration and those that have lost and Out-migration substantiallythrough out-migration in comparison with other areas within the same country are shown in table 42. AccraRegion in Ghana and AbidjanDepart- ment in the Ivory Coast are the principal areas of in-migration in the whole region. Each had a lifetime in-migration of more than 350,000 and a net gain of more than 270,000. Next in order of magnitude were Cap-Vert Region in Senegal (247,000in-migration) and MontserradoCounty in Liberia (214,000in- migration). In-migration to the principal areas in the other countries was relatively smaller.In the Gambia the highest in-migration was in the area of Kombo St. Mary, but the number was only 19,000. In general, the principal area of in-migration in each country is also the location of the capital city of the country and near the seacoast.This is true in Ghana, Liberia, the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, the Gambia, and Senegal,but not true in Upper Volta or Togo. Central Department in Upper Volta in which Ouagadougou is located is third with respect to in-migration (volume and rate) after High Basins and Black Volta. Maritime Region in Togo, where Lome is located, is fourth among the five regionsof Togowith respectto the in-migration rate. Areas of high in-migration are also areas of immigration; in-migration and immigration are positivelycorrelated. For example, in Ghana, Accra had the highest proportion of foreign nationals as well as the highest proportion of interregional migrants in both 1960 and 1970. In the Ivory Coast, although Abidjan Department ranks only third among the twenty-eightdepartments in total popu- 60 Migration in West Africa

Table 42. Principal Areas of Lifetime In-migration and Out-migration

In- Out- Net Country Area migration migration migration

Principal areas of lifetime in-migration Gambia Kombo St. Mary 18,559 1,533 17,026 Ghana Accra Region 359,621 86,812 272,809 Ivory Coast Abidjan Department 376,360 84,504 291,856 Liberia Montserrado County 213,782 12,815 200,967 Senegal Cap-Vert 247,347 33,752 213,595 Sierra Leone Western Area 108,955 n.a. n.a. Togo Plateau Region 88,233 n.a. n.a. Upper Volta High Basins 67,619 15,297 52,322

Principal areas of lifetime out-migration Gambia Kerewan Area 3,762 13,867 -10,105 Ghana Northern Region 75,905 262,296 -186,391 Ivory Coast Bouake Department 90,249 267,558 -177,309 Liberia Lofa County 9,734 62,436 -52,702 Senegal Diourbel Region 39,304 136,236 -96,932 Sierra Leone n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Togo n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Upper Volta North Department 9,291 51,568 -42,277

n.a. Not available. Note: The criterion for selecting a region, department, or county is the amount of net lifetime in-migration or out-migration. Only one area from each country is shown for each category. Sources: Based on recent population censuses and surveys in the countries. lation, the number of immigrants there was 4.5 times that in the next highest (381,000 foreign nationals compared with 84,000 in Bouake Department). Abid- jan Department also had the highest proportion of interdepartmental migration. In contrast to in-migration areas, the principal areas of out-migration in each country were generally in the interior, far from the capital city. In Ghana they are Northern and Upper regions on the Upper Volta border; in the Ivory Coast it is North Region, again on the Upper Volta and Mali borders. In Senegal, it is Diourbel; and in Liberia it is Lofa County. As already noted, historically the principal countries of emigration were Upper Volta, Mali, and Togo, and the principal countries of immigration were Ghana and the Ivory Coast. The average rates of external migration and internal migration for these two groups of countries along with those of all others as a third group are shown in table 43. The negative relation between the internal migration rate and the emigration rate is evident from these figures. Countries with low emigration rates such as Ghana and the Ivory Coast have relatively high internal migration rates. Countries with high emigration rates such as Upper

Table 43. Internal and External Migration Rates by Groups of Countries, circa 1975

Internal External migration rateb migration Group ratea Emigration Immigration

Principal countries of emigration 5.7 16.1 2.1 Other countries in the regionc 17.1 1.8 6.7 Principal countries of immigration 19.3 1.2 13.0

a. As a percentage of the total native population. b. As a percentage of the total enumerated population. c. Senegal, the Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. Sources: Based on recent population censuses and surveys in the countries. Internal Migration 61

Volta and Togo have low internal migration rates. Internal migration is, in a way, a substitute for external migration; if and when external migration decreases in Togo and Upper Volta, internal migration is likely to increase in magnitude. The principal areas of in- and out-migration listed in table 42 are not the only areas of major internal migration in the region. Within each country it is true that these are the principal ones with respect to the net volume of in-migration or out- migration. Regionally, however, some areas not included in table 42 had even larger internal migration. Ghana In Ghana, for example, in 1970, net lifetime in-migration in Brong-Ahafo was 117,300-almost seven times that in the Kombo St. Mary Area in the Gam- bia-and Ashanti also had substantial in-migration (table 44). Ashanti's attraction for internal migrants has faded somewhat in recent years, however, and during 1960-70 it had a net loss of about 10,000 persons compared with a net gain of 196,000 in Accra and 45,000 in Brong-Ahafo. Accra Region had net gains from all the other regions and Ashanti had net gains from all except Accra and Western regions (see map 14). This is typical of regions in other countries where the capital city is located.

Table 44. Ghana: Lifetime Interregional Migration, 1960 and 1970, and Net Period Migration, 1960-70

1960 1970 Net mtigration,1960-70

Region In-migrants Out-migrants Net migratuin In-migrants Out-migrants Net migration Out-born In-born Total

Western 138,722 140,288 -1,566 223,425 230,802 -7,377 -105,510 -111,532 -6,022 Accra 149,025 58,916 90.109 359,621 86.812 272,809 232,844 -36,734 196.110 Eastern 157,574 176,093 -18.519 205,363 305,008 -99,645 71,431 -155,261 -83,830 Volta 42,043 136,495 -94,452 70,757 239,846 -169,089 35,024 -123,831 -88,807 Ashanti 205.066 108.503 96.563 283,978 211.576 72.402 109.673 -119,335 -9.662 Brong-Ahafo 109,300 24.381 84,919 182,813 65,522 117,291 89,908 44,799 45.109 Northern 32,106 189.161 -157,055 75,905 262,296 -186,391 48,585 -101,483 -52,898 Total 833,836 833,836 - 1,401,862 1,401,862 - 692,975 -692,975 -

Souree., Dersed frmn 1960 Population Census of Ghana Adrance Report of Vols. lI and A' (Accra, 1962), tables 10 and 13: and 1970 Ghana Population Cenus. vot 3 (Accra, 19751, tables (:7. CX, ard (:9

Besides Northern Region, the other regions of out-migration in Ghana were Volta and Eastern. Volta had a lifetime loss of 170,000 and Eastern had a loss of 100,000 in 1970. The out-migration trend from these regions has not faded in recent years; between 1960 and 1970 each had a net loss of more than 80,000 persons. Western Region has experienced considerable migration in recent years; but, on balance, out-migration was only a few thousand more than in-migration so that the net effect was negligible.

The Ivory Coast The pattern in the Ivory Coast is similar to that in Ghana. South Region, in which Abidjan Ville is located, dominates all the other regions with respect to internal migration. The only other region that had some net gain through migration was Central-West. Table 45 indicates that while the net gain in South Region was 333,000, that in Central-West was only 75,000. A more important distinction is that while the ratio of net migration to the total of in- and out-migration in South Region was as much as 64 percent, it was only 27 percent in Central-West. The number of persons who found Central-West attractive for in-migration was only 27 percent higher than those who found it unattractive and hence decided to leave. As in the case of Accra, Abidjan Department had net gains through migration from all the other departments (see map 15). The principal department of out- migration was Bouake (see map 16). The relation between external and internal migration referred to earlier can be shown more clearly in the Ivory Coast than in any other country because the volume of migration is substantial and migration 62 Migration in West Africa

Table 45. The Ivory Coast:Lifetime Internal and External Migration,1975

Internal

In- Out- Net External Region migrants migrants migration immigration

South 428,939 95,712 333,227 549,656 North 40,940 196,945 -156,005 39,000 East 27,334 42,392 -15,058 99,434 West 39,924 88,145 -48,221 49,855 Central 140,543 329,070 -188,527 208,204 Central-West 174,822 100,238 74,584 107,850 Total 852,502 852,502 - 1,053,999

Source:Unpublished data from the 1975 popudation census of the IvoryCoast.

rates are available for a large number of areal units. As in Ghana, the overall direction of movement of external and internal migration is from the north to the south or from the interior savanna to the coastal forest area. The volume of external and internal migration in a department is positively correlated (statistically significant correlation coefficient of +0 .56).2In Abidjan Department 35 percent were interdepartmental migrants and 23 percent were immigrants, while Odienne Department in North Region had only 5 percent interdepartmental migrants and 4 percent immigrants. In relation to internal migration, external migration was clearly more domi- nant in the eastern border departments than elsewhere in the country. When departments are marked according to whether external migration exceeds internal migration, a clear geographic pattern emerges (see map 17). All the departments on the eastern border show an excess of immigrants over internal migrants, and all but two of the remainder show deficits.

Table 46. Liberia: Net Gain from Exchangeof Population(Both Sexes)between Counties,1974

County of loss

Grand Total Grand Cape Grand net County of gain Bong Bassa Mount Gedeh Lofa Maryland Montserrado Nimba Sinoe gain

Bong - x x 200 4,554 996 X X 582 6,332 Grand Bassa 1,583 - X X 736 456 X X 631 3,406 GrandCape Mount 480 772 - 407 3,022 779 X 572 549 6,581 Grand Gedeh x 180 X - X X X X X 180 Lofa x x x 460 - 88 X X 203 751 Maryland x x x 1,445 X X X X 1,445 Montserrado 39,759 40,686 10,212 7,302 44,138 18,467 - 19,933 20,470 200,967 Nimba 776 2,003 X 1,413 1,003 1,514 X - 801 7,510 Sinoe x x x 187 X 82 X X - 269 Total net loss 42,598 43,641 10,212 11,414 53,153 22,382 X 20,505 23,236 227,441

- Notapplicable. X = Net loss. Source:Unpublished data from the 1974census of populationand housingin Liberia.

An example of extreme concentration of internal migration in a capital city Liberia area occurs in Liberia. Montserrado County where Monrovia is located had a net

2. Proportionsof externaland internalmigrants and nonmigrantsshould add to unity;therefore whereexternal migration is high, internal migration would ordinarily be low-that is,these two rates wouldbe negativelycorrelated. Internal Migration 63

lifetime gain of 201,000 in 1974, which is a balance of 214,000 in-migration and 13,000 out-migration. All the other counties had net losses to Montserrado (table 46). Net migration was about 89 percent of the total of in- and out-migration, indicating that migration to Montserrado was, on the whole, a one-way traffic pattern, with relatively few moving out of the capital city area. The areal pattern of migration changed very little between 1962 and 1974 (see maps 18 and 19). Montserrado County has been and still remains the major attractor of migrants. An estimate of migration over the 1962-74 period, however, indicates that in recent years other centers of attraction are emerging in Liberia. Although migration during 1962-74 was highest in Montserrado County (75,000), that in Grand Cape Mount and Nimba was positive (9,000 and 7,000 respectively). Internal migrants in Liberia have begun to spread to areas other than those around the capital city.

Senegal Internal migration in Senegal was also directed toward the capital city and its suburbs in Cap-Vert Region. Net lifetime migration in this region was 214,000 in 1971 compared with 10,700 in two other regions combined-Senegal-Oriental and Sine-Saloum-which also experienced positive migration (table 47). The

Table 47. Senegal: Lifetime Interregional Migrants, 1960 and 1971, and Net Migration, 1960-71

1960 1971 Net migration, 1960-71

Region In-migrants Out-migrants Net migration In-migrants Out-migrants Net migration Out-born In-born Total

Cap-Vert 133,720 21,380 112,340 247,347 33,752 213,595 140,371 -16,648 123,723 Casamance 9,080 19,020 -9,940 16,669 40,833 -24,164 9,405 -25,617 -16,212 Diourbel 21,540 112,080 -90,540 39,304 136,236 -96.932 22,072 -46.572 -24,500 Fleuve 19,620 65,660 -46,040 22,546 105,083 -82.537 6,850 -52,555 -45,705 Senegal-Oriental 480 7,440 -6,960 22,604 15,465 7,139 22,220 -9,513 12,707 Sine-Saloum 108,080 30,580 77,500 81,413 77,877 3,536 -5,051 -53,413 -58,464 Thies 37,000 73,360 -36,360 73,099 93,736 -20,637 43,499 -35,048 8,451 Total 329,520 329,520 - 502,982 502,982 - 239,366 -239,366 -

Note: Net migration is based on an estimated survival ratio of 80 percent for the period July 1, 1960-tMarch 1, 1971. The United Nations estimate of the expectation of life at birth (eO) for 1965-70 for Senegal is 4L-0 for both sexes (United Nations, Derographic Yearbook 1970, p. 712). Model West life tables of mortality level 10 indicate an e° of 42.5 years for females and .39.7 years for males (Ansley J. Coale and Paul Demeny, Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 19661). The values of Tt/ll, (a calculation of population survival over a ten-year period) in these life tables are approximately 81.9 percent for females and 81.2 percent for males. On the basis of these two survival ratios, it is assumed that a survival ratio of 80 percent for both sexes would he a fair approximation to the actual survival ratio (which is unknown) for the period mentioned. Sources: Based on Senegal, Ministere du Plan et do D6veloppement, Service de la Statistique, Rtsultats de l'Enquete D(ns.ographique 1960-61: Donnte Rigionates (Dakar, 1964); and onpublished data from the 1970-71 National Demographic Survey.

lifetime migration pattern is also a good indication of the trend during 1960-70. Cap-Vert had a net gain of 124,000 during this period and Senegal-Oriental had a gain of 13,000. Sine-Saloum, however, had a net lifetime gain of 4,000 in 1971, but a net loss of 58,000 during 1960-71; while Thies, which had a net lifetime loss of 21,000 in 1971, had a net period gain of 8,000 (see also table 48). Net internal

Table 48. Senegal:Rates of InterregionalPeriod Migration,1960-71

Region In-migration Out-migration Net migration

Cap-Vert 28.5 3.4 25.1 Casamance 1.9 5.3 -3.4 Diourbel 4.2 8.8 -4.6 Fleuve 2.1 16.0 -13.9 Senegal-Oriental 13.6 5.8 7.8 Sine-Saloum -0.7 7.7 -8.5 Tbies 9.6 7.8 1.8

Senegal 7.6 7.6 -

Note: The rate is obtained by dividing the number of in-migrants or out-migrants by the average population (excluding immigrants) during 1960-71. Sources: Same as table 47. 64 Migration in West Africa

migration in recent years in Cap-Vert Region exceeded its natural increase for the period.

Upper Volta is a major country in the region with a 1975 population of 5.6 Upper Volta million. It has a high emigration rate and low internal mobility of the population. The highest in-migration rate was in High Basins Department on the Mali border, somewhat away from Central Department in which Ouagadougou, the capital, is situated. Three other departments that had net gains (table 49) were Black Volta, Central, and East.

Table 49. Upper Volta: Number and Percentage of Interdepartmental Lifetime Migrants, 1975

Number Percent of total population

Out- In- Net Out- In- Net Department migrants migrants migration migrants migrants migration

Central 36,739 49,799 13,060 3.9 5.4 1.4 East-Central 18,601 10,610 -7,991 4.6 2.6 -2.0 North-Central 29,165 20,424 -8,741 4.6 3.2 -1.4 West-Central 52,935 21,324 -31,611 6.7 2.7 -4.0 East 7,268 13,379 6,111 1.8 3.3 1.5 High Basins 15,297 67,619 52,322 2.6 11.6 9.0 North 51,568 9,291 -42,277 9.7 1.8 -7.9 Sahel 12,282 8,782 -3,500 3.5 2.5 -1.0 South-West 8,600 6,860 -1,740 2.4 1.9 -0.5 Black Volta 30,756 55,123 24,367 4.8 8.7 3.8 Total 263,211 263,211 - 4.7 4.7 -

Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of Upper Volta.

High Basins had net gains from all the other nine departments, with the highest gain from its neighbor on the north (Black Volta), and the lowest from East, which is farther away than any other department (table 50). Although Black Volta lost about 17,000 to High Basins, its gain from West-Central and others was enough to leave a net gain of 24,000. Central Department showed a moderate gain from all the other departments except High Basins. On the whole, internal migration is yet to gather momentum in Upper Volta.

Internal migration patterns in Togo are similar to those in Upper Volta, with a Togo relatively low rate of population mobility and the area of in-migration somewhat

Table 50. Upper Volta: Net Interdepartmental Exchange of Lifetime Migration, Both Sexes, 1975

East- North- West- High South- Black Department Central Central Central Central East Basins North Sahel West Volta Total

Central - 4,291 2,509 2,285 147 -1,534 3,527 661 60 1,114 13,060 East-Central -4,291 - -558 -179 -1,496 -1,369 112 -80 -23 -107 -7,991 North-Central -2,509 558 - -1,006 -2,823 -4,231 1,832 1,101 -50 -1,613 -8,741 West-Central -2,285 179 1,006 - -163 -9,808 1,162 56 -514 -21,244 -31,611 East -147 1,496 2,823 163 - -117 370 1,567 40 -84 6,111 High Basins 1,534 1,369 4,231 9,808 117 - 14,145 1,403 3,100 16,615 52,322 North -3,527 -112 -1,832 -1,162 -370 -14,145 - -1,709 -419 -19,001 -42,277 Sahel -661 80 -1,101 -56 -1,567 -1,403 1,709 - 53 -554 -3,500 South-West -60 23 50 514 -40 -3,100 419 -53 - 507 -1,740 Black Volta -1,114 107 1,613 21,244 84 -16,615 19,001 554 -507 - 24,367

Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of Upper Volta. Internal Migration 65 far from the capital city (table 51). Asemigration has decreasedin recent years, internal migration has increased.This trend is likely to accelerate in the future.

Table51. Togo:Lifetime Migrants among the ResidentPopulation by Region of Residence,1970

Place of birth

Other regions Other Region of Same in Togo countries Not residence region (in-migrants) (immigrants) specified All

Maritime 608,491 36,191 56,167 2,210 703,059 (86.6) (5.1) (8.0) (0.3) (100.0) Plateaux 343,058 88,233 37,274 1,072 469,637 (73.1) (18.8) (7.9) (0.2) (100.0) Centrale 227,739 38,992 31,265 850 298,846 (76.2) (13.0) (10.5) (0.3) (100.0) Kara 214,692 14,506 7,662 401 237,261 (90.5) (6.1) (3.2) (0.2) (100.0) Savanes 224,603 4,121 11,252 714 240,690 (93.3) (1.7) (4.7) (0.3) (100.0) Togo 1,618,583 182,043 143,620 5,247 1,949,493 (83.0) (9.3) (7.4) (0.3) (100.0)

Note: Numbers in parenthesesare percentages of total resident populationin each region. Classificationof 1,153 persons is unavailable. Source: Togo,Direction de la Statistique. 1970 Receissernent CGneral de la Population, vol. 1 (Lome: Ministke du Plan, 1974), table 2: and 1970 Recensernent General de la Population, vol. 2 (Lom& Minist&redu Plan, 1975), table 5.

Sierra Leone Western Area, where Freetown, the capital of the country, is located, is the major center of attraction for migrantsin Sierra Leone (see map 20). The rate of population growth during 1963-74 was 4.4 percent in Western Area and 6.1 percent in Kono District compared with a national growth rate of only 2.1 percent. These are the only two administrativedistricts where in-migration was larger than out-migration.A rough estimateof net migration to these areas (and the lossfor all the other areas combined)was 176,000during 1963-74 (see table 52).

Table52. SierraLeone: Net Migrationby AdministrativeArea, 1963-74

Net District migration

Bo -42,500 Bombali -13,700 Bonthe -11,000 Kailahun -5,800 Kambia -15,500 Kenema -18,800 Koinadugu -3,000 Kono 105,400 Moyamba -20,000 Port Loko -15,100 Pujehan -3,900 Sherbro -1,700 Tonkolili -24,800 Western Area 70,400

Sources: Derived from Sierra Leone, Central Statistics Office, 1963 Population Census of Sierra Leone. vol. 2 (Freetown: Ministry of Informationand Broadcasting,1965); and unpublished data from the 1974 population census of Sierra Leone. 66 Migration in West Africa

In this small country, surrounded on all sides by Senegal, internal migration is The Gambia smaller than external migration. The area of attraction for internal migrants is the same as that for external migrants, namely, Kombo St. Mary Area (table 53). The three western areas-Banjul, Brikama, and Kombo St. Mary-together had an in-migration of 39,000 persons (64 percent of the total in the country) and an out-migration of 21,000, leaving a net lifetime gain of 18,000.

Table 53. The Gambia: Lifetime Internal Migration,1963 and 1973

In-migrants Out-migrants Net migration

Area 1963 1973 1963 1973 1963 1973

Banjul 5,032 9,848 4,326 9,403 706 445 Basse 998 2,407 2,934 6,368 -1,936 -3,961 Brikama 5,096 10,416 3,193 9,952 1,903 464 Georgetown 1,950 7,288 4,227 6,149 -2,277 1,139 Kerewan 2,205 3,762 6,195 13,867 -3,990 -10,105 Kombo St. Mary 3,762 18,558 1,229 1,533 2,534 17,025 Kuntaur 5,057 4,560 1,955 5,466 3,102 -906 Mansakonko 2,919 3,925 2,962 8,025 -44 -4,100 Total 27,021 60,764 27,021 60,764 - -

Sources:H. A. Oliver, Census Controller, Report on the Census of Populationof the Gambia taken on 17th./18th., April 1963, Sessionalpaper no. 13 (Banjul:Central StatisticsDivision, 1965), table 3, p. 42; and the GambiaCentral StatisticsDivision, Population Centsus of 1973,Statistics for Local Government Areasand Dis- tricts, vol.3, GeneralReport (Banjul:Ministry of EconomicPlanning and IndustrialDevelopment, 1976), table 1, pp. 73-77.

In general, the characteristics of internal migrants are similar to those of Characteristics of external migrants; there are differences of magnitude, though not in direction, Internal Migrants except in one or two instances. In this section we will try to bring out the similarities and differences between the characteristics of internal migrants and those of nonmigrants on the one hand, and external migrants on the other.

As with external migrants, internal migrants have a relatively high proportion Age of young adults of working age, with a consequent deficit of children less than fifteen years old. Age differentials between migrants and nonmigrants are, however, less pronounced among internal migrants than among external migrants. Among internal migrants themselves there are some systematic differences. In- traregional short-distance migrants are closer to nonmigrants than interregional long-distance migrants; there is, on the whole, a positive relation between distance of migration and the degree of age differential. Available data on age distribution of internal migrants are shown in table 54. In all countries there is a deficit of children among internal migrants for several reasons. First, since these are lifetime migrants, children born to in-migrants at destination are by definition nonmigrants. This reduces the proportion of children among migrants and correspondingly increases that among nonmigrants at destination. Second, many migrants move without their families and thus few migrant children are brought to areas of in-migration. Third, the propensity to migrate is, in general, higher among the unmarried and those with relatively fewer dependents. The proportion of those in the young working ages (15-34 years or 15-39 years) is higher among migrants than among nonmigrants: 11 percentage points higher in the Gambia, 23 percentage points in the Ivory Coast, 16 points in Liberia, and 11 points in Upper Volta. Most initial migration takes place at this age, and the proportion in this age group is higher for countries in which migration is relatively new or the average duration of residence of migrants is relatively low. Internal Migration 67

Table 54. Percentage Age Distribution of Migrants and Nonmigrants in Five West African Countries, circa 1975

Age

60 Country 0-14 15-34 35-59 and over All ages

Gambia Nonmigrants 48 30 18 4 100 Internal migrants 29 41 25 5 100 External migrants 19 45 30 6 100 Ivory Coast Nonmigrants 57.7 21.6 16.9 3.8 100 Internal migrants 35.9 46.2 16.8 1.1 100 External migrants 14.1 61.7 22.3 1.9 100 45 0-14 15-34 35-44 and over Liberia Nonmigrants 45.4 29.5 9.7 15.4 100 Internal migrants 28.1 45.9 12.9 13.1 100 External migrants 20.3 50.6 16.6 12.5 100 Upper Volta Nonmigrantsa 45.3 30.1 18.7 5.9 100 Internal migrants 28.0 41.0 24.7 6.3 100 Extemal migrants 51.6 32.8 10.5 5.2 100 Ghana Nonmigrants 59.1 23.4 6.4 11.1 100 Internal migrants 31.6 45.3 12.1 11.0 100 External migrants 15.9 40.0 19.7 24.4 100

a. Total population. Sources: Recentpopulation censuses and surveysin the countries.

The age distribution of internal migrants falls in between that of external migrants and nonmigrants. Thus, in the Ivory Coast the proportion of children decreases from 58 to 36 to 14 percent, as one moves from nonmigrants to internal migrants and finally to external migrants. This pattern is seen in all countries except Upper Volta and possibly Togo and Mali, which are traditionally emigrating countries. Immigrants in these countries are mostly children born in foreign countries to nationals who have since returned or sent their children home. A similar pattern can be observed among the in-migrants to predominantly out- migrating areas (see figure 2). The age distribution of in-migrants in Ghana's Volta Region (a major out-migrating region) includes a high proportion of children and relatively few adults. The opposite pattern is observed among in- migrants in Accra Region (the principal in-migrating region in Ghana). Among internal migrants there are differences in the age distribution according to destination and the distance moved. One example of the difference by destination is given in figure 2, which contrasts an area of in-migration with one of out-migration. Migrants who move into the principal urban areas in a country, such as Abidjan and Accra in Ghana, are relatively more concentrated in the young adult ages than those who move into secondary areas of in-migration, such as Brong-Ahafo in Ghana or Gagnoa Department in the Ivory Coast (see figure 3). Short-distance intraregional migrants fall in between nonmigrants and interregional long-distance migrants with respect to their age composition (see table 55). The difference in age distributions can be traced largely to the differing motivations among the two groups of migrants. Those who move because of economic reasons-jobs-are generally concentrated in the young adult ages; children do not look for work far from their home. Similarly, the cost of older 68 Migration in West Africa

Figure 2. Ghana: Age Distribution of In-Migrants to and Out-Migrants from Accra and Volta Regions, 1970

70,000l

60,000 -

50,000- Accra in-migration

> 40,000

?30,000 Vl °S0,000 Volta out-migration

20,000

Accra out-migration

10,000110.000 ',,s,?t= # Volta in-~migration~

0 0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-64 5-9 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 Age

persons with dependents looking for work at distant places is generally so high that only a few try. As a result, long-distance migrants generally include a relatively high proportion of young adults and show significant age differentials compared with non-migrants. Short-distance migrants include a higher proportion of people who move as visitors or dependents or because of marriage. They would therefore be more widely distributed across the various age groups.

Table 55. Age Distribution of Intraregional and Interregional Migrants and Nonmigrants: Ghana, 1970, and the Ivory Coast, 1975

Age

55 Country 0-14 15-24 25-54 and over Total

Ghana, 1970 Nonmigrants 60 14 20 6 100 Intraregional 32 20 39 9 100 Interregional 32 23 40 5 100 Ivory Coast, 1975 Nonmigrants 58 12 23 7 100 Intraregional 45 16 33 6 100 Interregional 36 28 33 3 100

Sources: Recent population censuses in the countries Internal Migration 69

Figure 3. Age Distribution of In-Migrants to Brong-Ahafo Region in Ghana, 1970, and Gagnoa Department in the Ivory Coast, 1975

15-tA In-migrants to Gagnoa

tIn-migrantsto Brong-Ahafo

0-4 10-14 20-24 30-34 40-44 50-54 60-69 5-9 15-19 25-29 35-39 45-49 55-59 Age

Sex Long-distance internal migrants resemble external migrants and have a relatively higher proportion of males than do short-distance migrants. The sex ratios of migrants (males per 100 females) in Ghana and the Ivory Coast are given in table 56. They indicate considerable variation between the two countries, but the general pattern is similar. As observed above, the sex ratios of external migrants in Upper Volta and Togo are relatively low because most of them are children born abroad to nationals who have returned home.

Table 56. Sex Ratiosof Migrantsand Nonmigrantsby Age: Ghana, 1970, and the Ivory Coast, 1975

55 All Lifetimne migration status 0-4 5-14 15-24 25-54 and over ages

Nonmigrants Ghana 100 110 98 87 97 100 Ivory Coast 101 115 90 97 138 103 Internal migrants Ghana 97 88 107 155 183 120 Ivory Coast 101 100 114 139 167 113 International migrants Ghana 99 96 91 174 304 152 Ivory Coast 99 96 113 270 302 162

Note: Sex ratios are males per 100 females. Sources: Derived from recent population censuses in the countries. 70 Migration in West Africa The sex compositionof internal migrants varies considerablyfrom one age group to another. On the whole, the proportion of males increaseswith age. In this respect, internal migrants are similar to external migrants, who also show a higher proportion of males at older ages. This increasecould be interpreted in several ways. An increasingproportion of femalesamong recent migrants could be one explanation.Since most initial migration takes place in the young adult ages, if past migrants included fewer females,the sex ratio among older migrants should be relatively high. Time seriesdata on sex ratios of interregionalinternal migration indicate that recent migrants have indeed a higher proportion of women. In Ghana, for example, the sex ratio of interregionalinternal migrants decreasedfrom 129 to 120 from 1960 to 1970, and from 121 to 107 among those in the age group 15-24 years. A second explanationcould be more return migration among femalesat older ages. There are no data for West Africancountries on rates of return migration by sex, but data from other countriesindicate that part of the decrease in the sex ratio among lifetime migrants could be explained by sex differentialsin return migration.

The direction of marital status differentials among internal migrants is the Marital Status same as among external migrants. Data for the only country (Upper Volta) for which cross-classificationof marital status is available indicate that interdepartmental migrants include a higher proportion of single persons than the total population-in all age groups and for both sexes.The proportions are shown in table 57.

Table57. UpperVolta: Proportion of SingleMale and FemaleMigrants by Ageand Typeof Migrant,1975

Return Internal Total Age Emigrants migrants migrants population

Male 15-19 95.9 94.1 97.5 95.8 20-29 76.0 65.0 71.8 59.8 30-39 43.2 30.0 27.1 18.9 40-49 29.7 16.9 13.2 8.3 50-59 24.3 12.0 11.1 5.4 60 and over 25.5 10.0 10.6 5.0 Female 15-19 21.6 32.0 49.1 46.1 20-29 6.0 7.5 8.9 5.2 30-39 3.7 4.7 2.8 2.0 40-49 4.3 4.9 2.3 2.0 50-59 8.0 5.1 4.6 3.1 60 and over 11.3 9.4 6.7 6.4

Source: Unpublisheddata from 1975population census of Upper Volta.

Education is one characteristic in which internal migrants seem to differ from Educational Attainment external migrants. Data are availablefor two countries,Ghana and Togo, which indicate similarities. Internal migrants have a higher level of education than nonmigrants, while external migrants have a lower level of education. Data on educational attainment of migrants in Ghana are available for 1960 and 1970;those of 1960 are particularly detailed. With few exceptions,internal migrants in Ghana have more education than external migrants and nonmigrants, when educationalattainment is measuredby an index of the number of years of schooling (see table 58). The migrants had on average one year more schoolingthan nonmigrants in 1960 and a half year more schoolingin 1970.The average amount of schoolingamong the adult male populationof Ghana in 1960 was about 2.32 years, but thosewho were enumerated in the region of birth had Internal Migration 71

Table 58. Ghana: Index of EducationalAttainment of Male Migrants and Nonmigrants,1960 and 1970

Indexof educational Type of migrant attainmenta

1960 Total adult male population 2.32 Enumerated in the region of birth (nonmigrants) 2.28 Enumerated outside the region of birth (lifetime migrants) 3.31 Born outside Ghana 1.31 Immigrants from Africa 1.06 Immigrants from outside Africa 8.68 1970 Nonmigrants 3.02 All migrants 3.50 Intraregional migrants 3.36 Interregional migrants 3.60

a. The index is computed by assigning weights (average years of schooling) to the various educational categories and calculatinga weightedaverage. The results used were: 0 for those whonever attendedschool, 4 for "Primary and Arabic,"7 for "Middle,Commercial, and Technical,"and 10 for "Secondary,Teacher Training, and Univer- sity" in 1960. In 1970 differentcategories were used,and the weightswere 0, 6, 9, and 12. Theseweights are only approximate,but smallerrors in the weightsdo not greatlyaffect the differencesbetween two weightedaverages. Since the categoriesin 1960 and 1970 were different, however,comparison of the two indexesis not valid. Comparisonsbetween migrant groupsfor the same censusyear are valid. Sources:Derived from 1960 PopulationCensus of Ghana,vol. 6, Post-EnumerationSurvey (Accra, 1971), table H28; and 1971 Supplementary Enquiry(Accra, forthcoming). only 2.28 years of schooling compared with about 3.31 years for those who were enumerated outside the region of birth. The migrant groups are not homogeneous, however, with respect to their educational attainment. First, external migrants born in other African countries are the least educated. In fact, their educational attainment is very much less than even the nonmigrants in Ghana. In contrast, external migrants from outside Africa have the highest educational attainment-as much as 6.4 years more schooling than the nonmigrant population in the country. Second, educational attainment of migrants from within Ghana is affected by the place where they were born. For example, those born in urban areas had about two years more schooling in 1960 than those born in rural areas and probably more in 1970 (table 59). But in each birthplace group migrants had a higher attainment than nonmigrants. The propensity to migrate is higher in rural areas, where migrants led nonmigrants by about 1.1 years of

Table 59. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Migrantsand Nonmigrants by Urban or Rural Birthplace,1960

Index of educational Birthplace attainment

Rural areas 2.08 Nonmigrants 1.55 Migrants 2.67 Difference 1.12 Urban areas 3.97 Nonmigrants 3.91 Migrants 4.02 Difference 0.11

Source:Derived from 1960 PopulationCensus of Ghana,vol. 6, Post-EnumerationSurvey, table H19. 72 Migration in West Africa schoolingin 1960. In urban areas, however,the differencebetween migrantsand nonmigrants was marginal, about 0.1 year. Further evidence on the influence of birthplace is shown in table 60 where migrants and nonmigrants in Ghana are classifiedby their region of birth. In all regions nonmigrants have a lower educational attainment than migrants who moved out of the region. The magnitudeof this differencevaries from one region to another, with the highest difference in Brong-Ahafoand the lowest in North- ern Region. There is no indication of any associationbetween the magnitude of the difference and the overalleducational level of the region.

Table60. Ghana:Index of EducationalAttainment of MaleAdult Migrants and Nonmigrantsby Regionof Birth,1960

Index of educational attainment

Out- Non- Region of birth migrants migrants Difference

Western 4.24 2.59 1.65 Accra 4.75 4.38 0.37 Eastern 4.63 3.16 1.47 Volta 3.94 3.05 0.89 Ashanti 4.39 3.09 1.30 Brong-Ahafo 3.80 1.78 2.02 Northern 0.59 0.25 0.34

Source:Derived from 1960 PopulationCensus of Ghana,vol. 6, Post-EnurnerationSurvey, table H18.

Length of residence is also a factor affectingeducational differencesbetween migrants and nonmigrants.Recent migrants have, on the whole, a higher educational attainment than thosewho migrated long ago; and, in general, the former exhibit larger differentialsthan nonmigrantsas well. The pattern of differentials

Table61. Ghana:Educational Attainment of MaleMigrants and Nonmigrantsby Duration of Residenceand Ruralor UrbanOrigin and Destination,1960

Destination Total Population Urban Rural

More than More than More than Place of origin 0-5 years 5 years 0-5 years 5 years 0-5 years 5 years

Index of educational attainment Same locality (nonmigrants)a 3.24 1.92 4.73 3.87 2.80 1.49 Urban areas Same region 5.09 3.24 5.78 4.74 4.60 2.19 Other region 4.30 3.35 5.42 4.45 3.06 1.95 Rural areas Same region 3.87 1.63 5.16 3.64 3.44 1.18 Other region 3.32 2.15 4.69 3.48 2.30 1.28

Difference from nonmigrants Urban areas Same region 1.85 1.32 1.05 0.87 1.80 0.70 Other region 1.06 1.43 0.69 0.58 0.26 0.46 Rural areas Same region 0.63 -0.29 0.43 -0.23 0.64 -0.31 Other region 0.08 0.23 -0.04 -0.39 -0.50 -0.21

a. Includesreturn migrants. Source: 1960Population Census of Ghana,vol. 6, Post-Enuneration Survey,table H18. Internal Migration 73 also varies between intraregionaland interregional migrants, with intraregional migrants often better educated. Althoughthe index of educationalattainment is low among long-time interregional migrants, they exhibit larger educational differentials than do nonmigrants. It is noteworthy that the educational attainment of a few migrant subgroupsis lower than that of nonmigrants (table 61). Togo's population twelve years and older is largely illiterate (81 percent; see table 62). Even among the literates, the level of education is very low, as nearly

Table62. Togo:Percentage Distribution of the ResidentPopulation Aged Twelve Years and Over by Sex,Education, and MigrationStatus, 1970

Total for Total Non- Intraregional Interregional International Not each male and Educational level migrant migrant migrant migrant specified sex female

Male Cannotread or write 73.6 58.6 62.2 66.4 56.9 69.1 80.9 Primary school 17.3 18.1 15.7 18.7 16.3 17.3 11.0 High school (1-3 years) 8.0 18.7 14.6 9.9 12.5 10.7 6.4 High schoolor technicaleducation (4 years or more) 1.0 4.2 7.0 3.7 6.4 2.6 1.5 Universityeducation ... 0.2 0.3 1.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 Not specified ... 0.2 0.2 0.2 7.9 0.1 0.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 308,074 77,309 70,908 38,421 1,196 495,908 1,085,975 Female Cannot read or write 90.5 93.3 88.5 87.4 87.3 90.8 Primary school 6.3 4.1 5.9 6.9 5.0 5.7 High school (1-3 years) 2.7 2.2 4.3 3.2 3.1 2.8 High schoolor technical education (4 years or more) 0.4 0.3 1.1 2.0 3.2 0.6 Universityeducation ...... 0.3 ... Not specified ... 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 313,148 159,842 71,958 43,429 1,690 590,067

... Less than 0.1 percent. Source, Togo,Direction de la Statistique,unpublished data from the 1970Recensernent GCneral de la Population.

three-fifths of them have no more than a primary schooleducation, and nearly a third have less than four years of high school. Very few have completed a high school or technical education; fewer still have any university education. Males are, on average, better educated than females. Lifetime male migrants are a little better educated than nonmigrant males. A comparison of the three categories of migrants reveals that in-migrants (intraregionaland interregional)have a slight edge on immigrantsin this respect, even though the latter have a higher proportion with university education. Among females, there is very little difference in educational level between nonmigrants and intraregionalmigrants, but the remaining categoriesof migrants are comparatively better educated. Thus, as widely observed,education seems to be a positive correlate of migration in Togo. In the Lome commune, illiteracyis lower (only 42 percent), especiallyamong males (21 percent; see table 63). Amongliterates, the majorityhave less than four years of high schooleducation, and barely 1 percent have a universityeducation. Males are, again, better educated, on average, than femalesin this urban center. 74 Migration in West Africa

Among males, interregional migrants have a slight edge in this respect over other categories of migrants. Immigrant males have the highest proportion (over one- third) of illiterates, but they also have the highest proportion with a university education. Among females, nonmigrants are better educated than migrants, perhaps because education is more pervasive in the urban center, and a considerable proportion of migrant females in Lome are from nonurban areas, having accompanied their families to the city.

Table 63. Togo:Percentage Distributionof the Resident PopulationAged Twelve Years and Over in Lome Communeby Sex, Educational Level, and Migration Status, 1970

Total for Total Non- Intraregional Interregional International Not each male and Educational level migrant migrant migrant migrant specified sex female

Male Cannot read or write 16.1 21.2 17.9 34.5 32.7 20.8 42.0 Primary school 30.5 26.6 22.5 23.4 27.2 26.3 21.4 High school (1-3 years) 39.1 37.0 33.2 25-7 23.1 34.9 24.6 High schoolor technicaleducation (4 years or more) 13.3 13.3 24.6 12.3 10.2 16.1 10.4 Universityeducation 0.6 0.9 1.1 3.3 0.0 1.2 0.7 Not specified 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.8 6.8 0.7 0.9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 15,113 9,904 11,372 7,097 147 43,633 89,948 Femnle Cannot read or write 47.5 75.3 68.9 67.6 73.1 62.1 Primary school 23.7 11.9 12.6 12.5 12.2 16.7 High school (1-3 years) 22.1 8.9 12.4 10.3 9.7 14.9 High schoolor technical education (4 years or more) 5.8 2.5 5.3 7.5 2.9 5.1 Universityeducation ...... 1.2 ... 0.2 Not specified 0.9 1.4 0.7 0.9 0.2 1.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 17,815 11,601 9,610 7,051 238 46,315

.. Lessthan 0.1 percent. Source:Same as table 62.

The educational distribution of repatriates (twelve years and older) shows that they have less education than the general population of corresponding age in Togo. About 95 percent of them are illiterates, and practically none of the literates have more than a primary school education. Thus, repatriates are closer to nonmigrants than to migrants in their educational attainment.

Economic information on internal migration is not as abundant as that on Economic Characteristics external migrants. Employment rates or labor force participation rates for internal migration are available only for Ghana. It is possible that participation rates of male nationals are somewhat uniform across countries, varying from 76 percent in Ghana to 87 percent in the Ivory Coast and 89 percent for Upper Volta. The employment ratios of females, however, may vary considerably. The 1975 census of Upper Volta showed that the employment ratio was under 3 percent for females (both migrants and nonmigrants aged fifteen years and over), while the corresponding ratio in the Ivory Coast was 49 percent and in Ghana, 61 percent. Internal Migration 75

Such variation is attributable more to differences in the concepts used in the different censuses than to actual differences in work habits. Available information on employed internal migrants is given in table 64 for males and females separately, and a comparison of the total number of workers

Table 64. Internal Migrant WorkersAged Fifteen Yearsand Over by Country and Sex, circa 1975

Countrsy Male Female Total

Gambia 28,700 13,400 42,100 Ghana 421,600 247,600 669,200 IvoryCoast 387,500 179,500 567,000 Liberia 109,700 45,000 154,700 Senegal 157,100 103,800 260,900 Togo 58,700 32,900 91,600 UpperVolta 62,500 44,400 106,900 Total 1,225,800 666,600 1,892,400

Note:The number of migrant workers for countries other than Ghana and the Ivory Coast was estimated using theIvory Coast ratios of workers topopulation aged fifteen years and over. The ratios are 87.2 percent for males and 48.9percent for females. For Ghana, the worker ratio was 76.0 percent for males and 61.4 percent for females. The ratiosavailable for Upper volta are not comparable because different concepts and definitions were used. Sources:Based on recentpopulation censuses and surveys in the countries.

by migration status is given in table 65. Internal migrants contributed 2.1 million workers compared with 1.3 million by external migrants. The total employment for all the countries together (except Mali) was about 12 million.

Table 65. EmployedPersons Aged Fifteen Years and Over by MigrationStatus, circa 1975

External Internal Non- Country migrants migrants migrants Total

Gambia 32,700 42,100 125,000 199,800 Ghana 224,300 669,200 2,238,300 3,131,800 IvoryCoast 698,800 567,000 1,339,200 2,605,000 Liberia 35,400 154,700 230,100 420,200 Senegal 154,300 260,900 936,600 1,351,800 SierraLeone 43,700 200,000 820,100 1,063,800 Togo 49,800 91,600 512,700 654,100 UpperVolta 38,200 106,900 1,964,300 2,109,400 Total 1,277,200 2,092,400 8,166,300 11,535,900

Sources:Based on recent population censuses and surveys in the countries.

Sector of Activity and Information is available for Ghana and Togo on the industrial sector in which Occupation internal migrants are employed. As expected, agriculture is the major activity of internal migrants, as shown by the percentages below for Ghana:

Percent in agriculture

1960 1970

Nonmigrants 72 66 Intraregionalmigrants 63 59 Interregionalmigrants 44 40 Externalmigrants 45 55 However, the proportion of interregional migrant workers in agriculture is lower than that of nonmigrants or immigrants. 76 Migration in West Africa

Table 66. Ghana: Percentage of Migrantsand Nonmigrantsin NonagriculturalSectors, 1960and 1970

1960 1970

Intra- Inter- Intra- Inter- Non- regional regional Non- regional regional Sector migrants migrants migrants migrants migrants migrants

Manufacturing 29 29 22 32 31 25 Construction 8 8 13 5 4 7 Commerce 44 37 29 40 34 28 Transport 7 8 8 6 6 7 Services 11 16 2.5 16 24 32 Uti]ities I 1 3 1 1 1 Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Note, Miningis excludedbecause of the small percentageof the workforce so engaged. Sources: DerivedfTom 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, table 38; and 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 4.

Table 67. Ghana: Percentage Distributionof Migrantsand Nonmigrants by Major IndustrialGroup, 1960 and 1970

1960 1970

Intra- Inter- Intra- Inter- Non- regional regional Non- regional regional Sector migrants migrants migrants migrants migrants migrants

Both sexes Agriculture 71.9 62.7 44.2 66.4 59.0 39.8 Mining 0.3 1.3 4.0 0.3 0.8 2.1 Manufacturing 8.2 10.7 11.2 10.5 12.6 14.8 Construction 2.2 2.8 6.7 1.7 1.6 3.9 Utilities 0.2 0.5 1.4 0.2 0.3 0.8 Commerce 12.5 13.4 15.4 13.4 13.7 15.9 Transport 1.9 2.9 4.2 1.9 2.3 4.1 Services 3.0 5.7 12.8 5.6 9.7 18.6 All industries 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Male Agriculture 78.2 62.9 46.6 72.8 59.4 41.6 Mining 0.4 2.7 5.4 0.5 1.4 3.1 Manufacturing 7.7 10.4 9.9 8.2 9.7 12.5 Construction 3.5 5.1 9.1 3.1 3.3 5.6 Utilities 0.4 0.8 1.9 0.4 0.6 1.2 Commerce 2.7 4.9 6.8 2.6 3.4 5.4 Transport 3.4 5.4 5.7 3.7 4.8 6.2 Services 3.8 8.3 14.6 8.8 17.3 24.3 All industries 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Female Agriculture 63.8 62.5 38.0 59.7 58.6 36.5 Mining 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 Manufacturing 8.6 11.0 14.7 13.0 15.2 18.9 Construction 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.2 0.3 Utilities ...... Commerce 25.2 23.2 37.9 24.6 22.7 35.4 Transport 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 Services 2.0 2.7 8.2 2.4 3.1 8.3 All industries 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

I . Lessthan 0.05 percent. Note: Table includesthose agedfifteen years and over. Totals may not sum to 100.0because of rounding. Sources: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV, table 39; and 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 4. Internal Migration 77 Among the nonagricultural sectors, service was the major industry of interregional internal migrants in 1970, while commerce was the principal industry of intraregional migrants. Ten years earlier, commerce was the principal migrant- employing nonagricultural industry for both these groups (table 66). Among females, commerce is a major sector of activity. In 1970 the proportion of interregional female migrants in commerce was as high as that in agriculture (35 percent), and the proportion of female migrants in commerce exceeded that of nonmigrants by a considerable margin (table 67). The general conclusion which emerges from the analysis of economic characteristics of migrants in Ghana is that although migrants are engaged to some extent in all economic activities, they are typically concentrated in certain industrial sectors and occupations. In 1960 mining and commerce were the major industries in which immigrants had a substantial edge over nationals. By 1970 the dominance in mining decreased considerably, and that in commerce became

Table 68. Togo: Percentage Distributionof the Resident PopulationAged Twelve Years and Over by Sex,Occupation, and Migration Status, 1970

Total for Total Non- Intraregional Interregional Intermational Not each male and Occupation migrant migrant migrant migrant specified sex female

Professionals, Male managers,and senior administrators 0.8 4.4 4.1 2.9 3.6 2.0 1.2 Administrative personnel 0.5 2.1 2.4 1.4 2.7 1.1 0.6 Salesworkers 0.7 1.6 1.6 9.0 4.0 1.6 6.1 Serviceworkers 0.4 1.4 1.8 2.1 8.2 0.9 0.5 Agricultural,animal husbandry,and forest workers,fishermen, and hunters 47.0 38.3 41.4 31.3 23.2 43.6 27.5 Productionworkers, transport equipment operators,and laborers 44.3 45.3 41.8 44.2 49.9 44.1 56.4 Other 6.3 6.9 6.9 9.1 8.4 6.7 7.7 All 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Female

Professionals, managers,and senior administrators 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.3 0.4 Administrative personnel 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 Sales workers 9.0 10.7 8.5 15.5 12.6 9.9 Service workers 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 1.6 0.1 Agricultural,animal husbandry,and forest workers, fishermen, and hunters 16.8 14.9 3.0 8.4 9.6 14.0 Productionworkers, transport equipment operators,and laborers 64.0 66.3 80.7 65.4 63.4 66.8 Other 9.7 7.4 6.3 9.0 11.1 8.6 All 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: Basedon Togo,Direction de la Statistique,unpublished data from the 1970 Recenserent GCneralde la Population. 78 Migration in West Africa

more pronounced. At the same time, their importance in the service sector increased. Analysis of specific industrial subgroups indicated that immigrants dominated among farm workers in the agricultural sector and among unskilled laborers. Thus, the immigrants who remained in Ghana were employed in relatively low-status occupations compared with the indigenous population. A somewhat opposite picture emerges from the analysis of internal migrants, especially interregional migrants, who tended to occupy relatively higher status occupations than did nonmigrants. In Togo, for instance, internal and external migrants have a greater representation in high-status occupations than do nonmigrants. The intraregional and interregional migrant males differ very little in their occupational structure, but the females in these two categories differ considerably. A substantially higher proportion of the interregional migrant females are holding blue-collar jobs and proportionately fewer of them are in agricultural and related occupations. A comparatively higher proportion of international migrants, both male and female, are engaged in sales work (table 68). CHAPTER 5 Rural-Urban Migration

West Africa is more urbanized than East Africa but less urbanized than other regions of the continent. According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban population was 18.5 percent in West Africa in 1975 compared with 12.3 percent in East Africa and 39.5 in North Africa (table 69). The estimate from the

Table 69. Proportion of Urban Population in Africa by Region, 1975

Region Percent

Africa 24.4 East Africa 12.3 MiddleAfrica 24.6 North Africa 39.5 SouthAfrica 46.2 West Africa 18-5 Nine countries of West Africa 20.3a

a. Accordingto the mostrecent censuses, this figure is 23.7percent. Source: United Nations, Selected World DemographicIndicators by Countries, 1950-2000,ESA/P/WP. 55 (NewYork, 1975). same source for the nine countries in this study was 20.3 percent, whereas the estimate based on the most recent census results is 23.7 percent. There are vast differences in the degree of urbanization among the nine countries. At one extreme is Ghana, the Gambia, Senegal, and the Ivory Coast with nearly a third

Table 70. Urban Population by National Definition, West Africa, circa 1975

Last census Penultinate census

Urban Percent Urban Percent Country Year population urban Year population urban

Gambia 1973 162,572 32.9 1963 94,609 30.0 Ghana 1970 2,472,456 28.9 1960 1,551,174 23.1 Ivory Coast 1975 2,155,000 32.1 1965 946,100 23.7 Liberia 1974 438,171 29.1 1962 199,000 19.6 Mali 1976a 791,700 13.4 - - - Senegal 1976 1,669,000 32.8 1970 1,166,400 29.9 Sierra Leone 1974b 572,065 20.9 1963C 303,500 13.9 Togo 1970 254,000 13.0 1960 146,700 10.2 Upper Volta 1975 362,610 6.4 1960d 125,000 2.8

-Not applicable. a Approximateestimate. b. Localitiesof 5,000or more. c. Estimatedby adjustingfor the 1973boundary change for Freetown. d. Twoprincipal towns. Sources:Latest censuses and surveysin the respectivecountries; and estimatesbased on thepercent urban from U.N.sources as in table69. 79 80 Migration in West Africa of the population urban (by national definition). At the other extreme is Upper Volta with only 6 percent of its population urban in 1975 (table 70).

None of the cities in this region has a population of a million or more. The Urban Population biggest one is Dakar with about 800,000 people in 1976. Altogether there were fourteen cities with a population exceeding 100,000 in 1975; three of them in Ghana, three in Senegal, three in the Ivory Coast, two in Upper Volta, and one each in Togo, Liberia, and Sierra Leone (see table 71). The only country without a city of 100,000 population is the Gambia, where the population of the biggest town, Banjul, was only 39,200 in 1973.

Table 71. Populationof Cities of 100,000or More in West Africa,circa 1975

Population Estirnated Census in census population City Country year year in 1975

Dakar Senegal 1976 798,792 760,000 Accra Ghana 1970 564,194 729,000 Abidjan Ivory Coast 1975 686,828 687,000 Kumasi Ghana 1970 260,286 314,000 Greater Freetown Sierra Leone 1974 276,247 290,000 Lom6 Togo 1970 148,000 202,000 Monrovia Liberia 1974 204,000 219,000 Ouagadougou Upper Volta 1975 172,661 170,000 Bouak6 Ivory Coast 1975 167,670 168,000 Abobo-Gare Ivory Coast 1975 133,351 133,000 Thies Senegal 1976 117,333 113,000 Bobo-Dioulasso Upper Volta 1975 115,063 113,000 Tamale Ghana 1970 83,652 110,000 Kaolack Senegal 1976 106,899 103,000

Sources: Population censuses of countries; estimates for 1975 made by the authors.

The eight countries together (Mali is excluded) had 314 towns with a population of more than 5,000. The distribution of these towns by size and the total population of each class according to the most recent census are given in table 72. The total population of these towns was about 8 million, which is about 26 percent of the total population of these countries. Of these, 231 towns were located in two countries, Ghana and the Ivory Coast; the other six countries together had only 83 such towns. Nearly a third of the urban population of the region lives in Ghana, and 30 percent in the Ivory Coast. Together with Senegal, they include 80 percent of the total urban population of the region. Nearly 50 percent of the total urban population lives in towns of 100,000 or more people. In general, there is a deficit of towns in the size category 50,000-100,000. There were only thirteen of them, with a total population of 858,000 compared with thirteen towns and 3.8 million population in the next higher class, and forty-five towns and 1.3 million population in the next lower class. Towns in this region are either very big or very small, in general. Between 1965 and 1975 the urban population of this region grew by an estimated 3.6 million at the rate of about 5.8 percent a year. Table 73 gives the urban growth rate in each country and its difference from the country's national growth rate. The urban growth rates vary considerably, as do the national rates; the differences between them also vary from one country to another. These differences are only crude measures of the degree of rural-urban migration because they are affected not only by rural-urban migration but also by external migration, urban-rural differences in natural increase, and reclassification of areas around towns and localities. External migration and reclassification can be particularly large in some countries. According to this crude measure the highest Rural- Urban Migration 81

Table 72. Distribution of Urban Localities by Population Size, circa 1975

100,000and more 50,000-100,000 20,000-50,000 10,000-20,000 5,000-10,000 Total

Census Local- Popula- Local- Popula- Local- Popula- Local- Popula- Local- Popula- Local- Popula- Country year ity tion ity twon ity tion ity tion ity tion ity tion

Gambia 1973 0 - 0 - 2 64,684 0 - 2 18,820 4 83,504 Ghana 1970 2 824,480 4 254,234 17 460,173 29 378,960 83 554,609 135 2,472,456 Ivory Coast 1975 3 987,849 3 169,859 15 446,355 25 360,979 50 346,210 96 2,311,252 Liberia 1974 1 204,210 0 - 1 23,994 5 62,057 13 92,808 20 383,069 Senegal 1976 3 1,023,024 5 358,014 4 122,912 8 105,423 7 54,218 27 1,663,591 Sierra Leone 1974 1 276,247 1 75,846 3 97,610 4 52.363 11 69,999 20 572,065 Togo 1970 1 148,300 0 - 1 29,500 5 76.200 0 - 7 254,000 Upper Volta 1975 2 287,724 0 - 2 62,528 1 12,358 0 - 5 362,610 Total 13 3,751,834 13 857,953 45 1,307,756 77 1,048,340 166 1,136,664 314 8,102,547

SourcesBased on recentpopulation censuses and surveys in the countries.

rate of rural-urban migration was in Sierra Leone, where the urban growth rate exceeded the national growth rate by 3.5 percentage points, and the lowest was in the Gambia. This conclusion, however, is not supported for the Gambia in later analysis.

Table 73. Annual Growth Rate of Urban Populationand Total Population, Most Recent IntercensalPeriod, circa 1965-75

Annual growth rate (percent)

Urban Total popula- popula- Differ- Country Period tion twa ence

Gambia 1963-73 5.4 4.5 0.9 Ghana 1960-70 4.7 2.4 2.3 Ivory Coast 1965-75 8.2 5.2 3.0 Liberia 1962-74 6.6 3.4 3.2 Senegal 1960-70 4.9 2.7 2.2 Sierra Leone 1963-74 5.4a 1.9 3.5 Togo 1960-70 5.4 3.0 2.4 Upper Volta 1965-75 3 .4b 1.7 1.7

a. Adjustedfor the 1973 boundarychange for Freetown. b. Two principaltowns. Sources&Based on recent censusesand surveysin the countries.

Rural-Urban Migration: A rough estimate of net migration to urban areas (including migration from Regional Picture outside the country) is shown in table 74. Of the total urban growth of 3.6 million during the intercensal period (approximately 1965-75), about 1.7 million was due to rural-urban migration (including some external migration and some reclassification of localities), and the balance of 1.9 million was due to natural increase. Thus a little less than half the urban growth (48 percent) was due to migration. The average rate of rural-urban migration was roughly 3.2 percent a year, but it varied from 5.6 percent in the Ivory Coast to 1.2 percent in Ghana. Table 75 gives the available information on urban growth and the contribution of migration for each of the countries. The figures on the decomposition of urban growth by natural increase and net migration are not strictly comparable because the influence of external migration varies by country, but it appears that the Gambia and Sierra Leone have the highest percentages of urban growth contributed by rural-urban migration and Ghana, the lowest. If there were no external 82 Migration in West Africa Table 74. Net Rural-UrbanMigration, Intercensal Period, circa 1965-75

Average annual percentage Migration Net increase in as percent rural-urban urban population of total Country Period migrationa from migration urban growth

Gambia 1963-73 44,000 3.8 65 Ghana 1960-70 226,000 1.2 28 Ivory Coast 1965-75 715,000 5.6 59 Liberia 1962-74 144,000 3.8 60 Senegal 1960-70 278,000 3.3 40 Sierra Leone 1963-74 170,000 3.8 63 b Togo 1960-70 42,000 2.5 44 Upper VoltaC 1960-75 99,000 4.1 55 Total 1,718,000 3.2 48

a. For all countriesexcept Liberia and the IvoryCoast, migration estimates are madefor the sameset of townsso that reclassificationof localitieswill not vitiate the estimate. Externalmigration is not eliminatedfor any country. b. Adjustedfor the 1973 boundarychange for Freetown. c. Two principaltowns. Sources:Based on recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

migration, the contribution of internal rural-urban migration to urban growth in the Ivory Coast would be only about 34 percent. A detailed discussion of the pattern of rural-urban migration in each country follows.

Table 75. Urban Growth by Components,Varied Periods,1960-76

Components of urban Urban populationa Urban growth growth (percent) rate Percent of Natural Net Country Year Thousands total Period Rate increase migration

Gambia 1973 163 32.9 1963-73 5.4 35 65 Ghana 1970 2,472 28.9 1960-70 4.7 72 28 Ivory Coast 1975 2,155 32.1 1965-75 8.2 41 5 9 b Liberia 1974 438 29.1 1962-74 6.6 40 60C Senegal 1970 1,166 29.9 1960-70 4.9 60 40 Sierra Leone 1974 572 20.9 1963-74 5.4 37 63 Togo 1970 254 13.0 1960-70 5.4 56 44 Upper Volta 1975 363 6.4 1965-75 3 .4 d 45 55e

a. Nationaldefinition. b. Of which 38 percentagepoints are due to external migration. c. Includingreclassification of towns. d. Two principaltowns only. e. Of which 14 percentagepoints are due to external migration. Sources:Based on recent censusesand surveysin the countries.

With about 29 percent of its population in urban areas (localities with 5,000 or Ghana more population) in 1970, and about 32.5 percent in 1975, Ghana is one of the most urbanized countries in West Africa. Between 1948 and 1970 the urban population in Ghana grew very rapidly from about 525,000 in 1948, to 1.5 million in 1960, and 2.5 million in 1970, a fivefold increase over a twenty-two- year period (table 76). Only part of the growth is due to migration (internal or external); the balance is due to natural increase and reclassification of localities. (For the names of towns, or urban centers, in 1970 and their populations in 1960 and 1970, see Statistical Appendix [SA] table 19.) The regions in Ghana differ in degree of urbanization (SA table 20). In 1970 Accra was the most urbanized region in the country (85 percent urban), and Upper Region was the least urbanized (7 percent). These regions held the same Rural-Urban Migration 83

Table 76. Ghana: Urban Localitiesand Urban Population, 1948, 1960,and 1970

Category 1948 1960 1970

Totalnumber of localities 15,121 30,397 47,769 Urban 39 98 135 Rural 15,082 30,299 47,634 Total population 4,111,348 6,726,815 8,559,313 Urban 524,918 1,551,174 2,472,456 Rural 3,586,430 5,175,641 6,086,857 Percenturban 12.8 23.1 28.9

Sources: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 1 (Accra, 1962), table 1; and 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. I (Accra,1973), table 2. rank in 1948, but the trend of urban growth in other regions has varied considerably. Brong-Ahafo had only a little over 2 percent of its population in urban centers in 1948, whereas by 1960 this proportion had risen to nearly 16 percent, and further to 22 percent by 1970. A similar growth pattern occurred in North- ern Region. By contrast, urbanization seems to be tapering off in recent years in Central, Eastern, and Volta regions, for example, despite the fact that they are far from highly urbanized. Immigrants have contributed in some measure to the growth of the urban population in Ghana. In 1960 roughly a third of lifetime immigrants were enumerated in urban areas, and by 1970 this proportion had increased but little (SA table 21). A third of the lifetime internal migrants (intra- and interregional) in 1970 were also enumerated in urban centers. Thus, there was very little difference between the international and internal migrants as to their choice of rural or urban destination. Internal migrants were as prone to move to urban areas in Ghana as international migrants. There was, however, a substantial decline in the share of international migrants in the urban population between 1960 and 1970. Either the immigrants left the country, or they moved into rural areas. In 1970 there were about 3.5 million interlocality lifetime adult migrants (aged fifteen years and over) in Ghana. Most of these (52 percent) had moved from one village to another, but about 578,000 (17 percent) had moved from a village to a town. A surprising feature of Ghana migration is that about 581,000 persons born in a town were living in a village in 1970 (table 77). This is slightly more than the number of village-born persons living in towns. Over the 1960-70 period all the migration streams showed substantial increases, but the highest growth rate was among urban-rural migrants. These figures cannot be interpreted, however, to mean that during 1960-70 urban-rural migration was larger than rural-urban migration, and that net migration was in favor of rural areas. This is not true.

Table 77. Ghana: Adult Lifetime Migrantsby Rural or Urban Origin and Destination,1960 and 1970

Migrants arnong persons 15 years or over Origin and destination 1960 1970

Rural-rural 1,006,000 1,798,000 Rural-urban 297,000 578,000 Urban-rural 193,000 581,000 Urban-urban 187,000 523,000 Total 1,683,000 3,480,000

Sources: 1960 Population Census, vol. 6, Post-Enumeration Survey (Accra,1971), table H2; and 1971 Supple- mentary Enquiry (Accra, forthcoming). 84 Migration in West Africa

Lifetime migration figures are affected by many other factors, such as the increase in the number of urban localities from 93 to 135 and return migration. There were 135 towns in 1970. Some of these were not towns in 1960, and therefore part of the urban growth between 1960 and 1970 was due to reclassification of localities which were rural in 1960. For the localities that were urban in 1970, the total growth was about 798,000. An approximate distribution of this growth is:

Total population in 1960 1,674,000 Total population in 1970 2,472,000 Total growth, 1960-70 798,000 Net migration, 1960-70 226,000 Natural increase 572,000 Increase due to migration, 13 percent of 1960 population 1960-70 28 percent of total growth Increase due to natural 34 percent of 1960 population increase, 1960-70 72 percent of total growth

Thus, the major component of urban growth in Ghana in 1960-70 was natural increase (72 percent of the total), and migration contributed less than a third. A regional breakdown of urban growth indicates that urban areas in some regions had net losses from migration-Western, Eastern, and Volta regions (table 78). Most of the rural-urban migration was directed toward Accra Region, which had a net gain of 200,000 out of a total net gain of 226,000 for all urban localities combined. The urban areas of Northern Region also gained considerably, receiving as much as 23 percent of the total rural-urban migration.

Table 78. Ghana: Net Migration to Urban Areas by Region Compared with Net Migration between Regions, 1960-70

Net migration

Region Urban areas Region

Western -48,000 -6,022 Accra 200,000 196,110 Eastern -25,000 -83,830 Volta -3,000 -88,807 Ashanti 39,000 -9,662 Brong-Ahafo 11,000 45,109 Northern 52,000 -52,898 Total 226,000 -

Sources: 19601Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. IIl and IV (Accra, 1962), table 2; 1970 PopulationCensus of Ghana, vol.8 (Accra, 1975)table C8; and table 44 above.

A comparison of the net gains in urban areas of the regions with net migration for the region as a whole, estimated in the section on interregional migration, indicates the extent of migration from the rural areas. For Accra Region, which is predominantly urban, there is no difference between these two values. There are, however, considerable differences for other regions. For example, Northern Re- gion had a net loss of 53,000, but its urban centers had a net gain of 52,000. Thus, the rural areas of Northern Region had a net out-migration of at least 105,000. In Western Region, the total loss was only 6,000, but the urban areas lost about 48,000. Thus, the rural areas of this region should have gained some population from migration. The net gain of Brong-Ahafo Region was much larger than the net gain of its towns, indicating that in this region the rural areas had net in- migration. Rural-Urban Migration 85

Net gain from migration was inversely proportional to the size of town, as shown below:

Size of town Net migration, 1960-70

More than 100,000 238,000 50,000-100,000 82,000 10,000-50,000 -58,000 Less than 10,000 -152,000 Total 226,000 In fact, the smaller towns (population less than 10,000) had a net loss of about 152,000 which eliminated about 40 percent of their natural increase. Cities (more than 100,000) and large towns (50,000-100,000) had relatively the same degree of net in-migration. More than half their intercensal growth (58 percent) was due to migration. Net migrants represented about 25 percent of their 1970 population. Disaggregation of total net migration by age and sex indicates that in Ghana rural-urban migrants are predominantly in the 15-24 age group. As much as 68 percent of the total net gain was in this age group (table 79). At higher ages (over thirty-five) the urban areas had net losses. The total gain of 226,000 was a balance of a net gain of 256,000 at ages below thirty-five years and a net loss of 30,000 at ages thirty-five and over.

Table 79. Ghana: Net Migration to Urban Areas by Age, 1960-70

Age Net migration

0-4 11,000 5-9 11,000 10-14 62,000 15-24 154,000 25-34 18,000 35-44 -15,000 45-54 -5,000 55-64 -5,000 65 and over -5,000 Total 226,000

Sources: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Adwance Report of Vols. III and IV, table 7; and 1970 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 3, table C8.

Ghana is the only country for which the educational attainment (years of schooling) of rural-urban migrants is available. These data show that they had a higher level of education than rural nonmigrants, rural-rural migrants, and, until recently, urban-rural migrants. Only the urban-urban migrants had more schooling than the rural-urban migrants. In more recent years the average educational attainment of rural-urban migrants has declined, especially in comparison with migrants originating in urban areas (table 80). As expected, few rural-urban migrants take up farming as their occupation. The principal occupations were crafts (30 percent) and sales (24 percent), while only 13 percent of the rural-urban migrants were farmers (see table 81). There are considerable differences between the occupational distribution of male and female migrants. Among the latter, more than 50 percent were employed in sales, usually petty trade, and only 18 percent were in crafts. There is a very close resemblance between the occupational composition of rural-urban migrants and urban-urban migrants; the origin of a migrant does not appear to be a factor determining his or her occupation in the town. 86 Migration in West Africa

Table 80. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Male Adult Migrantsand Nonmigrantsby Urban or Rural Birthplaceand Place of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970

Index of educational attainment

Type of migrant 1960 1970

Rural-born nonmigrants 1.55 2.51a Rural-born migrants 2.67 2.66 Rural-rural 2.02 2.51 Rural-urban 4.31 3.10 Urban-born nonmigrants 3.91 2.51a Urban-born migrants 4.02 4.91 Urban-rural 2.96 5.28 Urban-urban 5.09 4.67

Note: The index is computed by assigningweights (average years of schooling)to the variouseducational categoriesand calculatinga weightedaverage. The results used were:0 for those who never attendedschool, 4 for "Primaryand Arabic,"7 for 'Middle,Commercial, and Technical,' and 10 for "Secondary,Teacher Training, and University'in 1960.In 1970different categories were used,and the weightswere 0, 6, 9, 12. Theseweights are only approximate,but small errors in the weightsdo not greatlyaffect the differencesbetween two weightedaverages. Since the categoriesin 1960 and 1970 were different, however, comparisonof the two indexes is not valid. Comparisonbetween nonmigrants and any migrant group for the same censusyear is valid. a. Includesboth rural-bornand urban-bornnonmigrants. Sources: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 6, Post-Enumneration Survey, table H18; and 1971 Supplernen- tary Enquiry.

In the Ivory Coast the total urban population was 2.2 million in 1975, repre- The Ivory Coast senting 32 percent of the population of the country (see map 21).' Ten years earlier, the urban population had been only 946,100 or 24 percent of the country's total population: Growth rate, 1965 1975 1965-75

Urban population 946,100 2,155,000 8.2 Abidjan 340,000 920,000 10.0 Rural population 3,056,400 4,548,000 4.0 Total 4,000,000 6,703,000 5.2 The urban population has been growing at double the rate of the rural population over the 1965-75 period: 8.2 percent as against 4.0 percent. Much of the urban growth has been due to rural-urban migration and international migration. As shown in table 82, nearly 40 percent of the growth was due to external migration and another 40 percent to natural increase, including births to migrants in the urban areas. Net rural-urban migration, including reclassification of localities, contributed about 20 percent, half as much as international migration. In the rural areas external migration was also very large, as much as 36 percent of the total growth over the period. Natural increase was undoubtedly the domi- nant factor, however, contributing 81 percent of the total rural growth. Rural- urban migration (including reclassification) reduced rural growth by 17 percent. Most of the external migrants in the urban areas of the Ivory Coast could be considered as rural-urban migrants since most of them originated in rural areas in Upper Volta and Mali. If external migrants are excluded and the calculation is confined to internal migration, the rural-urban migration rate for 1965-75 was about 2.4 a year per 100 urban population in 1965 and 0.8 a year per 100 rural population in 1965. Thus, internal migration eliminated one-fifth of the natural increase in the rural areas of the Ivory Coast during 1965-75.

I. SAtable 24 givesthe namesand populationof each localitywith a populationexceeding 5,000 in 1975. The total population of these localities is slightly different from the total urban population given in the census tables because a different definition of "urban" was used. Rural-Urban Migration 87 Table81. Ghana:Percentage Distribution of Migrantsand Nonmigrants by MajorOccupational Category, 1960

Migrants

Non- Rural- Rural- Urban- Urban- Occupation migrants rural urban rural urban

Both sexes Professional and technical 1.4 3.0 5.9 6.0 7.7 Administrative and management 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.7 2.4 Clerical 1.0 0.7 6.3 1.7 8.8 Sales 14.2 8.0 24.3 11.0 25.6 Farmers 63.5 72.7 13.9 55.0 6.7 Mining 1.1 0.4 2.7 1.1 1.9 Transport and communication 1.8 1.3 6.5 2.8 7.7 Crafts 13.3 11.9 30.3 18.3 30.1 Service 1.7 1.0 6.1 1.7 5.7 Other 1.6 0.7 2.7 1.3 3.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Male Professional and technical 2.0 5.3 7.5 8.4 8.8 Administrative and management 0.6 0.5 1.9 1.1 3.5 Clerical 0.2 1.3 9.3 2.6 12.4 Sales 4.1 1.4 7.3 2.2 6.5 Farmers 67.1 70.6 12.5 55.4 8.3 Mining 1.6 0.7 4.1 1.7 2.7 Transport and communication 3.1 2.6 9.9 4.4 11.2 Crafts 16.0 15.3 36.9 20.6 35.7 Service 2.3 1.4 7.7 2.2 7.4 Other 1.7 1.0 3.0 1.4 3.6 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Female Professional and technical 0.7 0.6 3.0 1.8 5.7 Administrative and management 0.1 ... 0.3 ... 0.3 Clerical 0.2 ... 0.8 ... 2.4 Sales 28.6 14.9 54.9 26.1 60.4 Farmers 58.4 74.9 16.4 55.5 3.9 Mining 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.5 Transport and communication 0.1 ... 0.4 0.1 1.3 Crafts 9.4 8.4 18.5 14.4 19.9 Service 0.8 0.6 3.2 0.9 2.8 Other 1.3 0.4 2.2 1.1 3.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Negligible. Note: Table includespersons aged fifteen years and over. Columnsmay not add to 100.0because of rounding. Source: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, vol. 6. table H44.

Migrants, internal and external, represented larger proportions of the total populationin the urban areas than in the rural areas in 1975:

Percentage of population

Urban Rural

Immigrants 24.0 11.8 In-migrants 36.3 10.6 Nonmigrants 39.7 77.6 Total 100.0 100.0 There were more internal than external migrantsin the compositionof the urban population, but in rural areas internal and external migrants were of equal importance at the national level.Among the departments, only in Aboissoin the south, Bondoukouand Bouna in the northeast, and Danane in the west doesthe 88 Migration in West Africa

Table 82. Ivory Coast: Composition of Urban and Rural Growth, 1965-75

Percent of Population population Components of growth (thousands) growth

Urban growth International migration 465 38 Natural increase 490 41 Net rural-urban migration and reclassification of localities 250 21 Total 1,205 100

Rural growth International migration 535 36 Natural increase 1,207 81 Net rural-urban migration and reclassification of localities -250 -17 Total 1,492 100

Source:Estimates based on unpublisheddata from the 1975 populationcensus of the IvoryCoast. volume of lifetime external migration exceed that of internal migration in urban areas (table 83). Two of the principal urban centersin the Ivory Coastare Abidjanand Bouake. Abidjan Ville had a total populationof 689,000in 1975 and the Abidjanmetro- politan area had a population of 920,000,having grown at about 10 percent a year since 1965.2The principal immigrant group in Abidjan was from Upper Volta, while that in Bouake Ville was from Mali. The immigrant groups in Abidjan were drawn from a broader geographic area than were those in Bouake (see SAtable 25). Both citiesreceived mostof their internal migrantsfrom within their own region, 35 percent from Southern Region for Abidjan Ville and 46 percent for Bouak6Ville from Central Region (table 84). Migrants to these two cities had the highest index of distance traveled by migrants in any of the departments; 2.4 for AbidjanVille and 2.1 for BouakeVille, while the averagefor all departments was only 1.4 (see map 22). The sex ratio of interdepartmental migrants in the urban areas was slightly higher (117 males per 100 females)than thosein the rural areas (105),but there was very little difference among the external migrants.In the urban areas the sex ratio of external migrants was 161, while the corresponding ratio in the rural areas was 163 (see SA table 26). With respect to age distribution also,the rural- urban difference among the externalmigrants is marginal. The dependency ratio among them was 14 in the urban areas and 19 in the rural areas (seeSA table 27).

The urban populationof Senegalwas estimated to be about 1,166,370in 1970 Senegal and 713,043 in 1960.5If the urban natural increaseis close to the national rate, these figures imply a net rural-urban migration of about 278,000.Thus, about 60 percent of the urban growth in Senegalduring 1960-70was due to migration and the other 40 percent to natural increase and reclassification. The rate of net rural- urban migration was 3.3 percent a year compared with the 1960 urban population, and 1.2 percent a year compared with the initial rural population. Rural-urban migration in Senegal during the 1960s was directed largely toward Dakar. The net migration to Dakar alone is estimated to be 60 percent of

2. The metropolitan area includes Abidjan Ville and its suburbs. 3. Agglomerations of 10,000 or more. According to the 1976 census the urban population of Senegal was 1,668,750, but since other details of the 1976 census tabulations were not available, this section is based on the 1960 and 1970 survey data. Rural-Urban Migration 89

Table 83. The Ivory Coast: Percentage of Immigrantsand Internal Migrantsin Rural and Urban Areas by Department of Enumeration, 1975

Urban Rural

Region and Immi- Internal Immi- Internal department grants migrants grants migrants

South Abidjan Ville 32.3 34.7 ...... Abidjan 19.7 52.4 26.1 15.1 Aboisso 27.0 21.9 29.7 14.7 Adzope 15.1 17.9 14.7 5.0 Agboville 17.3 40.3 18.7 8.4 Divo 23.3 34.2 10.6 16.3 Sassandra 30.0 35.9 14.8 27.1 North Boundiali 8.1 13.2 4.7 1.5 Ferkessedougou 13.3 35.9 10.3 1.2 Korhogo 9.2 22.8 1.9 1.1 Odienne 5.2 19.9 4.2 3.3 S4guela 8.5 56.4 1.9 8.3 Touba 7.7 22.8 5.1 10.4 East Abengourou 27.4 29.1 38.5 11.5 Bondoukou 18.2 17.4 9.3 6.4 Bouna 16.0 14.3 7.6 2.4 West Biankouma 13.5 24.2 0.8 3.1 Danane 23.4 18.4 8.0 6.0 Guiglo 26.1 31.1 6.4 7.6 Man 20.5 33.4 2.5 5.2 Central Boualle 19.5 41.8 11.4 19.6 BouakeVille 22.7 38.0 ...... Bouake 21.7 26.2 4.9 3.8 Dimbokro 22.3 25.3 16.5 4.3 Katiola 10.0 37.2 4.1 31.6 Dabakala ...... 2.6 10.8 Central-West Daloa 18.6 38.2 15.5 24.1 Gagnoa 15.1 37.2 19.4 29.6 Total 24.0 36.3 11.8 10.6

Negligible. Source: Unpublisheddata fromthe 1975 populationcensus of the IvoryCoast.

the total net rural-urban migration (about 167,000). These estimates are, however, indirect and assume that the rate of natural increase is the same in urban and rural areas, and in big towns such as Dakar and smaller towns. Some direct information on migration to urban areas can, however, be obtained from birthplace data. The total interregional lifetime migration in 1971 was about 503,000, of which about 333,000 or 66 percent had moved to an urban area. The total urban population was, however, less than a third of the total population, indicating that the impact of internal migration on urban areas in Senegal was 4.5 times that in rural areas (see table 85). The effect on the semi-urban population was not altogether different from that on rural areas. It is not known how many of these migrants were born in rural areas, and as a result it is difficult to estimate how many of them were rural-urban migrants. A rough estimate can be worked out on the basis of the data available for Cap-Vert Region for 1960 and 1971. This 90 Migration in West Africa

Table 84. The Ivory Coast:Percentage of In-migrantsto Abidjan Ville and Bouak&Ville by Department of Origin, 1975

Region and department of origin Abidjan Bouake

South Abidjan Ville - 6.4 Abidjan 17.1 4.0 Aboisso 3.9 1.2 Adzope 3.2 1.1 Agboville 3.3 2.1 Divo 3.5 1.6 Sassandra 3.5 1.5 North Boundiali 1.5 3.1 Ferkesssidougou 0.9 1.5 Korhogo 2.5 4.3 Odienne 1.7 3.2 Seguela 2.8 5.7 Touba 1.0 1.3 East Abengourou 2.2 2.1 Bondoukou 2.4 2.6 Bouna 0.6 0.2 West Biankouma 0.4 0.2 Danane 1.0 0.7 Guiglo 3.2 1.3 Man 3.5 2.6 Central Bouaft 5.1 3.2 BouakeVille 2.9 - Bouak6 13.9 30.2 Dimbokro 6.3 7.9 Katiola 1.6 3.6 Dabakala 0.3 1.2 Central-West Daloa 4.7 4.1 Gagnoa 7.0 3.1 Total 100.0 100.0

Source.Unpublished data fromthe 1975population census of the IvoryCoast. region was entirely urban in 1971, and nearly three-quarters of the total migrants in urban areas were enumerated in Cap-Vert, which had a net lifetime gain of 214,000 in 1971, 112,000 in 1960, and net migration of about 124,000 during 1960-71. If migration to all urban areas had been at the same rate as in Cap-Vert, the net gain of all urban areas through migration during 1960-70 would have been about 166,000. This is only 60 percent of the estimate (278,000) derived indirectly from the published survey data for 1960 and 1970, and it points to a faster pace of migration in urban areas other than Cap-Vert.

There are seven urban centers called communes in Togo, of which Lome, the Togo capital of the country, is the most populous. Its population was 148,000 in 1970 and about 80,000 in 1960, more than half the total urban population of the country in both years. Maritime Region includes two other communes, Anecho and Tsevie, both of which are relatively small towns with a population of less than 13,000 in 1970. Plateaux Region has two towns, Atakpam6 and Palime, with a combined population of 37,000 in 1970. The other two towns are in Centrale Rural-Urban Migration 91

Table 85. Senegal: Lifetime Migration to Urban, Semi-urban, and Rural Areas, 1971

Lifetime in-migrants

Percent of total Area Number population

Urban 333,000 31 Semi-urban 43,000 9 Rural 127,000 7 Total 503,000 15

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1970-71National Demographic Survey.

Region and together had a popula:ion of 4-,000 in 1970. The urban population grew at an average rate of 5.4 percent a year during 1960-70, but the larger towns, Lome and Sokode, grew at more than 6.2 percent a year. In 1961 about 52 percent of the Lome population was born elsewhere, 25 percent in other parts of Maritime Region in which Lome is located, 10 percent in other regions in the country, and 16 percent in other countries of West Africa. Thus, migration from other regions of the country was less than that from other countries, such as Ghana and Benin. By 1970 the situation had changed somewhat in the direction of greater internal migration. The proportion of Lome's population born in other regions had increased to 17 percent and that of the foreign-born decreased to 15 percent. A much larger decrease was observed, however, among migrants born in the same region. Thus, external migration remained a significant component of the population of Lome, and internal migration moved in the direction of a higher proportion of long-distance migrants. The source of migrants in Lome from within the country expanded geographi- cally during 1961-70. Such a comparison between 1961 and 1970 is not possible for the other communes. The 1970 data indicate that the proportion of lifetime migrants is slightly less in other communes, and the difference is evenly distributed among all categories of migrants. The number of visitors in Lome exceeded the number of absentees in 1961, but the difference was only about 2,000. The 1970 data indicated that there were about 2,000 repatriates in Lome from other countries of West Africa, of whom 1,300 were from neighboring Ghana. The number of repatriates in other communes was only 4,400, practically every one of whom came from Ghana.

Table 86. Togo: Net Migration to Communes,1960-70

Net migration, 1960-70 Population Rural- Communes 1960 1970 urban Internafional Total

Lome 80,000 148,300 33,800 1,700 35,500 Anecho 10900 10,800 -4,600 Tsevie 9,400 12,900 / -400 Atakpane 9,800 17,400 8,200 3,800 3,700 Palime 12,400 19,700 2,200 Sokode 14,900 29,500 8,800 Bassari 9,300 15,400 2,300 Total 146,700 254,000 42,000 5,500 47,500

Sources: Unpublishedestimates for 1960 from Directionde la Statistique,based on Service de la Statistique General,Recensement Ceneral de la Population du Togo,1958-60 (Lome: Ministere des Financeset des Affaires Economiques,n.d.), fascicles2-6. Data for 1970from Directionde la Statistique,1970 RecensernentCeneral de la Population. vol.2 (Lom&:Minist6re du Plan, 1975),table 5. 92 Migration in West Africa

Figure 4. Togo: Net Migration to Urban Areasby Age and Sex, 1960-70

6,000 -

5,000 -

4,000 - t\\ \ Females

4,000 /V l

2,000

1,000 _ Males

C o I I I \I I -1 ,0001 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Age

Net migration to urban areas by age and sex, worked out by the census survival ratio method, is shown in figure 4. The net migration to all communes together is estimated to be about 47,500, of which about 5,500 are immigrants, leaving a net rural-urban migration of about 42,000 in Togo during 1960-70. The probable distribution of the net urbanward migration is given in table 86. Rural-urban migration was about 3.2 percent of the 1960 rural population (annual rate of migration of 0.3 per 100 rural population a year). It was about 28 percent of the 1960 urban population, indicating a growth rate of 2.5 per 100 of the 1960 urban population a year. Much of the urbanward migration was directed toward Lome, which gained about 35,000 through migration during 1960-70-slightly more than half its population growth. Next in importance is Sokode, which had a net gain of about 9,000 through migration. Anecho commune on the coast in Maritime Region seems to have lost some population because of migration. Migration is very insignificant if not slightly negative in Tsevi6, the other commune in Maritime Region. It seems that Lome has grown not only at the expense of other regions but also at the expense of the other two towns within the region.

Very little is known of rural-urban migration in Sierra Leone. The major Sierra Leone difficulty in analyzing rural-urban migration is that in the 1963 and 1974 censuses a majority of respondents gave their chiefdom of birth without specifying whether it was in a rural or urban area. While the place of enumeration may be classified as rural or urban, it is not possible to do so for place of birth. An indication of the volume of rural-urban migration can be derived from the growth of urban localities from 1963 to 1974. In 1963 only the capital city, Freetown, had 50,000 or more inhabitants, representing only 5.9 percent of the country's total population. By 1974 the population of Freetown had more than doubled because of an extension of its boundaries as well as natural increase and migration. About 10 percent of the population of the country lived in Freetown. Its average annual rate of growth from 1963 to 1974 (with the boundary stan- Rural- Urban Migration 93 dardized at its 1974 configuration)was 4.9 percent. If allowanceis made for an average annual rate of natural increase of 2.0 percent and a generousnet incre- ment of about 0.9 percent a year from international migration, the annual contribution of internal migration wouldbe at least2 percent.There can be no doubt that rural-urban migration contributed substantiallyto this growth. In 1963 only 7.1 percent of the total populationof Sierra Leone wasliving in the two localitiesof 20,000or more inhabitants.By 1974there were fivelocalities of this size, and they accounted for 16.5 percent of the total population. In addition, the number of localities of less than 1,000 inhabitants decreased considerably over the intercensalperiod. The available informationtends to support a view that rural-urban migration in Sierra Leone concentrated population in a few cities that rank high on the development scale. Among the major urban localities (those with 5,000 inhabitants or more in the 1974 census;see SAtable 31) those in the mining area of Kono have shown rapid growth since 1963.If the national rate of natural increaseis assumed for the urban areas also, the estimate of net rural-urban migration is about 170,000.Similar calculationsindicate that net migration during 1963-74 was 70,000 in Freetown and 60,000 in Koidu Town in Kono District. Rural-urban migration represented a growth rate of 4.1 percent a year with respect to the 1963 urban population.

UpperVolta There were five towns in Upper Volta with a total of 362,610inhabitants in 1975: Ouagadougou, the capital city, in Central Department, 172,661; Bobo- Dioulassoin High Basins,115,063; Koudougou in West-Central,36,838; Ouahi- gouya in North, 25,690; and Banfora in High Basins,12,538 (see SA table 32). Smaller towns, usually the headquarters of sous-prefectures,are classified as semi-urban areas. Even if the cities in Upper Voltaare small comparedwith other African cities, their growth has been quite high in recent years. Allthe departments contributed to the growth of the cities, but in 1975 most of the migrants were from the departments in which the cities are located-for example, 42,000 in Ouaga- dougou from Central Department and 9,500 in Bobo-Dioulassofrom High Ba- sins. There were very few urban dwellers from the departments of Sahel and East. The age and sex distributionsin 1975 of urban in-migrants in the departments of East-Central and North-Centralindicate that a very high proportion of the migrants were adults moving in as families. In Ouagadougou45.4 percent of the populationwas native to the town in 1975 (table 87). The others were in-migrants and immigrants in three categories(excluding the undetermined): intradepartmental in-migrants,24.5 percent; interdepartmental in-migrants, 21.2 percent; and immigrants, 6.4 percent. The in- migrants were mainly from the department in which the city is located,but other departments were also represented. Males outnumbered females, in contrast to the pattern of Central Department or of the country. Ouagadougou'scomposi- tion indicates recent and continuousin-migration. Bobo-Dioulassoattracted people from everywherein the country. The native- born were 55 percent of the resident population, while intradepartmental in- migrants were only 8.3 percent. In-migrants from Black Volta were almost as numerous as intradepartmental in-migrants (7.9 percent). Foreign-born were more attracted by this city than by Ouagadougou,representing 10 percent as opposedto 6.4 percent of the total populationof the city. Bobo-Dioulassohas long been a trade center between Upper Volta, the Ivory Coast, and Mali,which may explain its relatively high percentage of foreigners. Banfora appeared to be newly expanding in 1975,when only 31 percent of its population had been born in the town. The largest proportion (36 percent) of its population were intradepartmental in-migrants. Foreigners represented a relatively high proportion(9 percent)of the total populationof the town, which is not far from the frontiers of Mali and the Ivory Coast. 94 Migration in West Africa

Table 87. Upper Volta: Percentage Distributionof Urban Population by Departmentand Place of Birth, 1975

Ouagadougou Koudougou Ouahigouya Place of birth Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Fenale Total

Department Central 24.8 24.2 24.5 2.9 3.1 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.8 East-Central 3.8 3.9 3.8 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 North-Central 2.9 2.3 2.6 0.5 0.3 0.4 1.7 0.9 1.3 West-Central 4.6 4.5 4.6 10.4 16.8 13.5 0.9 0.8 0.9 East 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 High Basins 3.0 3.2 3.1 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 North 2.3 2.2 2.2 0.7 0.6 0.7 9.0 14.6 11.8 Sahel 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.9 0.8 South-West 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 Black Volta 2.2 2.4 2.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 Town Ouagadougou 45.4 45.4 45.4 ...... Koudougou ...... 77.8 71.1 74.5 ...... Ouahigouya ...... 79.2 74.5 76.8 Banfora ...... Bobo-Dioulasso ...... Foreign-born 6.0 6.9 6.4 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.4 2.3 2.4 Undetermined 2.3 2.4 2.4 0.7 1.0 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Banfora Bobo-Dioulasso Total urban

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Department Central 4.3 3.2 3.8 3.9 3.2 3.6 13.8 13.0 13.4 East-Central 1.0 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.0 1.1 2.3 2.3 2.3 North-Central 1.1 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.7 1.9 1.4 1.6 West-Central 2.6 1.7 2.2 3.7 3.0 3.3 4.6 4.9 4.8 East 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.6 High Basins 35.8 35.9 35.8 8.3 8.4 8.3 5.5 5.6 5.6 North 3.7 2.3 3.0 3.2 2.9 3.1 2.9 3.2 3.0 Sahel 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 South-West 3.7 3.0 3.4 2.7 2.5 2.6 1.4 1.3 1.4 Black Volta 5.0 5.9 5.4 7.2 8.5 7.9 3.7 4.3 4.0 Town Ouagadougou ...... 21.9 21.4 21.6 Koudougou ...... 7.9 7.2 7.6 Ouahigouya ...... 5.4 5.5 5.4 Banfora 28.8 32.9 30.7 ...... 1.0 1.1 1.0 Bobo-Dioulasso ...... 55.0 55.5 55.2 17.2 17.9 17.5 Foreign-born 8.4 8.9 8.6 9.8 10.3 10.0 6.6 7.3 7.0 Undetermined 4.5 4.4 4.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.5 2.6 2.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

... Zeroor negligible. Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of Upper Volta.

The two other towns, Koudougou and Ouahigouya, are old cities, the capitals of two former powerful Mossi kings. Their growth seems to have been mainly from natural increase, with the native-born representing 75 percent in Kou- dougou and 77 percent in Ouahigouya in 1975. Their attraction of the surround- ing population was not very strong; the intradepartmental in-migrants represented 13.5 percent for Koudougou and 11.8 percent for Ouahigouya, and most of them were females who probably came through marriage. Rural-Urban Migration 95 An approximationof the compositionof the growth of the two principaltowns, Ouagadougouand Bobo-Dioulasso,from 1960to 1975is shownin table 88. Their total population increased over the period by 163,000,of which 43,000 (or 26 percent) was from natural increase of the 1960 population, and the balance of 120,000 was the net effect of migration. This latter component included both internal and external migrants, plus their natural increase, which can be estimated at about 30,000, leaving a balance of 90,000as net migrants to these two towns. About 23,000 of the towns' 1975 populationwere foreign-born.Thus, it appears that about 41 percent of the total growth of the two towns was from internal migration, and 45 percent was from the combined natural increaseof migrants and the 1960 population. Immigration of foreign-born accounted for the balance (14 percent). The extent of emigration from these two towns is not precisely known. The reported number of emigrants was about 3,000, but the actual number may have been as high as 10,000.

Table88. UpperVolta: The Compositionof Growthof Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso,1960-1975

Item Ouagadougou Bobo-Dioulasso Total

1960 population 70,000a 55,000 125,000 1975 population 173,000 115,000 288,000 Total growth, 1960-75 103,000 60,000 163,000 Natural increase among the 1960 population 24,000 19,000 43,000 Natural increase among migrants 19,000 11,000 30,000 External migrants 11,000 12,000 23,000 Internal migrants 49,000 18,000 67,000

a. The figure of 70,000is from an estimate in the 1960-61National Demographic Survey (vol. 1, p. 26, listed below).Another surveyof Ouagadougouin 1961-62 yieldeda total populationof 57,952, which is not used here becausethe surveyspanned the wet and the dry seasonsand there wasgreat diversityin the levelof underenumeration. (SeeUpper Volta, Servicede la StatistiqueGenerale, RecensermentDemographique Ouagadougou, 1961-62 [Paris:Ministere de la Cooperationand Institut Nationalde la Statistiqueet des Etudes Economiques,19641.) Sources: Upper Volta,Service de la Statistiqueet de la Mecanographie,Enquete D&nographique par Sondage en Wepubliquede Haute Volta, 1960-61(IParis]: Institut Nationalde la Statistiqueet des Etudes Economiquesand SecretariatdEtat aux AffairesEtrangeres, 1970), vol. 1; and unpublisheddata from the 1975population census of Upper Volta.

The Gambia In the Gambia in 1973 there were forty-four towns according to national definition-a large number for the size of the country's population,but mostof them were small. Banjul, the largest town and the capital of the country, had a population in 1973 of only 39,000, but it was 8 percent of the country's total (table 89). Between 1963and 1973 the populationof Banjulgrew by 3.4 percent, 1.1 percentage points less than the national growth rate, so that the influx of external migration must have been less intense there than in the rest of the country. The highest growth rate (4.4 percent) of Bahjul'spopulation occurred in 1921-30, when the national population decreasedby 0.5 percent a year. The rate of urban growth during 1963-73was greater than the nationalgrowth rate by 0.9 percentage units. It is not clear whether the difference is due to internal migration, external migration, or other reasons.The urban death rate is possiblylower than the rural death rate, and a higher natural increasecould be one reason for the higher urban growth rate. Over the intercensal period, 1963-73, towns in the population size range of 2,000-5,000 in 1963 had the highest growthrate. In general,however, there is no consistentrelation between a town's size and its recent rate of population growth. The total population of the forty-four towns in the Gambia increased from 95,000 to 163,000during 1963-73. If the rate of natural increasein the towns is 96 Migration in West Africa Table 89. The Gambia: Populationof Banjul, 1901-73

Average Intercensal annual Popu- percentage growth Year lation change rate

1901 8,807 - 1911 7,700 -12.5 -1.3 1921 9,227 19.8 1.8 1931 14,370 55.7 4.4 1944 21,152 47.2 3.0 1951 19,602 -7.3 -1.1 1963 27,809 41.9 2.9 1973 39,179 40.9 3.4

Sources: The Gambia, Ministry of Economic Planningand IndustrialDevelopment, Population Census of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, vol. 3, General Report (Banjul: Central Statistics Division, 1976); and Report of the Census Commissioner for the Colony, 1951 (Banjul: Census Commissioner, 1952), table 1, p. 6. assumed to be about 25 percent higher than that of the rural areas (on the assumption that the urban death rate is much lower than the rural death rate), net in-migration to the towns would be about 44,000, or nearly two-thirds of the total growth:

Total population of forty-four selected towns 1963 94,609 1973 162,572 Growth during 1963-73 Absolute 67,962 Percentage increase 71.8 Estimated natural increase 24,000 Net migration (internal and external) 44,000 As percentage of total growth 64.7 Much of the urban growth occurred in four towns: Bakau and Serekunda in Kombo St. Mary Area and the towns of Banjul and Brikama. These accounted for more than 80 percent of the migration to all towns in the Gambia. Other towns which had significant net in-migration were Gambissara in Basse Area and Fara- fenni in Kerewan Area, but, on the whole, towns in the areas to the east of Kombo St. Mary experienced little in-migration. On the contrary, several of them had net out-migration (Saba, Salikeni, Njakunda, and Nokunda in the Kerewan Area; and Jiroff and Jassong in the Mansakonko Area).

All the countries in the region are affected by rapid urban growth, although Conclusions the level of urbanization varies substantially from one country to another. In countries such as Ghana, where urbanization started earlier, urban natural increase is much larger than internal rural-urban migration; but in most of the other countries rapid urbanization is more recent, and migration is as much a component of urban growth as natural increase is. In the Ivory Coast, and possibly also in the Gambia, external migration (mostly originating in rural areas) is more important than internal migration. One pattern of rural-urban migration in the region which seems to be univer- sally observed is the concentration of rural-urban migrants in the principal city of the country or its neighboring areas. Thus, in Ghana 200,000 out of the total net gain of 226,000 in all urban areas was in Accra Region. In Abidjan the net gain from internal and external migration may be as much as 400,000, while the total net migration to all urban areas was 715,000. In Sierra Leone, Freetown received 70,000 out of a total of 170,000. Net migration to Dakar was probably larger than net migration to all urban areas. In Togo 80 percent of the net rural-urban migration was directed toward Lom6, the capital city. Rural-Urban Migration 97 Not only did the largest town receive the bulk of rural-urban migrants, but these gains were partly at the expense of smaller towns. Thus, in Ghana towns with population below 10,000had a net loss of 152,000.In Togo, Anechoand Tsevie,two small towns in Maritime Region where Lome is located,had net out- migration during 1960-70. Lome has grown at the expenseof not only other regions of the country but also the towns within its own region. Such losseswere not observedin all the countries,but net migrationto townsbelow 10,000popula- tion, even where it was positive,was only a small fraction of the total net rural- urban migration. Migrationto large townsis partly from the smallertowns; these, in turn, were fully compensated by migration from the rural areas in some instances,but only partly compensatedin most cases. Net positive migration in urban areas represents the difference between a much larger rural-urban migration and the smaller urban-rural migration.Two types of data are available to illustrate this point. First, net migration to urban areas classifiedby age indicates that migration was negative at older ages. In Ghana during 1960-70 net rural-urban migration at age thirty-five years and over was -30,000, and a similar pattern was seen in figure 4 for Togo. It is very likely that such a pattern would be observedin other countriesalso, but data are not available.A second source of informationis lifetime migration data by rural- urban residence. In Ghana in 1970 there were 578,000 rural-urban lifetime migrants, while urban-rural lifetime migrants were even more numerous- 581,000.In the Ivory Coastin the two principal cities(Abidjan Ville and Bouake Ville),the total lifetime in-migrationwas 310,000,but there was also a total out- migration of 145,000.In Senegalin 1971,34,000 persons who were born in Dakar were enumerated outside this region. Thus, net migration to urban areas is only a fraction of the overall movement between the urban and rural areas, which is marked by a systematicreturn of older persons to the villages. Rural-urban migrants do not differ greatly from interregional internal migrants with respect to their demographic characteristics.Rural-urban migrants, however, tend to have a slightly higher concentration in the young adult ages than do other interregionalmigrants. Rural-urban migrants are distinguishedby their socioeconomiccharacteristics. They are better educated and occupyhigher status occupationsthan do interregionaland intraregionalinternal migrants,external migrants, and nonmigrantsin the rural areas. The migrantsoriginating in urban areas are usually better educated and employed in higher status occupations than the rural-urban migrants. The Ghanaian data for 1960 and 1970 indicate that in comparisonwith the urban population,the educational attainment of rural-urban migrantshas deteri- orated in recent years. Relativelyhigher proportionsof illiteratesand those with limited education are moving into towns and cities. This is more a reflectionof population pressure on agriculture in rural areas than the demand for such persons in towns and cities. The socioeconomicstatus of rural-urban migrants is likely to decrease further in the future in mostof these countries in comparison with urban dwellers. I Statistical Appendix

SAl. Age and Sex Distribution of Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Enumeration, circa 1975 SA2. Age Distribution of the Total Population as Enumerated in Censuses, circa 1975 SA3. Ghana: Net Migration between Accra and Other Regions, and between Brong-Ahafo and Other Regions, 1960-70 SA4. The Ivory Coast: Volume and Rate of Lifetime Internal Migration by Department, 1975 SA5. The Ivory Coast: Distribution of Population by Migrant Type and Department of Enumeration, 1975 SA6. The Ivory Coast: Lifetime Migration Between Abidjan (Including the City) and Other Departments, 1975 SAT Liberia: Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net Migration by Location and Sex, 1962 SA8. Liberia: Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net Migration by Location and Sex, 1974 SA9. Liberia: Estimated Net Intercensal Internal Migration by Sex and County, 1962-74 SA10. Liberia: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in an Area and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1962 SAI1. Liberia: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in an Area and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1974 SA12. Senegal: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in a Region and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Resident Population, 1960 and 1971 SA13. Senegal: Components of Population Growth by Region, 1960-70 SA14. Sierra Leone: Indigenous Population and Net Migration by Admin- istrative Area, 1963-74 SA15. The Gambia: Migration between Kombo St. Mary and Other Local Areas and between Kerewan and Other Local Areas, 1973 SA16. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Migrants and Nonmi- grants by Origin and Destination, 1960 SA17. Ghana: Percentage of Migrants and Nonmigrants in Farming Oc- cupations, 1960 SA18. Ghana: African Immigrant Workers by Industry, 1960 and 1970 SA19. Ghana: Total Population in 1960 and 1970 of Each Locality De- fined as Town in 1970 99 100 Migration in West Africa

SA20. Ghana: Urban and Rural Population by Region and Percentage of Total That Is Urban, 1948, 1960, and 1970 SA21. Ghana: Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Urban or Rural Place of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970 SA22. Ghana: Urban Population by Lifetime Migration Status and Re- gion, 1960 and 1970 SA23. Ghana: Age Distribution of Male Lifetime Migrants by Urban or Rural Origin and Destination, 1970 SA24. The Ivory Coast: Population of Localities of 5,000 or More People by Sex and Department, 1975 SA25 The Ivory Coast: Origin of Immigrants in Abidjan and Bouake, 1975 SA26. The Ivory Coast: Sex Ratios of International and Interdepartmental Lifetime Migrants by Department of Enumeration and Rural or Urban Residence, 1975 SA27. The Ivory Coast: Percentage Age Distribution of Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Rural or Urban Residence in the Ivory Coast, 1975 SA28. The Ivory Coast: Regional Origin of Internal Migrants in Abidjan and Bouake, 1975 SA29. Togo: Urban Population and Proportion Urban, 1970 SA30. Togo: Visitors and Absentees in Lome, 1961 SA31. Sierra Leone: Localities with Population of 5,000 or More in the 1974 Census SA32. Upper Volta: Population of Urban Areas by Place of Birth, 1975 SA33. Upper Volta: Lifetime Intradepartmental In- and Out-migrants by Area of Residence, Sex, and Age Group, 1975 SA34. The Gambia: Intercensal Population Growth of Forty-four Selected Towns by Local Government Area, 1963-73 SA35. The Gambia: Intercensal Population Growth of Forty-four Selected Towns by Size of Township in 1963, 1963-73 SA36. The Gambia: Net Migration to Forty-four Selected Towns During 1963-73 by Size of Town in 1963 Statistical Appendix 101

SA Table 1. Age and Sex Distributionof Lifetime Immigrantsby Country of Enumeration,circa 1975

Age

60 Country 0-14 15-39 40-59 and over Total

Male Gambia 4,988 17,024 6,850 3,406 32,268 Ghana 27,459 99,415 60,487 23,485 210,846 Ivory Coast 70,622 440,616 114,106 27,044 652,388 Liberia 6,119 21,504 6,640 1,496 35,759 Senegal 21,873 56,946 57,098 10,093 146,010 Sierra Leone 11,597 26,114 7,941 2,684 48,336 Togo 34,533 22,395 9,011 3,354 69,293 Upper Volta 32,169 16,409 6,069 3,254 57,901 Total males 209,360 700,423 268,202 74,816 1,252,801 Female Gambia 5,456 10,968 2,641 1,450 20,515 Ghana 28,452 79,603 22,982 7,991 139,028 Ivory Coast 72,966 277,553 36,855 14,243 401,617 Liberia 5,965 14,778 2,405 551 23,699 Senegal 20,847 57,864 36,352 5,927 120,990 Sierra Leone 11,406 15,733 2,649 1,290 31,078 Togo 34,768 29,993 7,179 2,385 74,325 Upper Volta 30,187 23,172 6,510 3,022 62,891 Total females 210,047 509,664 117,573 36,859 874,143 Total 419,407 1,210,087 385,775 111,675 2,126,944

Source: Basedon recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries.

SA Table 2. Age Distributionof the Total Populationas Enumerated in Censuses,circa 1975

Age

60 Country 0-14 15-39 40-59 and over Total

Male Gambia 102,644 94,013 37,319 16,410 250,386 Ghana 2,020,809 1,479,624 514,567 232,809 4,247,809 Ivory Coast 1,525,228 1,343,353 464,125 146,179 3,478,885 Liberia 317,386 278,212 111,649 51,862 759,109 Senegal 819,528 673,827 304,727 130,335 1,928,417 Sierra Leone 584,621 520,322 189,928 61,331 1,356,202 Togo 500,278 271,230 110,794 54,647 936,949 Upper Volta 1,332,394 938,400 374,494 182,290 2,827,578 Total males 7,202,888 5,598,981 2,107,603 875,863 15,785,335 Female Gambia 101,054 100,669 29,114 12,276 243,113 Ghana 1,995,156 1,609,789 481,498 225,061 4,311,504 Ivory Coast 1,443,755 1,300,769 361,189 118,268 3,223,981 Liberia 297,604 321,044 88,086 37,525 744,259 Senegal 790,068 806,109 276,531 105,063 1,977,771 Sierra Leone 583,633 524,279 196,853 74,192 1,378,957 Togo 470,378 371,227 115,943 54,996 1,012,544 Upper Volta 1,222,812 1,059,376 371,122 157,315 2,810,625 Total females 6,904,460 6,093,262 1,920,336 784,696 15,702,754 Total 14,107,348 11,692,243 4,027,939 1,660,559 31,488,089

Source: Basedon recent populationcensuses and surveysin the countries. 102 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 3. Ghana: Net Migration between Accra and Other Regions, and between Brong-Ahafo and Other Regions, 1960-70

To Accra From Accra Region of outborn of inborn Balance

Western 58,037 8,923 49,114 Eastern 78,691 12,228 66,463 Volta 51,093 5,394 45,699 Ashanti 27,663 5,006 22,657 Brong-Ahafo 4,628 1,666 2,962 Northern 12,732 3,517 9,215 Total 232,844 36,734 196,110

To Brong-Ahafo From Brong-Ahafo of outborn of inborn Balance

Western 6,060 10,100 -4,040 Accra 1,666 4,628 -2,962 Eastern 9,042 3,705 5,337 Volta 10,981 1,574 9,407 Ashanti 25,482 18,237 7,245 Northern 36,677 6,555 30,122 Total 89,908 44,799 45,109

Sources: 1960 Population Census of Ghana, Advance Report of Vols. III and IV (Accra, 1962), table 13; and 1970 Ghana Population Census, vol. 3 (Accra, 1975), table C9. Statistical Appendix 103

SA Table 4. The Ivory Coast: Volumeand Rate of Lifetime Internal Migration by Department, 1975

Rate Number (percent) Region and In- Out- Net In- Out- Net department migration migration migration migration migration migration

South Abidjan Ville 239,126 112,974 126,152 34.7 16.4 18.3 Abidjan 246,861 81,157 165,704 35.3 11.6 23.7 Aboisso 23,991 23,832 159 16.1 16.0 0.1 Adzope 12,013 27,667 -15,654 7.4 17.0 -9.6 Agboville 21,275 26,723 -5,448 15.0 18.8 -3.8 Divo 56,906 28,289 28,617 20.4 10.2 10.3 Sassandra 57,095 23,398 33,697 29.7 12.2 17.6 North Boundiali 4,784 31,077 -26,293 3.6 23.5 -19.9 Ferkessedougou 10,189 11,056 -867 11.3 12.2 -0.9 Korhogo 11,640 46,344 -34,704 4.2 16.7 -12.5 Odienne 6,440 60,579 -54,139 5.1 48.9 -43.7 Seguela 21,174 42,971 -21,797 13.4 27.3 -13.8 Touba 9,006 27,211 -18,205 11.6 34.0 -23.4 East Abengourou 28,783 22,245 6,538 16.2 12.5 3.7 Bondoukou 20,584 23,397 -2,813 6.9 7.9 -1.0 Bouna 1,886 20,669 -18,783 2.2 24.5 -22.3 West Biankouma 5,170 9,955 -4,785 6.8 13.1 -6.3 Danane 13,464 17,206 -3,742 7.9 10.1 -2.2 Guiglo 17,140 34,931 -17,791 12.4 25.4 -12.9 Man 27,560 49,463 -21,903 9.9 17.8 -7.9 Central Bouafle 64,556 40,932 23,624 24.5 15.5 9.0 Bouake Ville 71,162 31,556 39,606 38.1 16.9 21.2 Bouake 41,906 258,821 -216,915 6.7 41.7 -34.9 Dimbokro 39,903 73,953 -34,050 8.4 15.6 -7.2 Katiola 25,357 23,866 1,491 32.6 30.6 1.9 Dabakala 6,097 8,400 -2,303 10.8 14.9 -4.1 Central- West Daloa 99,984 46,754 53,230 27.1 12.6 14.4 Gagnoa 80,701 59,327 21,374 31.1 22.9 8.2 Total 1,264,753 1,264,753 18.9 18.9

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975 populationcensus of the IvoryCoast. SA Table 5. The Ivory Coast: Distribution of Population by Migrant Type and Department of Enumeration, 1975

Number Percentage of total population

Inter- Intra- Inter- Intra- Region and Foreign- depart- depart- Intra- Non- Foreign depart- depart- Intra- Non- < department born mental mental prefecture migrants Total born ment ment prefecture migrants o

South Abidjan Ville 222,797 239,126 7,267 337 216,301 685,828 32.5 34.9 1.1 0.0 31.5 Abidjan 158,510 246,861 33,405 47,929 216,608 703,313 22.5 35.1 4.7 6.8 30.9 Aboisso 43,392 23,991 4,314 13,608 63,518 148,823 29.2 16.1 2.9 9.1 42.7 Adzope 24,002 12,109 4,019 5,362 117,345 162,837 14.7 7.4 2.5 3.3 72.1 Aghoville 26,086 21,275 ... 6,905 87,704 141,970 18.4 15.0 ... 4.9 61.8 Divo 37,702 56,906 15,560 44,200 124,158 278,526 13.5 20.4 5.6 15.9 44.6 Sassandra 37,167 57,095 9,493 28,480 59,759 191,994 19.4 29.7 4.9 14.8 31.1 North Boundiali 7,078 4,784 13,907 25,948 80,561 132,278 5.3 3.6 10.5 19.6 60.9 Ferkessedougou 10,080 10,189 1,798 28,809 39,547 90,423 11.1 11.3 2.0 31.9 43.7 Korhogo 8,264 11,640 15,893 34,820 206,199 276,816 3.0 4.2 5.7 12.6 74.5 Odienne 5,402 6,440 3,138 9,386 99,644 124,010 4.3 5.1 2.5 7.6 80.4 Segu6la 4,029 21,174 5,550 35,478 91,308 157,539 2.6 13.4 3.5 22.5 58.0 Touba 4,147 9,006 4,632 7,004 52,997 77,786 5.3 11.6 6.0 9.0 68.1 East Abengourou 63,201 28,783 11,555 17,599 56,554 177,692 35.6 16.2 6.5 9.9 31.8 Bondoukou 28,856 20,584 21,908 47,006 178,197 296,551 9.7 6.9 7.4 15.9 60.0 Bouna 7,377 1,886 499 20,457 54,071 84,290 8.8 2.2 0.6 24.3 64.1 West Biankouma 2,325 5,170 992 7,069 60,155 75,711 3.1 6.8 1.3 9.3 79.5 Danane 17,695 13,464 7,818 35,741 95,531 170,249 10.4 7.9 4.6 21.0 56.1 Guiglo 14,372 17,140 3,384 21,276 81,500 137,672 10.4 12.4 2.5 15.5 59.2 Man 15,463 27,560 15,166 43,038 177,432 278,659 5.5 9.9 5.4 15.4 63.7 Central Bouafl6 34,772 64,556 13,071 24,378 126,832 263,609 13.2 24.5 5.0 9.2 48.1 Bouake Ville 42,547 71,162 ... 5,325 48,636 167,670 25.4 42.4 ... 3.2 29.0 Bouake 41,501 41,906 22,195 54,146 480,630 640,378 6.5 6.5 3.5 8.5 75.0 Dimbokro 83,757 39,903 16,280 55,781 279,302 475,023 17.6 8.4 3.4 11.7 58.9 Katiola 4,143 25,357 1,699 8,927 37,749 77,875 5.3 32.6 2.2 11.5 48.4 Dabakala 1,484 6,097 2,347 2,771 43,531 56,230 2.6 10.8 4.2 4.9 77.4 Central- West Daloa 59,670 99,984 8,893 85,866 115,197 369,610 16.1 27.1 2.4 23.2 31.2 Gagnoa 48,180 80,701 9,388 45,951 75,284 259,504 18.6 31.1 3.6 17.7 29.0

Total 1,053,999 1,264,849 254,171 763,597 3,366,250 6 ,7 0 2 ,8 6 6 a 15.7 18.9 3.8 11.4 50.2

Zero or negligible, a. Total population includes 34,023 unknowns. Note; Those with place of birth not determined are excluded from the table. Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of thle Ivory Coast. Statistical Appendix 105

SA Table 6. The Ivory Coast:Lifetime Migration between Abidjan (Including the City) and Other Departments, 1975

Region and In- Out- Net department migration migration migration

South Aboisso 16,536 6,433 10,103 Adzope 18,252 3,280 14,972 Agboville 16,074 5,112 10,962 Divo 15,833 8,486 7,347 Sassandra 12,614 4,130 8,484 North Boundiali 7,611 541 7,070 Ferkessedougou 3,613 896 2,717 Korhogo 10,513 1,167 9,346 Odienne 12,768 1,006 11,762 Seguela 12,575 2,182 10,393 Touba 4,508 785 3,723 East Abengourou 8,653 3,085 5,568 Bondoukou 8,499 1,001 7,498 Bouna 2,071 329 1,742 West Biankouma 2,426 135 2,291 Danane 4,846 950 3,896 Guiglo 15,756 1,790 13,966 Man 18,638 3,176 15,462 Central Bouafle 18,695 5,571 13,124 Bouake Ville 10,107 7,458 2,649 Bouake 67,471 6,261 61,210 Dimbokro 28,573 6,493 22,080 Katiola 5,809 1,021 4,788 Dabakala 1,849 331 1,518 Central- West Daloa 21,684 6,265 15,419 Gagnoa 30,386 6,620 23,766 Total 376,360 84,504 291,856

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975population census of the IvoryCoast. 106 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 7. Liberia: Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net Migrationby Location and Sex, 1962

Both sexes Male Fernale Place of birth and In- Out- Net In- Out- Net In- Out- Net enumeration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration

County Grand Bassa 8,933 35,080 -26,147 4,802 19,856 -15,054 4,131 15,224 -11,093 Grand Cape Mount 4,074 8,069 -3,995 2,806 4,569 -1,763 1,268 3,500 -2,232 Maryland 11,307 8,243 3,064 6,392 4,442 1,950 4,915 3,801 1,114 Montserrado 101,331 9,936 91,395 61,399 5,304 56,095 39,932 4,632 35,300 Sinoe 2,724 13,284 -10,560 1,506 7,025 -5,519 1,218 6,259 -5,041 Province Central 21,459 43,440 -21,981 12,764 27,521 -14,757 8,695 15,919 -7,224 Eastern 2,238 15,208 -12,970 1,234 9,069 -7,835 1,004 6,139 -5,135 Western 13,538 32,344 -18,806 8,074 21,191 -13,117 5,464 11,153 -5,689

Liberia 165,604 165,604 - 98,977 98,977 - 66,627 66,627 -

Source: Liberia, Bureauof Statistics,Office of NationalPlanning, 1962 PopulationCensus of Liberia,Population Characteristicsof Major Areas, no. PC-B (Monrovia,1964), table 5.

SA Table 8. Liberia: Lifetime In-, Out-, and Net Migrationby Locationand Sex, 1974

Both sexes Male Female County of birth and In- Out- Net In- Out- Net In- Out- Net enumeration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration migration

Bong 20,328 56,594 -36,266 11,635 32,847 -21,212 8,693 23,747 -15,054 Grand Bassa 12,297 52,532 -40,235 7,044 28,038 -20,994 5,253 24,494 -19,241 Grand Cape Mount 12,081 15,712 -3,631 7,321 8,685 -1,364 4,760 7,027 -2,267 Grand Gedeh 5,903 17,137 -11,234 3,207 9,489 -6,282 2,696 7,648 -4,952 Lof a 9,734 62,436 -52,702 5,877 37,646 -31,769 3,857 24,790 -20,933 Maryland 6,264 27,201 -20,937 3,453 14,023 -10,570 2,811 13,178 -10,367 Montserrado 213,782 12,815 200,967 119,338 7,115 112,223 94,444 5,700 88,744 Nimba 19,055 32,050 -12,995 10,686 19,181 -8,495 8,369 12,869 -4,500 Sinoe 3,517 26,484 -22,967 2,022 13,559 -11,537 1,495 12,925 -11,430 Liberia 302,961 302,961 - 170,583 170,583 - 132,378 132,378 -

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1974census of populationand housingin Liberia.

SA Table 9. Liberia: Estimated Net IntercensalInternal Migration by Sex and County, 1962-74

Male Female Both sexes

1974 1974 Net 1974 1974 Net 1974 1974 Net observed expecteda migration observed expecteda migration observed expectedb migration County (A) (B) (A-B) (A) (B) (A-B) (A) (B) (A-B)

Bong 93,460 97,152 -3,692 97,697 102,995 -5,298 191,157 200,147 -8,990 Grand Bassa 74,410 89,112 -14,702 73,974 94,432 -20,458 148,384 183,544 -35,160 Grand Cape Mount 27,862 22,538 5,324 25,914 22,179 3,735 53,776 44,717 9,059 Grand Gedeh 33,202 31,227 1,975 37,542 38,702 -1,160 70,744 69,929 815 Lofa 80,488 84,824 -4,336 90,655 102,280 -11,625 171,143 187,104 -15,961 Maryland 44,612 53,797 -9,185 45,712 55,947 -10,235 90,324 109,744 -19,420 Montserrado 219,294 191,273 28,021 192,485 145,564 46,921 411,779 336,837 74,942 Nimba 116,550 114,886 1,664 123.576 118,374 5,202 240,126 233,260 6,866 Sinoe 33,472 38,541 -5,069 32,005 40,087 -7,082 66,477 78,628 -12,151 Liberia 723,350 723,350 - 720,560 720,560 - 1,443,910 1,443,910 -

a. Estimatedby applying the expectedrates of natural increaseto the 1962base population. b. Obtainedas the sum of the estimatednumber of malesand females. Sources: Derivedfrom Liberia,Bureau of Statistics,Office of NationalPlanning, 1962 PopulationCensus of Liberia(Monrovia, 1964); and unpublisheddata from the 1974census of populationand housingin Liberia. Statistical Appendix 107

SA Table 10. Liberia: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in an Area and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1962

Lifetime in-migration Lifetime out-migration as percentage of resident as percentageof popu- populationin area lation born in area (excluding immigrants)

Both Both Area Male Female sexes Male Female sexes

County Grand Bassa 26.6 19.9 23.2 8.1 6.3 7.1 Grand Cape Mount 27.2 19.8 23.4 18.7 8.2 13.4 Maryland 16.3 18.0 14.6 21.9 16.2 19.0 Montserrado 14.2 12.9 13.6 65.8 56.1 61.6 Sinoe 22.5 19.1 20.8 5.9 4.4 5.1 Province Central 16.4 9.4 12.9 8.3 5.3 6.8 Eastern 25.5 15.1 20.0 4.5 2.8 3.5 Western 23.8 11.7 17.6 10.6 6.1 8.2 Liberia 20.7 13.4 17.0 20.7 13.4 17.0

Source: Liberia,Bureau of Statistics,Office of National Planning,1962 PopulationCensus of Liberia,Popu- lation Characteristics of Major Areas,no. PC-B(Monrovia, 1964), table 5.

SA Table 11. Liberia: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in an Area and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Population Residing in an Area by Sex, 1974

Lifetime in-migration Lifetime out-migration as percentage of resident as percentage of popu- population in area lation born in area (excluding immigrants)

Both Both County Male Female sexes Male Female sexes

Bong 28.6 21.1 24.9 12.4 8.9 10.6 Grand Bassa 29.4 26.3 27.9 9.5 7.1 8.3 Grand Cape Mount 29.7 24.9 27.4 26.2 18.4 22.5 Grand Gedeh 24.0 18.0 20.9 9.7 7.2 8.3 Lofa 33.5 22.2 27.9 7.3 4.3 5.7 Maryland 25.4 23.5 24.4 7.7 6.1 6.9 Montserrado 6.6 5.5 6.1 54.4 49.1 51.9 Nimba 15.3 10.0 12.7 9.2 6.8 7.9 Sinoe S0.1 29.1 29.6 6.0 4.5 5.3 Liberia 23.6 18.4 21.0 23.6 18.4 21.0

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1974 censusof populationand housingin Liberia. 108 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 12. Senegal: Lifetime Out-migration as Percentage of Population Born in a Region and Lifetime In-migration as Percentage of Resident Population, 1960 and 1971

Lifetime in-migration Lifetime out-migration as percentage of resi- as percentage of popu- dent population in region lation born in region (excluding immigrants)

Region 1960 1971 1960 1971

Cap-Vert 8.40 8.36 30.15 36.88 Casamance 3.80 8.23 1.71 2.90 Diourbel 18.98 20.96 4.28 6.95 Fleuve 17.25 25.85 5.68 6.68 Senegal-Oriental 5.65 7.98 0.32 9.76 Sine-Saloum 4.91 11.51 14.86 11.20 Thies 16.87 17.81 9.03 14.22 Senegal IL30 15.00 11.30 15.00

Sources: Senegal,Service de la Statistique,Resultats de ItEnaqueteDernographique 1960-61: Donnees Region- ales (Dakar:Ministere du Plan et du D6veloppement,1964); and unpublisheddata from the 1970-71 National DemographicSurvey.

SA Table 13. Senegal: Components of Population Growth by Region, 1960-70 (thousands)

Net Net inter- Net migra- Net migra- Population Natural Net internal national tion of tion of growth increasea migratwnb migrationc migrationd foreign-bornc native-borne Region (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Cap-Vert 237 109 128 124 4 13 -9 Casamance 88 130 -42 -16 -26 70 -96 Diourbel 127 123 4 -25 29 2 27 Fleuve 44 85 -41 -46 5 3 2 Senegal-Oriental 93 37 56 13 43 3 40 Sine-Saloum 71 179 -108 -58 -50 22 -72 Thies 137 101 36 8 28 1 27 Senegal 797 764 33 - 33 114 -81

a. A growthof 24.6 percent is assumed. b. Column (1) minus column (2). c. Estimatedfrom birthplacedata. d. Column (3) minus column (4). e. Column (5) minus column (6). Sources: Senegal,Service de la Statistique,Resultats de l'EnqueteDernographique, 1960-61: Donnees Regionales(Dakar: Ministere du Plan et du D1veloppement,1964); and unpublisheddata from the 1970-71 NationalDemographic Survey. Statistical Appendix 109

SA Table 14. Sierra Leone: Indigenous Population and Net Migration by Administrative Area, 1963-74

Estimated net Administrative migration, area 1963 1974 1963-74

Bo 204,728 213,889 -42,471 Bonthe 72,680 79,984 -11,026 Moyamba 165,240 186,942 -19,971 Pujehun 83,924 101,214 -3,875 Sherbro Urban 6,763 6,804 -1,669 Kailahun 143,476 173,825 -5,836 Kenema 220,500 257,355 -18,755 Kono 162,050 308,238 105,327 Bombali 195,926 231,588 -13,750 Kambia 135,637 154,305 -15,540 Koinadugu 123,766 152,016 -2,963 Port Loko 244,189 290,685 -15,088 Tonkolili 183,677 205,220 -24,780 Western Area 178,317 293,680 70,397 Sierra Leone 2,120,873 2,655,745 -

Note: Net migrationin an area is estimatedby assumingthat the rateof naturalincrease is the sameas forthe country. Sources:Sierra Leone, Central Statistics Office, 1963 Population Census of SierraLeone, vol. 2 (Freetown, 1965);and unpublisheddata from1974 population census of SierraLeone.

SA Table 15. The Gambia: Migration between Kombo St. Mary and Other Local Areas and between Kerewan and Other Local Areas, 1973

Local government To From area Kombo St. Mary KomboSt. Mary

Banjul 5,696 440 Brikama 5,145 654 Mansakonko 1,594 109 Kerewan 3,676 171 Kuntaur 720 42 Georgetown 1,094 54 Basse 634 63 Total 18,559 1,533 To Kerewan From Kerewan

Banjul 646 3,858 KomboSt. Mary 171 3,676 Brikama 783 3,606 Mansakonko 894 1,180 Kuntaur 596 534 Georgetown 322 852 Basse 350 161 Total 3,762 13,867

Source: The Gambia, Ministry of Economic Planning and Industrial Development, PopulationCensus of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, vol. 3, General Report (Banjul: Central Statistics Division, 1976). 110 Migration in West Africa SA Table 16. Ghana: Index of Educational Attainment of Migrantsand Nonmigrantsby Origin and Destination,1960

Index of educational Migrants and nonmigrants attainrnent

Total population Nonmigrants 1.59 Migrantsfrom the sameregion 2.89 Migrantsfrom another region 3.27 Urban areas Nonmigrants 3.91 Migrantsfrom the sameregion Anothertown 5.26 Anothervillage 4.40 Migrantsfrom another region Anothertown 5.02 Anothervillage 4.24 Rural areas Nonmigrants 1.55 Migrantsfrom the sameregion Anothertown 3l41 Anothervillage 2.07 Migrantsfrom another region Anothertown 2.64 Anothervillage 1.88

Source: 1960Population Census of Ghana, vol.6, Post-EnurnerationSurvey (Accra, 1971),table H18.

SA Table 17. Ghana: Percentage of Migrantsand Nonmigrantsin Farming Occupations,1960

Migrant status Male Fenale Total

Nonmigrants 67.1 58.1 63.5 Migrants 48.9 58.3 53.0 Rural-rural 70.6 74.9 72.7 Rural-urban 12.5 16.4 13.9 Urban-rural 55.4 55.5 55.4 Urban-urban 8.3 3.9 6.7

Source: Derivedfrom 1960Population Census of Ghana,vol.6, Post-Enumeration Survey (Accra,1971), table H44. Statistical Appendix 111 SA Table 18. Ghana: African Immigrant Workersby Industry, 1960 and 1970

Percentage Numner Percentage distribution change Relative Industry 1960 1970 1960-70 changea 1960 1970

Agriculture 151,540 117,845 -22 20 45.3 54.6 Mining 20,040 4,906 -76 -62 6.0 2.3 Manufacture 26,460 23,349 -12 36 7.9 10.8 Utilities 3,070 1,159 -62 -42 0.9 0.5 Construction 18,940 8,033 -58 -34 5.7 3.7 Commerce 74,840 23,680 -68 -51 22.4 11.0 Transport 9,670 7,564 -22 21 2.9 3.5 Services 29,620 29,495 ... 54 8.9 13.7 Total 334,180 216,031 -35 - 100.0 100.0

... Negligible. - Not applicable. a. Relativechange is calculatedby estimatingan expectednumber in each categoryon the basisof change in the total for all industriesand excessor deficitin the observednumber in 1970. Thus, for agriculture:

Relative change = 100 ( 117,845 100 = 20. \151,540 X 216,031/ .334,181 Sources:1960 Population Census of Ghana,Advance Report of Vols.III andIV (Accra.1962). table 38;and 1970Population Census of Ghana,vol. 4 (Accra.forthcoming).

SA Table 19. Ghana: Total Populationin 1960 and 1970of Each Locality Defined as Town in 1970

Defined Population Defined Population as town as town Region and town in 1960 1970 1960 Region and town in 1960 1970 1960

Western 207,343 166,936 Half-Assini No 5,429 4,575 Abodom Yes 5,195 5,085 Axim Yes 8,107 5,619 Kwanyako Yes 6,648 6,694 Kwasimitsim Yes 9,747 6,333 Swedru Yes 21,522 18,293 Takoradi Yes 58,161 41,089 Nyakrom Yes 11,252 13,467 Sekondi Yes 33,713 34,513 Dunkwa Yes 15,437 12,689 Effie-Kuma Yes 20,182 10,167 GreaterAccra 726,553 392,274 Shama Yes 7,739 6,918 Prestea Yes 15,143 13,246 Madina No 7,480 - T,,rkwa Yes 14,702 13,545 Accra Yes 564,194 337,828 Samreboi No 7,151 4,514 Teshie Yes 39,382 19,823 Asankrangua Yes 6,571 5,497 Nungua Yes 13,839 7,068 Sefwi-Wiawso No 5,558 4,430 Tema Yes 60,767 14,937 Bibiani Yes 9,691 12,942 Tema New Town Yes 13,176 7,662 Awaso No 5,449 3,548 Ashiaman No 22,549 2,624 Old Ningo No 5,166 2,332 Central 258,636 221,351 Vot15,9 1656 Komenda No 5,966 4,261 Elmina Yes 11,401 8,534 Anloga Yes 14,032 11,038 Cape Coast Yes 51,653 41,230 Tegbi Yes 6,628 5,924 Moree Yes 10,086 7,634 Afiadenyigba Ne 5,424 4,920 Anomabo Yes 5,931 5,423 Dzelukope Yes 5,153 5,511 Saltpond Yes 11,849 9,869 Keta Yes 14,446 16,719 Bisease Yes 7,451 7,542 Aflao Yes 11,397 7,439 Odoben No 5,101 4,72S Dzodze Yes 10,390 5,776 Braka No 5,499 4,064 Ho Yes 24,199 15,519 Asikuma Yes 6,948 5,356 Kpedze No 5,062 4,576 Foso Yes 7,249 5,284 Peki Yes 8,054 5,154 Mumford Yes 8,566 8,666 Hohoe Yes 14,775 9,502 Apam Yes 8,903 8,728 Kpandu Yes 12,842 8,070 Winneba Yes 30,778 25,376 Jasikan No 6,403 4,989 Senya-Breku Yes 9,921 7,984 Kadjebi Yes 7,194 7,491 Bewjiase Yes 6,183 5,72S Kete-Krachi No 5,097 3,928 Bobikuma No 5,097 4,726 (Table continues on the following page.) 112 Migration in West Africa SA Table 19 (continued)

Defined Population Defined Population as town as town Region and town in 1960 1970 1960 Region and town in 1960 1970 1960

Eastern 310,073 235,832 Oda Yes 20,957 19,666 Wiamoase No 6,185 4,843 Akroso Yes 5,741 5,398 Sekodumasi No 5,075 4,710 Achiasi Yes 8,466 9,760 Ejura Yes 10,664 7,078 Swedru Yes 6,037 6,881 Nkenkaso No 5,007 3,483 Akwatia Yes 12,177 12,592 Akumadan No 7,310 4,847 Kade Yes 6,627 6,274 Teppa Yes 6,696 5,409 Asamankese Yes 16,905 16,718 Nsawam Yes 25,518 20,240 Brong-Ahafo 169,072 119,519 Aburi No 7,656 4,715 Mim Yes 9,630 6,805 Mampong No 5,818 3,781 1 Goaso No 5,001 3,454 Larteh Yes 6,725 6,381 Bechem Yes 7,770 5,501 Akropong Yes 7.426 5,606 Techimantia Yes 7,207 5,583 Koforidua Yes 46,235 34,856 Yamfo No 5,474 4,264 Effiduase No 6,207 3,604 Duayaw-Nkwanta Yes 6,585 5,576 Somanva Yes 9,326 9,258 Cbiraa Yes 7,355 5,672 Odumase No 6,34,3 4,519 Sunyani Yes 23,780 12,160 Asesewa No 6,111 4,282 Nsoatre Yes 8,467 6,262 Akosombo No 7,716 52 Jinjini No 6,164 4,288 Suhum Yes 12,421 10,193 Berekum Yes 14,296 11,148 Kukurantumi Yes 6,067 5,061 Wamfie No 6,025 4,963 Kibi Yes 5,408 5,069 Dormaa-Ahenkro Yes 8,959 7,107 New Tafo Yes 11,114 10,557 Wenchi Yes 13,836 10,672 Begoro Yes 11,043 9,289 Techiman Yes 12,068 8,722 Nkawkaw Yes 23,219 15,627 Nkoranza Yes 7,191 6,250 Obo No 5,328 3,983 Kintampo No 7,149 4,678 Mpreso Yes 5,908 5,193 Attebubu No 6,630 4,216 Bepong No 5,265 4,178 Yeji No 5,485 2,198 Nkwatia No 6,285 4,826 Northern 148,320 86,450 Abetifi No 6,024 4,973 Damongo Yes 7,760 6,575 Ashanti 440,526 303,038 Salaga No 6,413 4,199 juaben No 5,018 3,426 Bimbilla No 8,068 4,214 Kumasi Yes 260,286 180,642 Yendi Yes 22,072 16,096 Old Tafo Yes 33,661 10,909 Savelugu Yes 9,895 5,949 Bekwai Yes 11,287 9,093 Tamale Yes 83,653 40,443 Obuasi Yes 31,005 22,813 Kumbugu No 5,157 4,481 Konongo Yes 10,881 10,771 Walewale No 5,302 4,493 Odumasi Yes 5,209 5,540 Upper 60,837 32,576 Agogo Yes 14,710 10,356 Wa Yes 21,374 14,342 Mampong Yes 13,895 7,943 Bolgatanga Yes 18,896 5,515 Effiduasi Yes 6,967 6,213 Bawku Yes 20,567 12,719 Kumawu No 6,670 4,962

Sources: 1960Population Census of Ghana, vol.2 (Accra,1961), table D; 1970 PopulationCensus of Ghana, vol. 2 (Accra,1972), table E: and unpublisheddata from the 1960and 1970 censuses. Statistical Appendix 113

SA Table 20. Ghana: Urban and Rural Population by Region and Percentage of Total That Is Urban, 1948, 1960, and 1970

Population

1948 1960 1970

Percent Percent Percent Region Urban Rural urban Urban Rural urban Urban Rural urban

Western 80,037 297,989 21.2 154,612 471,543 24.7 207,343 562,744 26.9 Central 91,574 391,311 19.0 210,411 540,981 28.0 258,636 631,499 29.1 Accra 138,439 83,175 62.5 393,383 98,434 80.0 726,553 125,061 85.3 Eastern 64,564 602,778 9.7 220,765 873,431 20.2 310,073 951,588 24.6 Volta 22,863 473,094 4.6 102,101 675,184 13.1 151,096 796,172 16.0 Ashanti 80,897 498,575 14.0 276,772 832,361 25.0 440,526 1,041,172 29.7 Brong-Ahafo 5,378 241,391 2.2 91,491 496,429 15.6 169,072 597,437 22.1 Northern 29,122 351,966 7.6 69,063 462,510 13.0 148,320 579,298 20.4 Upper 12,044 646,151 1.8 32,576 724,768 4.3 60,837 801,886 7.1 Ghana 524,918 3,586,430 12.8 1,551,174 5,175,641 23.1 2,472,456 6,086,857 28.9

Sources: 1960Population Census of Ghana,vol. 1 (Accra,1962), table 1; and 1970Population Census of Ghana,vol. 1 (Accra,1973), table 2.

SA Table 21. Ghana: Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Urban or Rural Place of Enumeration, 1960 and 1970

Other West Other Place of All Ivory Upper African African Non-African enumeration countries Coast Liberia Mali Volta Togo Benin Niger Nigeria countries countries countries

1960a Urban 176,961 3,931 4,691 8,684 29,563 43,907 4,746 9,473 58,576 _b 1,914 11,476 Rural 359,182 28,128 1,546 5,943 103,343 131,600 17,232 10,172 55,863 _b 2,814 2,541 Total 536,143 32,059 6,257 14,627 132,906 175,507 21,978 19,645 114,439 _b 4,728 14,017 1970 Urban 120,835 3,550 3,027 6,668 26,235 33,537 5,416 4,568 22,023 1,098 891 13,822 Rural 229,039 12,740 1,057 2,831 78,919 99,717 5,597 15,204 9,545 1,005 290 2,134 Total 349,874 16,290 4,084 9,499 105,154 133,254 11,013 19,772 31,568 2,103 1,181 15,956

a. Lifetimeimmigrants for 1960include only those identified as of "foreignorigin." b. Includedunder "Other African countries." Sources:Derived from 1960 PopulationCensus of Ghana,vol. 3 (Accra,1964), table 13;and 1970 PopulationCensus of Ghana, vol.3 (Accra,1975), table C6. 114 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 22. Ghana: Urban Populationby Lifetime Migration Status and Region, 1960 and 1970 (percent)

Lifetime migration status

Intraregional Interregional International Region Nonmigrant migrant migrant migranta All

1960 Western 53.6 22.7 14.7 9.0 100.0 Accra 47.8 3.3 32.3 16.6 100.0 Eastern 45.2 23.2 19.9 11.6 100.0 Volta 55.5 24.6 8.6 11.3 100.0 Ashanti 38.6 19.4 29.6 12.4 100.0 Brong-Ahafo 59.4 12.8 19.7 8.0 100.0 Northern 55.4 20.7 13.9 10.0 100.0 Ghana 48.9 16.7 22.4 12.0 100.0

1970 Western 55.1 16.0 25.0 3.9 100.0 Accra 45.1 3.3 44.6 7.0 100.0 Eastern 14.6 7.8 6.5 1.1 100.0 Volta 56.1 27.5 10.5 5.9 100.0 Ashanti 45.9 22.9 26.7 4.5 100.0 Brong-Ahafo 56.1 16.5 24.0 3.5 100.0 Northern 57.7 19.1 20.2 3.0 100.0 Ghana 50.1 15.7 29.3 4.9 100.0

Note: Westernincludes Central Regionand Northern includesUpper Regionas of 1970. a. The lifetimeinternational migrants for 1960are basedon the wholepopulation rather than onlythe population identifiedas of "foreignorigin." Sources:1960 Population Census of Ghana,vol. 6, PostEnumeration Surrey (Accra,1971), table HI; and 1970 PopulationCensus of Ghana, vol.3 (Accra,1975). tables C6 and C8.

SA Table 23. Ghana: Age Distributionof Male Lifetime Migrantsby Urban or Rural Origin and Destination,1970 (percent)

Rural- Rural- Urban- Urban- Age rural urban rural urban

15-24 27 39 31 37 25-34 27 34 29 33 35-44 20 15 20 17 45-54 12 7 10 8 55-64 7 3 5 3 65 and over 7 2 5 2 15 and over 100 100 100 100

Source: Ghana CensusOffice, 1971 SupplementaryEnquiry (Accra,forthcoming). Statistical Appendix 115

SA Table 24. The Ivory Coast: Population of Localities of 5,000 or More People by Sex and Department, 1975

District and town Male Fenale Total District and town Male Female Total

Abengourou Bouake Abengourou 17,031 14,203 31,234 Bouak6 89,527 78,143 167,670 Ebilassokro 2,839 2,940 5,779 Beoumi 5,878 5,489 11,367 Niabley 3,863 4,058 7,921 Botro 3,073 3,991 7,064 Agnibilekro 7,312 6,658 13,970 M'Bahiakro 5,479 4,799 10,278 Subtotal 31,045 27,859 58,904 Tiebissou 3,220 2,606 5,826 Abidjan ToumodiVille 6,905 6,078 12,983 Abidjan 382,561 303,267 685,828 Yamoussokro 19,115 16,470 35,585 Abidjan 382,561 303,267 685,828 Subtotal 133,197 117,576 250,773 Anyama-Gare 13,083 12,317 25,400 Abobo-Gare 71,693 61,658 133,351 Bouna Binger-Ville 10,319 7,899 18,218 Bouna 2,747 3,040 5,787 Gonzague-Ville 3,645 3,451 7,096 Doropo 5,465 3,470 8,935 Songon-M'bratte 4,684 2,739 7,423 Subtotal 8,212 6,510 14,722 Yopougen-Andokoi 3,984 3,537 7,521 Boundiali Youpougen-Sicogi 31,653 26,933 58,586 Boundiali 5,036 4,833 9,869 Bonoua 8,872 7,946 16,818 5ege,3036 4,833 9,8692 Ono 3,692 2,455 6,147 Tengrela 4,309 4,563 8,872 Dabou 13,558 10,312 23,870 Subtotal 9,345 9,396 18,741 Grand-Bassam 13,486 12,322 25,808 Daloa N'Douci 4,327 3,816 8,143 Daloa 33,838 27,120 60,958 Tiassate 7,540 5,859 13,399 Gadouan 3,940 3,330 7,270 Subtotal 573,097 464,511 1,037,608 Gonate 4,588 2,081 6,669 Aboisso Issia 5,847 5,296 11,143 Aboisso 7,901 6,281 14,272 Saioua 4,332 3,750 8,032 Adiak6 3,028 2,935 5,963 Vavoua 4,821 4,333 9,154 Subtotal 11,019 9,216 20,235 Belle-Villa 3,066 2,415 5,481 Subtotal 60,432 48,325 108,757 Adzope Danan, Adzope 13,093 10,268 23,361 Danane 10,449 9,423 19,872 Affery 7,199 7,273 14,472 Zouan-Hounien 2,863 2,736 5,599 Akoup6 5,885 5,707 11,592 Sutal132 1259 547 Bacon 3,474 3,603 7,077 Subtotal 13,312 12,159 25,471 Subtotal 29,651 26,851 56,502 Dimbokro Agboville Abongoua 4,139 3,720 7,859 AboudeKouassikro 3,918 3,712 7,630 Arrah 9,694 8,969 18,663 Agbo-Ville 15,050 12,142 27,192 Kouassikro 3,015 2,797 5,812 Azaguie-Gare 3,388 2,472 5,860 Bocanda 3,594 3,796 7,390 Cechi 3,998 3,638 7,636 Ande 4,084 4,233 8,317 Rubino 5,116 4,745 9,861 Asste-Koumassi 2,918 2,987 5,905 Subtotal 31,470 26,709 58,179 Bongouanou 9,301 8,223 17,524 Daoukro 10,493 10,024 20,517 Bondoukou Dimbokro 16,839 14,147 30,986 Bondoukou 10,354 8,757 19,111 M'batto 4,604 4,452 9,056 Assouefry 2,925 2,888 5,813 Tiemelekro 3,091 2,648 5,739 Tanda 3,665 3,436 7,101 Subtotal 71,772 65,996 137,768 Subtotal 16,944 15,081 32,025 Diw Bouafle Divo 20,794 17,102 37,896 Bonon 5,670 5,344 11,014 Hirewatta 5,229 4,841 10,070 Bouafle 9,096 6,821 15,917 Kouamekro 2,967 2,797 5,764 Pakouabo 2,467 2,676 5,143 Lakota 7,136 5,581 12,717 Gohitafla 2,989 2,878 5,867 Subtotal 36,126 30,321 66,447 Manfla 2,817 2,786 5,603 Ferkessougou Konefia 3,149 2,675 5,824 Sinfra 8,475 7,924 16,399 Ferkess&dougou 13,581 11,726 25,307 Zuenoula 4,773 4,552 9,325 Ouangolodougou 2,824 2,578 5,402 Subtotal 39,436 35,656 75,092 Subtotal 16,405 14,304 30,709 (Table continues on the following page.) 116 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 24 (continued)

District and town Male Female Total District and town Male Fenale Total

Gagnoa Odiennt Gagnoa 23,355 19,007 42,362 Odienne 7,108 6,756 13,864 Guiberous 2,922 2,501 5,423 Sassandra Guepahouo 2,855 2,514 5,369 San Pedro 13,807 13,809 27,616 Oume 8,680 8,143 16,823 Sandro 5,47 3,8 9,404 Subtotal 37,812 32,165 69,977 Sassandra 5,476 3,928 9,404 Gnamagui 3,783 3,047 6,830 Guiglo Soubre 3,339 2,856 6,195 Duekoue 8,862 8,603 17,465 Tabou 3,885 3,370 7,255 Guiglo 5,765 4,676 10,441 Subtotal 30,290 27,010 57,300 Subtotal 14,627 13,279 27,906 Seguela Katiola Mankono 3,280 3,290 6,570 Katiola 11,351 10,208 21,559 Seguela 6,401 6,186 12,587 Korhogo Subtotal 9,681 9,476 19,157 Korhogo 24,705 22,952 47,657 Touba Man Touba 2,596 2,660 5,256 Logouale 2,682 2,637 5,319 Man 27,677 22,638 50,315 Subtotal 30,359 25,275 55,634

Note: Two districts,Biankouma and Dabakala,had no town with a populationof 5,000or more. Source: IvoryCoast, Comite Nationalede Recenseroent,Bureau du RecensementGeneral de la Population,Repertoire des Localitesde Cate d'lvoire et Population, 1975 (Abidjan:Direction du Bureau du llecensementet Directionde la Statistique,Ministere de l'Economieet des Finances,1976).

SA Table 25. The Ivory Coast: Origin of Immigrants in Abidjan and Bouak6, 1975

Percent

Abidjan Bouake1 Origin Ville Ville

Upper Volta 37.3 33.5 Mali 19.5 36.7 Nigeria 7.3 2,6 Niger 5.5 1.4 Guinea 5.4 6.7 Senegal 4.1 1.4 Benin 3.6 1.0 Ghana 3.5 1.9 Togo 2.0 0.5 Other 11.8 14.3 Total 100.0 100.0

Source: Unpublisheddata fromthe 1975population censu of the IvoryCoast. Statistical Appendix 117

SA Table 26. The Ivory Coast: Sex Ratios of International and InterdepartmentalLifetime Migrantsby Department of Enumeration and Rural or Urban Residence,1975

Foreign-born Interdepartrental Region and departnent Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural

South AbidjanVille 168 168 - 110 110 - Abidjan 164 143 186 104 105 101 Aboisso 162 320 143 115 113 116 Adzope 146 137 148 102 96 107 Agboville 150 130 155 93 103 81 Divo 171 161 178 87 102 79 Sassandra 203 167 243 121 133 115 North Boundiali 100 94 103 94 93 95 Ferkessedougou 140 126 149 167 175 94 Korbogo 121 117 124 103 104 100 Odienne 107 151 102 125 148 110 Seguela 198 267 171 115 104 125 Touba 115 174 108 98 113 95 East Abengourou 166 150 170 133 155 117 Bondoukou 153 141 154 127 156 124 Bouna 103 159 89 139 198 135 West Biankouma 163 163 163 95 113 72 Danane 129 127 130 98 107 93 Guiglo 211 220 201 111 115 108 Man 180 194 159 113 138 87 Central Bouail 218 315 185 119 124 116 BouakeVille 126 126 - 186 186 - Bouake 183 166 196 116 124 108 Dimbokro 148 169 141 125 131 116 Katiola 139 259 102 106 117 104 Dabakala 143 - 143 137 - 137 Central-West Daloa 170 159 174 100 100 100 Gagnoa 159 157 159 112 123 108 Total 162 161 163 112 117 105

Note: Sex ratios are the numberof malesper 100 females. Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975population census of the IvoryCoast 118 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 27. The Ivory Coast: Percentage Age Distribution of Lifetime Immigrants by Country of Birth and Rural or Urban Residence in the Ivory Coast, 1975

Age group

55 and Dependency Origin 0-14 15-54 oter ratioa

All African countries Total 13.3 83.8 2.7 17 Urban 11.1 85.9 2.9 14 Rural 15.3 82.0 2.6 19 Upper Volta Total 13.1 84.8 2.0 16 Urban 9.6 87.7 2.6 12 Rural 14.7 83.2 1.8 18 Mali Total 12.1 84.2 3.5 15 Urban 10.7 86.3 3.2 13 Rural 14.6 81.3 3.9 19 Total population in the Ivory Coast 44.6 50.1 5.3 88

Note: Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding. a. The dependency ratio is the number of persons aged O-14 years plus those 65 and over plus (in this case) those of undetermined age (ND), divided by those aged 15-64: 0-14 + 65+ + ND 15-64 It represents a measure of the nonworkers to workers in a population. Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of the Ivory Coast.

SA Table 28. The Ivory Coast: Regional Origin of Internal Migrants in Abidjan and Bouake, 1975 (percent)

Abidjan Bouake Region (South Region) (Central Region)

South 34.5 17.9 North 10.4 19.1 East 5.2 4.9 West 8.1 4.8 Central 30.1 46.1 Central-West 11.7 7.2 Total 100.0 100.0

Source: Unpublished data from the 1975 population census of the Ivory Coast.

SA Table 29. Togo: Urban Population and Proportion Urban, 1970

Urban population, Percentage Region 1970 urban

Togo 254,000 13 Maritime 172,000 36 Plateaux 371,000 8 Centrale 44,900 15 Kara Savanes

Negligible. Source: Togo, Direction de la Statistique, 1970 Recensement GC&ral de la Population, vol. 2 (Lomr: Mini- stere du Plan, 1975), table 1. Statistical Appendix 119 SA Table 30. Togo: Visitorsand Absenteesin Lome, 1961

Lorn Origin of visitors or destination of absentees Visitors Absentees

Maritime Region 5,025 3,865 Other regions of Togo 2,215 1,370 Other country 3,370 3,250 Unknown 300 135 Total 10,910 8,620

Source: Togo, Servicede la StatistiqueGenerale. Enqutte Dtnwgraphique,1961, pt. 2 (Lome: Minist6redes Financesde l'Economieet du Plan, n-d.),tables 7 and 8, pp. 68-69.

SA Table 31. Sierra Leone: Localitieswith Populationof 5,000 or More in the 1974 Census

Average Population annual growth Locality 1963 1974 rate

Freetown 127,159 276,247 4.9 a Koidu Town (Kono District) 11,706 75,846 16.0 Bo Town 26,613 39,371 3.4 Kenema Town 13,246 31,458 7.4 Makeni Town 12,304 26,781 6.7 Lunsar 12,132 16,723 2.7 Yengema (Kono District) 7,313 14,793 6.0 Port Loko 5,809 10,500 5.1 Magburaka 6,371 10,347 4.1 Kabala 4,610 7,847 4.6 Yormandu 5,469 7,488 2.7 Kailahun Town 5,419 7,184 2.4 Segbwema 6,258 6,915 0.9 Moyamba Town 4,564 6,425 2.9 Bonthe Town 6,236 6,398 0.2 Rokupr 4,151 5,780 2.8 Kambia Town 3,700 5,740 3.8 Mortema (Kono District) 1,124 5,501 13.6 Jaima Sewafe 6,064 5,367 -1.0 Peyima (Kono District) 4,625 5,354 1.3 Total 274,873 572,065 5.4 a

a. Freetown'sboundary was increased in 1973to includeits suburbs.Consequently, its areagrew from 12.4to 67 square kilometers.The populationof Greater Freetownin 1974was 276,247 and its annual growthrate for 1963-74 was 4.9 percent (using the 1973 boundaryto derive the 1963 population).Without the boundary change, the populationwould havebeen about 186,000in 1974,and its averageannual growth rate overthe intercensalperiod wouldhave been 3.3 percent. Sources: 1963Population Census of SierraLeone, vol. 2 (Freetown:Central StatisticsOffice, 1965); and unpublisheddata from the 1974 populationcensus of SierraLeone. 120 Migration in West Africa SA Table 32. Upper Volta: Populationof Urban Areasby Place of Birth, 1975

Ouagadougou Koudougou Ouahigouya

Place of birth Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Department Central 22,132 20,227 42,359 556 547 1,103 250 201 451 East-Central 3,390 3,245 6,635 107 100 207 35 34 69 North-Central 2,605 1,929 4,534 87 56 143 217 117 334 West-Central 4,146 3,772 7,918 1,965 3,004 4,969 114 106 220 East 993 756 1,749 65 54 119 36 22 58 High Basins 2,687 2,664 5,351 308 296 604 128 133 261 North 2,079 1,794 3,873 134 108 242 1,134 1,900 3,034 Sahel 621 689 1,310 47 41 88 96 120 216 South-West 733 689 1,422 53 43 96 15 28 43 Black Volta 1,973 1,982 3,955 263 259 522 164 167 331 Town Ouagadougou 40,489 37,890 78,379 ...... Koudougou ...... 14,717 12,742 27,459 ...... Ouahigouya ...... 10,020 9,717 19,737 Banfora ...... Bobo-Dioulasso ...... Foreign-born 5,314 5,780 11,094 484 494 978 304 304 608 Undetermined 2,083 1,999 4,082 132 176 308 135 193 328 Total 89,245 83,416 172,661 18,918 17,920 36,838 12,648 13,042 25,690

Banfora Bobo-Dioulasso Total urban areas

Place of birth Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

Department Central 282 182 464 2,281 1,846 4,127 25,501 23,003 48,504 East-Central 64 32 96 689 592 1,281 4,285 4,003 8,288 North-Central 71 32 103 466 326 792 3,446 2,460 5,906 West-Central 173 97 270 2,110 1,737 3,847 8,508 8,716 17,224 East 33 24 57 178 139 317 1,305 995 2,300 High Basins 2,365 2,065 4,430 4,786 4,803 9,589 10,274 9,961 20,235 North 241 134 375 1,863 1,665 3,528 5,451 5,601 11,052 Sahel 45 23 68 '303 235 598 1,112 1,108 2,220 South-West 241 174 415 1,544 1,406 2,950 2,586 2,340 4,926 Black Volta 330 338 668 4,183 4,898 9,081 6,913 7,644 14,557 Town Ouagadougou ...... 40,489 37,890 78,379 Koudougou ...... 14,717 12,742 27,459 Ouahigouya ...... 10,020 9,717 19,737 Banfora 1,900 1,893 3,793 ...... 1,900 1,893 3,793 Boho-Dioulasso ...... 31,764 31,791 63,555 31,764 31,791 63,555 Foreign-born 557 510 1,067 5,641 5,917 11,558 12,300 13,005 25,305 Undetermined 296 256 552 1,957 1,943 3,900 4,603 4,567 9,170 Total 6,598 5,760 12,358 57,765 57,298 115,063 185,174 177,436 362,610

... Zeroor negligible. Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975 populationcensus of Upper Volta. Statistical Appendix 121

SA Table 33. Upper Volta: Lifetime Intradepartmental In- and Out-migrants by Area of Residence, Sex, and Age Group, 1975

Upper Volta Urban Semi-urban Rural

Age group Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

0-9 70,096 17,996 142,092 6,575 4,209 10,784 2,851 2,896 5,747 60,670 62,698 123,368 10-14 30,554 28,284 58,838 2,861 1,682 4,543 1,471 1,439 2,910 26,222 24,166 50,388 15-19 25,743 50,647 76,390 3,589 2,083 5,672 1,364 1,434 2,798 20,790 45,955 66,745 20-29 38,765 138,012 176,777 6,788 5,031 11,819 1,783 3,235 5,018 30,194 127,242 157,436 30-39 34,638 108,819 143,457 5,478 3,416 8,894 1,524 2,948 4,472 27,636 100,357 127,993 40-49 27,215 75,942 103,157 3,682 1,614 5,296 1,405 2,280 3,685 22,128 70,754 92,882 50-59 20.711 48,482 69,193 1,816 882 2,698 1,175 1,591 2,766 17,720 45,294 63,014 60 and over 23,078 50,209 73,287 1,360 1,190 2,550 1,065 1,778 2,843 20,653 46,517 67,170 Undetermined 533 794 1,327 233 120 353 36 26 62 264 576 840 Total 271,333 573,185 844,518 32,382 20,227 52,609 12,674 17,627 30,301 226,277 523,559 749,836

Source: Unpublisheddata from the 1975population census of Upper Volta.

SA Table 34. The Gambia: Intercensal Population Growth of Forty-four Selected Towns by Local Government Area, 1963-73

Average Population Percentage annual Localgovernment change, growth, area and town 1963 1973 1963-73 1963-73

Banjul Banjul 27,809 39,179 40.9 3.4 KomboSt. Mary 5,644 34,842 517.3 18.2 Bakau 3,563 9,337 162.1 9.6 Serekunda 2,081 25,505 1,125.6 25.1 Brikama 18,342 28,804 57.0 4.5 Sukuta 2,504 3,844 53.5 4.3 Brufut 1,901 2,765 45.5 3.7 Gunjur 3,561 4,677 31.3 2.7 SiEo 1,332 2,080 56.2 4.5 Sanyang 1,282 2,136 66.6 5.1 Kartong 1,184 1,320 11.5 1.1 Tujering 1,282 1,313 2.4 0.2 Brikama 4,195 9,483 126.1 8.2 Faraba 1,101 1,186 7.7 0.7 Mansakonko 7,516 9,058 20.5 1.9 Pakaliba 908 1,066 17.4 1.6 Jiroff 844 800 -5.2 -0.5 Kaiaf 1,294 1,722 33.1 2.9 Toniataba 1,013 1,272 25.6 2.3 Jassong 712 781 9.7 0.9 Bureng 885 1,054 19.1 1.7 Sutukung 922 1,145 24.2 2.2 Barrokunda 938 1,218 29.9 2.6 Kerewan 14,971 17,666 18.0 1.7 Kerewan 1,647 2,166 31.5 2.7 Saba 1,473 1,613 9.5 0.9 Salikeni 3,899 3,312 -15.1 -1.6 Njakunda 1,794 1,876 4.6 0.4 Nokunda 1,534 1,392 -9.3 -1.0 Katchang 1,646 1,929 17.2 1.6 Farafenni 1,618 3,778 133.5 8.5 Bambali 1,360 1,600 17.6 1.6 Kuntaur 2,539 3,467 36.5 3.1 Kaur 1,183 1,785 50.9 4.1 Kuntaur 1,356 1,682 24.0 2.2 (Tablecontinues on the following page.) 122 Migration in West Africa

SA Table 34. (continued)

Average Population Percentage annual Local government change, growth, areaand town 1963 1973 1963-73 1963-73

Georgetown 4,099 6,075 48.2 3.9 Dankunku 1,070 1,456 36.1 3.1 Bansang 1,437 2,109 46.8 3.8 Georgetown 1,592 2,510 57.7 4.6 Basse 13,689 23,481 71.5 5.4 Gambissara 1,356 3,646 168.9 9.9 Numuyel 733 1,508 105.7 7.2 Dembakunda 704 1,686 139.5 8.7 Aluhunghari 1,583 2,420 52.9 4.2 Basse 1,639 2,899 76.9 5.7 Sabi 1,434 2,257 57.4 4.5 Damfakunda 1,340 1,732 29.3 2.6 Kulari 1,252 1,859 48.5 4.0 Dingiring 791 1,147 45.0 3.7 Garowal 1,759 2,855 62.3 4.8 Koina 1,098 1,472 34.1 2.9 Total 94,609 162,572 71.8 5.4

Sources: H. A. Oliver, Census Controller, Report on the Census of Population of the Gambia taken on 17th./18th., April 1963,Sessional Paper no. 13 (Banjul:Central StatisticsDivision, 1965), table 28, p. 66; and The Gambia, Central StatisticsDivision, Office of the President, Provisional Report, PopulationCensus of 1973 (Banjul,1973), table 4, pp. 16-17.

SA Table 35. The Gambia: Intercensal Population Growth of Forty-four Selected Townsby Size of Townshipin 1963, 1963-73

Average annual Size of township Population Percentage rate of in 1963 change, growth, (numberof persons) 1963 1973 1963-73 1963-73

5,000and over 27,809 39,179 40.9 3.4 2,000-4,999 19,803 56,158 183.6 10.4 1,750-1,999 5,454 7,496 37.4 3.2 1,500-1,749 11,259 17,094 51.8 4.2 1,250-1,499 16,198 23,749 46.6 3.8 1,000-1,249 6,649 8,491 27.7 2.4 Lessthan 1,000 7,437 10,405 40.0 3.4 Total 94,609 162,572 72.2 5.4

Sources: H. A. Oliver, Census Controller,Report on the Census of Population of the Gambia taken on 17th./18th.,April 1963, Sessional Paper no- 13 (Banjul: Central Statistics Division, 1965), table 28, p. 66;and The Gambia,Central StatisticsDivision, Office of the President,Provisional Report, Population Census of 1973(Banjul, 1973),table 4, pp. 16-17. Statistical Appendix 123

SA Table 36. The Gambia: Net Migration to Forty-four Selected Towns During 1963-73 by Size of Town in 1963

Net migration, 1963-73

Percent of 1963 Population size in 1963 Volume population

5,000and over 4,400 16 2,000-4,999 31,400 159 1,500-1,999 3,700 22 1,000-1,499 3,700 16 Less than 1,000 1,100 15 All 44 towns 44,300 47

Sources: H. A. Oliver, Census Controller, Report on the Census of Population of the Gambia taken on 17th./18th., April 1963, SessionalPaper no. 13 (Banjul:Central StatisticsDivision, 1965), table 3, p. 42; and The Gambia,Central StatisticsDivision, Ministry of EconomicPlanning and IndustrialDevelopment, Population Cen- sus of 1973, Statistics for Local Government Areas and Districts, vol. 3, General Report (Banjul, 1976), table 1, pp. 73-77. Bibliography

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Zachariah,K. C., and My Thi Vu. "Population Projections,1975-2000, and Long-term StationaryPopulation." Washington, D.C.: WorldBank, DevelopmentEconomics De- partment, 1979. Eight of the nine country reports prepared under the auspices of the WorldBank and the Organizationfor EconomicCo-operation and Development for their joint research project are availablein DemographicAspects of Migration in West Africa, WorldBank Staff WorkingPapers (vol. 1) no. 414 and (vol.2) no. 415 (Washington,D.C., 1980). Vol. 1, The English-SpeakingCountries: Okoye, Chike S. "Migration in Sierra Leone." With an annex by Eugene K. Campbell, "Some Aspectsof Migration in the Western Area of Sierra Leone." Srivastava,M. L. "Migrationto Liberia." Zachariah, K. C. "Migrationin the Gambia." With an annex by Kenneth Swindell,"A Report on Migrant Farmers in the Gambia." Zachariah, K. C., and N. K. Nair. "Demographic Aspectsof Recent Internationaland Internal Migration in Ghana." Vol. 2, The French-SpeakingCountries: Conde, Julien. "Migrationin Upper Volta." Zachariab,K. C. "Migration in the Ivory Coast." Zachariah,K. C., and N. K. Nair. "Senegal:Patterns of Internal and InternationalMigra- tion in Recent Years." . "Togo:External and Internal Migration." An additional country report was prepared by Michele Fieloux,"Mali: Internal and International Migration" (1978),for the World Bank Development EconomicsDepart- ment, Populationand Human ResourcesDivision. Index

Abengourou Department. Ivory Coast, 37, 52 Central Province, Liberia, 41 Freetown, Sierra Leone, 28, 65, 92, 93, 96 Abidjan Department, Ivory Coast, 8, 36, 37, Central Region, Ghana. 18, 19, 83 Fulani, 42 52, 59, 61, 62 Central Region, Ivory Coast, 36, 88 Abidjan Ville, Ivory Coast, 11, 21, 36, 51, 61, Central-West Region, Ivory Coast, 8, 21, 61 Gagnoa Department, Ivory Coast, 67 67, 88, 96, 97 Coastal forest region, West Africa Gambia. See also Banjul; Banjul Area; Aboisso Department, Ivory Coast, 87 demographic brief of, 5 Brikama Area; Farafenni; Gambissara; Accra (city), Ghana, 9 population growth in, 11, 17-18 Jassong; Jiroff; Kerewan Area; Kombo St. Accra Region, Ghana, 8, 11, 19, 59, 60, 67, Cocoa production, Togo, 12 Mary Area; Lower River Division; 82, 84, 96. See also Greater Accra Region Creoles, 28 Mansakonko Area; Njakunda; Nokunda; Agriculture, as principal employment sector Saba; Salikeni; Serekunda;StrangeFarmers of migrants, 50 census data availability in, 29 Alien Compliance Order of 1969, Ghana, 12, Dagari, 42 death rate in, 16 38, 42, 53 Dahomeans in Togo, 33 educational status of Gambians and non- Anecho commune, Togo, 90, 92, 97 Dakar, Senegal, 27, 80, 88, 89, 96, 97 Gambians in, 49 Ashanti Region, Ghana, 19, 38, 60 Danane Department, Ivory Coast, 87 emigrants from: in Senegal, 7, 39; to Sierra Atakpame commune, Togo, 90 Death rates Leone, 41 effect of migration on, 45-46 foreign-nationals in. 42 for West African countries, 16 gross national product in, 5 Bakau, Gambia, 96 Diourbel Region, Senegal, 40, 60 growth rates in, 29 Banfora, Upper Volta, 93 Duration of residence of migrants internal migrants' age differentials in, 66 Banjul Area, Gambia, 42, 66, 96 in Ivory Coast, 6-7 land area of. 5, 28 Banjul (city), Gambia, 29, 30, 80, 95, 96 related to age of migrants, 66 migration in: internal, 66; rural-urban, 81 Benin population of: growth and density by local census data lacking for, 3 government area, 30; effect of emigration to Lome, Togo, from, 91 East-Central Department, Upper Volta, 93 immigration on growth of, 11, 29, 45; Birth rates East Department, Upper Volta, 23, 64, 93 size of. 5, 29; urban percentage of, effect of migration on, 45 Eastern Region, Ghana, 8-9, 19, 39, 61, 83, 79-80 in West Africa, 16 84 urban growth in, 9, 81 Bissau, 42 East Region, Ivory Coast, 21 urbanization patterns of, 95-96 Black Volta Department, Upper Volta, 59, 64 Economic status, West African countries, 5 vital rates in, 29 Bobo-Dioulasso, Upper Volta, 93, 95 Emigration, West African. See also under Gambissara, Gambia, 96 Bondoukou Department, Ivory Coast, 87 individual country Ghana. See also Accra; Accra Region; Bouake Department, Ivory Coast, 52, 61 related to national or regional economy, Ashanti Region; Brong-Ahafo Region; Bouake Ville, Ivory Coast, 88, 97 10. 53 Central Region; Eastern Region; Gold Bouna Department, Ivory Coast, 87 trends, 42-43 Coast; Greater Accra Region; Brikama Area, Gambia, 42, 66 External migration, West African. See also Northern Region; Upper Region; Brong-Ahafo Region, Ghana, 8. 19. 39, 60. Emigration: Foreign-born, Foreign Volta Region; Western Region 67, 72, 83, 84 nationals; Immigrants; Immigration; agricultural work by migrant status in, 75 International migration Alien Compliance Order effects in, 38 related to internal migration, 8 birth eate in, 18 Capital cities, West African volume and net exchanges of, 5-6 census data availability in, 18 as focus of internal migration, 8, 59 death rate in, 18 net population gains from migration in, 8 distribution by size of cities in, 80 Cap-Vert Region, Senegal, 8, 27, 40, 59, Farafenni, Gambia, 96 educational status in: of natives and 63-64, 89, 90 Forced labor, Upper Volta, 6, 31 immigrants, 49; of population, effect of Casamance Region, Senegal, 40 Foreign-born internal migration on, 11 Census data, West African, availability of, in Liberia, 41 emigrants from: in Ivory Coast, 35-36; to 3-4. See also under individual country in West African countries, 36 Togo, 43 Central Department, Upper Volta, 8, 59, 64, Foreign nationals, 5, 7, 34-36. See also emigration from: effect on population 93 Gambia; Ghana; Ivory Coast; Senegal; growth of, 45; to Lome, Togo, 91; to Centrale Region, Togo, 26, 90-91 Sierra Leone Sierra Leone, 41 127 128 Migration in West Africa

foreign nationals in regions of, 38-39 age differentials of, 46-47, 66-68 South Region; West Region; Worker gross national product of, 5, 18 distribution by country of, 34-35 recruitment growth rates of, 18 educational differentials of, 48-49, 70-74 census data availability for, 20 immigrants in: distribution by urban-rural employment differentials of, 49-51, 74-75, distribution by size of cities in, 80 residence of, 39; from Nigeria, 38; from 77-78 educational status of Ivorian and non- Togo, 33, 38, 43; from Upper Volta, marital status of. 47-48, 70 Ivorian males in, 48-49 31-32, 38; in labor force, 50-51; number in region and laboT force of, 3 emigration to Liberia from, 41 occupations by sector of, 10, 75, 77-78 sex differentials of, 46, 69-70 employment by sex of migrants and non- immigration history of, 6, 31-33, 37-38 Immigration, West African. See also migrants in, 74 internal migrants in: age differentials of, Immigrants foreign nationals in, 6, 35 67; educational attainment by urban- effects on national and regional economies gross national product in, 5, 13, 18, 20 rural status of, 85; educational of, 10, 53 growth in: average annual rate of, 15-16; differentials of, 9-10; in labor force, 12; by non-Africans, 8 components of rural, 86; components of sex differentials of, 69, 70; volume of recent trends in, 34-42 urban, 82, 86 interregional, 58 In-migration, West African. See also immigrants to: distribution by region and land area of, 18 Capital cities; Internal migration; urban-rural location of, 36-37; duration migrants in: educational differentials of, West Africa of stay of, 6-7, 36; employment status 70-73; employment by sex of effect on regional economy of, 10 of, 10; origins of, 35; sectors and nonmigrants and, 74 principal destinations of, 8 occupations of, 10 migration in: future trends of, 53; Internal migrants, West African. See immigration to: contribution to population interlocalitv, 83; net loss of population also Ghana; Internal migration; Ivorv growth of, 20, 21; effect on national from, 44; net urban, 84-85; rural-urban, Coast; Rural-urban migrants; Upper educational status of, 11; of Malians, 34; rate of, 81 Volta national economic effects of, 13; of as migratory destination, 6 age differentials of, 66-68 - Upper Volta nationals, 32 national demographic characteristics of, age differentials of intraregional, 67-68 internal migrants in: age differentials of, 18-20 deficit of children among, 66 66, 67; demographic differentials of occupations by rural-urban migration demographic and socioeconomic urban and rural, 88; index of distance status in, 85 characteristics of, 66-78 traveled by, 88; sex differentials of, 69 population of: and density, 18-19; growth educational differentials of, 70-74 internal migration in, 61-62; interregional, since 1950 of, 16; size of, 5, 18 emplovment status of, 10 58 primary enrollment in, 18 labor force participation of, 3, 74-75 labor force: immigrants in, 11-12, 50-51; reclassification of localities in, 84 marital status of, 70 future trends in, 55 repatriates to Togo from, 91 number of, in West Africa, 3 migration to: compulsory, 6; destinations urban growtb in, 9; components of, 81, 83, percentage of, in working ages, 66 of, 6; future trends in, 53-55; history of, 84 sectors of work and occupations of, 75-78 6; net gain of population from, 44 urbanization in: patterns of, 82-86; by sex differentials of, 69-70 population growth in, 20; by region, 21; region, 82-83 Internal migration, West African. See also from migration, 11, 45; rate of, 5; since urban population in, 5, 19-20; growth of, Capital cities; External migration; 1950, 16 82; percentage of, 79-80 Internal migrants; Rural-urban primary enrollment in, 18 Gold Coast, 25 migration; and under individual reclassification of localities in, 86 Goru, Senegal, 27 country remittances from, 52 Gourmantche, 42 of origin of, 8-9, 60 rural-urban migration in, 81, 86 Gourma region, Upper Volta, 23 characteristics of, 8-9 urbanization patterns of 86-88 Gourounsi region, Upper Volta, 23 cross-country comparison difficult for, 57 urban population in, 5, 21; growth of, 86, Grand Cape Mount County, Liberia, 25, 6S destinations of, 8, 59-60 88; by migrant type, 87-88; as Grand Gedeh County, Liberia, 25 interregional volume of, 58 percentage of total, 79-80 Greater Accra Region, Ghana, 38 relation of external migration to, 8, 59, 60 vital rates in, 21 Guinea. See also Strange Farmers between savannah and coast, 58 census data lacking for, 3 volume and flow of, 8 emigrants from: in Gambia, 7, 42; in Ivory Jassong, Gambia, 96 Coast, 6, 35-36; in Senegal, 7, 39 International Development Research Center Jiroff, Gambia, 96 enmigration from, 7, 42; to Liberia, 7, 41 ([nec), Canada, 22 Guinea Bissau International migration, West African. census data lacking for, 3 See also Emigration; External Kara Region, Togo, 26 emigrants in Senegal from, 7, 39 migration, Foreign-born; Foreign Kayes Region, Mali, 34 nationals; Immigration; Migration Kenema District, Sierra Leone, 41 characteristics of, 5-8 Kerewan Area, Gambia, 30, 96 High Basins Department, Upper Volta, 59, history of, 31-34 Koidu Town, Sierra Leone, 93 64, 93 Ivory Coast. See also Abengourou Kombo St. Mary Area, Gambia, 8, 30, 42, 59, Department; Abidjan Department; 66, 96 Abidjan Ville; Aboisso Department; Kono District, Sierra Leone, 28, 41, 65, 93 Immigrants, West African. See also Bondoukou Department; Bouake Koudougou, Upper Volta, 93, 94 Emigration; Foreign-born; Foreign Department; Bouake Ville; Bouna nationals; Immigration; International Department; Central Region; Central- migration; Migrants; Migration; West Region; Danane Department; Lebanon, emigration from, 41 Repatriates; and under individual East Region; Gagnoa Department; Liberia. See also Central Province; country North Region; Odienne Department; Grand Cape Mount County; Grand Index 12,4

Gedeh County; Lofa County; Immigration; In-migration; Internal Saba, Gambia, 96 Maryland County; Monrovia; migration; International migration; Sahel Department, Upper Volta, 23, 93 Montserrado County; Nimba County Out-migration; Period migration; Sahelian area, Upper Volta, 23 death rate in, 16 Rural-urban migration; Urbanization Saint-Louis, Senegal, 27 demographic data availability in, 24 data for, availability of, 3-4 Salikeni, Gambia. 96 emigration to Sierra Leone from, 41 determinants and consequences of, 10-13 Savanes Region, Togo, 26 foreign-born in, 41 effect of: on age and sex composition, 11: Savanna region, West African, population gross national product in, 5 on death rate. 45-46; on educational growth in. 5, 11, 17-18 immigration to: of Guineans, 7; patterns of, status of countries, 11, 48-49; on Senegal. See also Cap-Vert Region; 7, 41 marriage and fertility, 45; on natural Casamance Region; Dakar; Diourbel internal migration in: age differentials of increase, 11; on national economy of Region; Goru; Senegal-Oriental migrants in, 66; patterns of, 62-63 countries of origin and destination, Region; Sine-Saloum Region; Strange land area of, 24 12-13; on population growth, 10-11 Farmers; Thies Region population of: distribution and density by future trends in, 53-55 census data availability in, 27 county of, 25; effect of 1971 epidemic principal streams of, 6, 31, 43 distribution by size of cities in, 80 on, 24; growth of, 24 Monrovia, Liberia, 62 emigrants from: in Gambia, 7, 42: in Ivory vital rates in, 24 Montserrado County, Liberia, 8, 25, 41, 59, Coast, 35-36 Liberian Population Growth Survey (LPGS), 62-63 foreign nationals in, 7. 39 * 24 Mossi, 21, 22, 23, 42, 94 gross national product in, 5 Lobi, 42 Mossi region, Upper Volta, 21-22, 23 growth rate in, 27 Lobi region, Upper Volta, 23 immigrants to: contribution to population Lofa County, Liberia, 8, 60 growth of, 40; distribution by region and Lome commune, Togo. 8, 59, 73, 74, 90, 91, Niger, lack of census data for, 3 country of origin of, 40; in the labor 92, 96, 97 Nigeria force, 50; from Mali, 34 Lower River Division. Gambia, 30 census data lacking for, 3, 15 land area of, 27 as country of origin, 6 migration in: future labor force trends emigrants from: to Ivory Coast, 35-36; to because of, 55; future trends in, 54; Mali. See also Kayes Region; Nioro Region; Ghana, 38; to Sierra Leone, 41 internal, 63-64; net rural-urban rate of, Strange Farmers Nimba County, Liberia, 25, 63 88; recent pace of, 89-90 death rate in, 16 Nioro Region, Mali, 34 population growth of: contribution of emigrants from: destinations and volume Njakunda, Gambia, 96 immigration to, 40; by region, 27 of, 7, 42; in Gambia, 7; in Ivory Coast, Nokunda, Gambia, 96 urban growth in, components of, 88 6, 7, 35-36: in Senegal, 7, 40 North-Central Department, Upper Volta, 93 urbanization patterns in, 88-90 emigration from, 7; effect on population North Department, Upper Volta, 23, 93 urban population in: percentage in total growth of, 45; historical trends in, 34 Northern Region, Ghana, 8, 11, 18-19, 39, population of, 79-80; size of, 5 gross national product in, 5 60, 72, 83, 84 vital rates in, 27 land area of, 5 Northern region, Upper Volta, 23 Senegal-Oriental Region, Senegal, 8, 27, 40, labor force, trends influenced by migration North Region, Ivory Coast, 8. 21, 37. 60 63 in, 54, 55 Senoufo. 42 population of: decrease in growth of, from , Serekunda, Gambia, 96 migration, 11; growth since 1950, 16; net Odienne Department, Ivory Coast, 62 Sherbro Urban District, Sierra Leone, 28 loss from migration of, 44, 45 Office of Overseas Scientific and Technical Sierra Leone. See also Freetown; Kenema Mansakonko Area, Gambia, 30, 96 Research (ougo O,U)pFrance, 22 District; Koidu Town; Kono District; Maritime Region, Togo, 8, 26, 27, 90, 91, 92, Ouagadougou, Upper Volta, 8, 964, 93, 5 Western Area 97 Ouahigouya, Upper Volta, 93, 94 brhrt n1 Out-migration, West African. See also birth rate in, 16 Maryland Countv, Liberia, 25 ' . . census data availability for, 28 Mende, 28 Internal migration emigration to Liberia from, 41 Mauritania, emigrants in Senegal from, 40 effect on regional economy of, 10 foreign nationals in. 41 Migrants, West African. See also principal areas of, 8-9 gross national product in, 5 Emigration; External migration; growth in: rate of, 28; components in Forced labor; Foreign-born; Foreign Palim6 commune Togo, 90 Freetown of, 92-93 nationals; Immigrants; Internal PeTimercon, West 90 immigration of Guineans to, 7 migrants; Repatriates; Rural-urban Peaod migration, West African, 43944 internal migration in, 65 migrants; Worker recruitment Plateaux Region, Togo, 26, 90 population of, by district, 28 age composition of, 9, 46-47 rural-urban migration in, 81 demographic and socioeconomic Remittances, West African, 1. 12, 52-53, 55 urban data insufficient for, 92 characteristics of, 9-10 Repatriates urban growth patterns of, 9, 81, 92-93 dependency ratios of, 9 educational status in Togo of. 74 vital rates in, 28 destiinatiori of, 6 in Lome commune, 91 Siine-SaloumRegion, Sesiegal, 27, 40, 63 duration of stay of, 6-7, 9, 66 Rufisque, Senegal, 27 Sokode commune, Togo, 91, 92 educational differentials of, 9 Rural-urban migrants, West African. See Songre, Ambroise, and others, 13 effect on labor force of, 11, 50 also Capital cities; West Africa; and South Region. Ivory Coast, 8, 21, 36, 61, 88 employment differentials of, 10 under individual country Strange Farmers, 7, 12 marital status of, 9 age differentials of, 9 Syndicat Interprofessional d'Acheminement sex composition of. 9. 46 employment status of, 10 de la Main d'Oeuvre (SIAMo),32 Migration, West African. See also and net population growth. 9 Emigration; External migration; socioeconomic characteristics of. 9 Temne, 28 130 Migration in West Africa

Thies Region, Senegal, 8, 40-41, 63 Gourounsi region; High Basins vital rates in, 22 Togo. See also Anecho commune; Department; Koudougou; Lobi region; Urbanization, West African, 5, 9, 79-81. See Atakpame commune; Centrale Region; Mossi region; Northern region; North- also Capital cities; Rural-urban migration; Kara Region; Lome commune; Central Department; North West Africa; and under individual country Maritime Region; Palime commune; Department; Ouagadougou; Plateaux Region; Savanes Region; Ouahigouya; Sahel Department; Sokode commune, Ts6vie commune Sahelian area; West-Central Vital rates, West African, 16 census data availability for, 26 Department; Worker recruitment effect of migration at place of origin and cocoa production in, 12 boundaries changes of, 31 destination on, 45 as country of origin, 6, 7 as country of origin, 6 since 1950, 17 emigration from, 7; to Ghana, 33, 38, death rate in, 16 Volta Region, Ghana, 8, 61, 67, 83, 84 42-43 demographic data availability in, 21-22 gross national product in, 5, 18 emigration from: distribution by region growth rates in, 26 and urban-rural location of, 42; effect on West Africa immigration to: contribution to population national educational status of, 11; effect census data availability for, 3-4 growth of, 26; of Dahomeans, 33; from on population growth of, 44, 45; to distribution by size of cities in. 80-81 Ghana, 43; in Lome commune, 91 Ghana, 7, 38; history of, 7, 31-32; to population of: distribution of, 5; size and internal migration, 64-65 Ivory Coast, 6, 7, 32, 35-36; to Mali, 7; growth of, 5, 15, 16 migrants to: educational differentials of, by marital status, 47; patterns of, 7, 42 rural-urban migration in, 80-81: age 73-74; occupational differentials of, 78 employment of migrants and nonmigrants differentials in, 97; national effects of, population growth of: contribution of by sex in, 74 44-53; to principal cities, 96-97 immigration to, 26; by region, 26-27 forced labor in, 6, 31 socioeconomic differentials of migrants primary enrollment in, 18 gross national product in, 5, 21 from rural and urban origins in, 97 repatriates in, 74, 91 internal migrants: age differentials of, 66, urban areas in: components of growth in, urban areas in: population of, 27, 90; rate 67; marital differentials of external 81, 96; growth rates by country, 80-81; of net migration to, 92 migrants and, 70 net migration to, 81-82 urbanization patterns of, 90-92 internal migration, 64; volume of urbanization in, 79-81 vital rates in, 26 interregional, 58-59 urban-rural migration in, 97 Tsevie commune, Togo, 90, 92, 97 migration in: compulsory, 6; future labor vital rates in, 16, 17 force trends because of, 55 West-Central Department, Upper Volta, 64, population growth in, 21-22; decrease 93 United Kingdom, emigration to Sierra Leone because of migration in, 11, 44; effect of Western Area, Sierra Leone, 8, 28, 41, 65 from, 41 drought on, 23; rate of, 5, 16; since Western Region, Ghana, 18, 19, 60, 61, 84 United States, emigration to Liberia from, 41 1950, 16 Western region, Upper Volta, 23 Upper Region, Ghana, 8, 19, 60, 82 population of: and density by department West Region, Ivory Coast, 21, 37 Upper Volta. See also Banfora; Black 23; size of urban, 5; urban percentage Worker recruitment, 6, 32-33 Volta Department; Bobo-Dioulasso; of, 80 Central Department; East remittances received in, 52-53 Department; East-Central urban growth composition in, 93-95 Yap, Lorene Y. L., 12 Department; Courma region; urbanization patterns in, 93-95 Yatenga, 23

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The World Bank

MIGRATIONIN WEST AFRICA iS the first study ever attempted of the large-scale movement of population in this region. It describes the demographic aspects of the flow of millions of people both across and within national boundaries-flows that have important consequences for the distribution of resources and the social and economic developmentof the countries affected. The study is based on data from recent censuses and surveys-for some countries the first ever conducted-in the Gambia, Ghana, the Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Upper Volta. The authors discuss the volume and direction of external and internal migration in the nine countries and present the socioeconomic characteristics of migrants and nonmigrants that are apparent from the available data. The volume of the flow is considerable. From 1965 to 1975 six countries had a net gain of 1.3 million people from migration alone, while three countries experienced a net loss of 1.2 million; about 4.4 million people migrated within their respective countries. For both international and internal movements, the direction of the flow is from the interior toward the coast and from rural to urban areas, a trend that affects the regional and national development of the individual countries and contributes to the problems of urban growth. Recent migration diverges from historical patterns and reflects changes in economic opportunities and political stability in the region. Migrants tend to stay longer at their destination than in the past and are more family oriented, as shown by increases in the percentages of women and children among long-distance migrants. Other findings of the composition of migrants by age, sex, education, occupation, and so on will assist researchers and planners of economic and social policy in the countries of origin and destination. Knowledge of population movements between member states should be of value to the Economic Communityof West African States and should enable demographers to refine their population projections, and planners to tailor development projects more closely to actual needs. The book also provides a necessary base for further research into the underlying causes and consequences of migration. K. C. Zachariah is senior demographer at the World Bank, and Julien Conde is principal administrator of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-520187-6

Cover design by Bill Fraser