Norwegian Cultural Policy: a Civilising Mission?
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University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/2740 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Norwegian Cultural Policy: A Civilising Mission? By Egil Bjørnsen A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Cultural Policy Studies University of Warwick, Centre for Cultural Policy Studies October 2009 For Michelle Acknowledgments I am grateful to many people who have made it possible for me to complete this journey and finalise this thesis. First, Oliver Bennett who back in 2002 agreed to take me on as his student and whose supervision has been firm, constructive and very useful. Several other people have also read my work and given feedback. Firstly, several of my student colleagues at the Centre for Cultural Policy Studies, including Anna Upchurch, Eleonora Belfiore, Hsiao-Ling Chung, Boyun Choe, Lorraine Lim and Paul Kohler. A special thanks to Kjell Magne Mælen, who has read several of my chapters and with whom I have had many constructive conversations. Kjell is a very generous person who also assisted me in identifying suitable interview subjects for my field research, and also acted as a subject for the pilot testing of my interview guide. Thanks also to Iver B. Neumann who read my chapter on identity formation in nineteenth-century Norway, and finally to Jerry Ahearne who gave useful advice throughout in his capacity as my academic mentor. In June 2006 I organised a workshop titled Discourse Analysis and Cultural Policy, which was attended by Jenny Johannisson, Munira Mirza, Sigrid Røyseng, Heidi Stavrum, Claes Lennartsson, Emma Waterton and Eltje Bos. The workshop was moderated by Eleonora Belfiore. This was a great opportunity to share ideas about how discourse analysis can inform ii cultural policy studies and was very useful for my own development as a researcher. Hence, I thank all the participants, some of whom came from abroad, for attending this and sharing ideas. Thanks to Anna Long who proof read the thesis very meticulously, weeded out all my broken English and made sure that the structure and presentation of the thesis adhere to the Warwick regulations. I must thank all the interviewees who are listed in Appendix Three, who all devoted generously of their time, and whose input has been vital. Very importantly, I must direct a heartfelt thanks to my colleagues at the Centre for Cultural Policy Studies, and the two directors Oliver Bennett and Chris Bilton with whom I have worked closely whilst completing this project. Both Oliver and Chris have been very accommodating and made it possible for me to straddle two horses by working as a Senior Teaching Fellow with the centre whilst finalising this project. Even after I went full- time with the centre in September 2007 I have been able to carve out the necessary space to allow my work on this thesis to continue. In addition to Chris and Oliver, my colleagues Ruth Leary, Eleonora Belfiore, Jonathan Vickery and Paula Watkins have all showed me extraordinary kindness and compassion in what has been a rather stressful situation, combining my work on the MA in European Cultural Policy and Management with PhD research. In fact, nobody has questioned the fact iii that I have allocated time during my work-hours to finalise this project. For this I am truly grateful. But, even all this kindness pales in comparison with what I have received from the one who stands closest to me: my dearest Michelle. I can hand on heart say that without you I would not have been able to complete this project. As my life companion you give me everything I need to move on, and even in the bleakest hours you have been there. You have dedicated so much time for this project, both directly through the numerous intellectual discussions we have had and indirectly through creating the right conditions for me to be able to continue my work. You have read all the chapters of this thesis more than once, and given me valuable feedback throughout. You have been keeping the house in order, looked after the garden, prepared breakfast and lunch, in short, freeing up all the time and space that I have needed. And all this whilst you have had your own very busy job to look after. Your patience has been enormous, and your love and kindness humbles me. Even whilst I am writing this, you are helping me to proof read my referencing and bibliography. Michelle, I could not have done it without you and hence, this thesis is dedicated to you. Tiddington, Stratford upon Avon, 22nd October 2009 iv Declaration I declare that the present thesis is the result of my own work. I would also like to confirm that neither the thesis nor parts of it has ever been submitted before for a degree at another university. v Abstract: Norwegian Cultural Policy: A Civilising Mission? This dissertation aims to explore the extent to which what has been termed „the civilising mission‟ has been a central rationale behind Norwegian cultural policy. In order to contextualise the research the German term Bildung, which refers to human growth processes, is used as a conceptual framework. Bildung can be achieved in two different, albeit related, ways: firstly, through an object approach, which takes great works of arts as its point of departure and where personal growth can be achieved through exposure to these and which endorses clear cultural hierarchies, and secondly, through a subject approach, which emphasises each individual‟s own preferences and desires and where a much greater range of cultural activities can facilitate personal growth. In addition to an historical analysis of the ideas that have informed Norwegian cultural policies dating back to 1814, this project draws upon „green papers‟ published by the Norwegian government through its Ministry of Culture. This is supplemented by a more detailed analysis of a key cultural policy initiative of the 2000s: den kulturelle skolesekken (DKS) 1 , which is a major programme initiated to enable children in 1 Translated to English as the Cultural Rucksack. vi primary school to be exposed to art-works produced by professional artists. The project concludes that although a subject and an object approach to Bildung have co-existed throughout the period charted here there has since the 90s been an increased focus on the object oriented approach. This appears evident both in the general cultural policy discourse but particularly through the disciplining aspect of DKS and its strong focus on, what is being referred to as, the „professional arts‟ as a vehicle for Bildung. vii Table of Contents Acknowledgments .................................................................................. ii Declaration .............................................................................................. v Abstract: Norwegian Cultural Policy: A Civilising Mission? ............... v Abstract: Norwegian Cultural Policy: A Civilising Mission? .............. vi Table of Contents .................................................................................... 1 List of tables ............................................................................................ 7 Introduction: Norwegian Cultural Policy – A Civilising Mission? ....... 8 Research question ....................................................................... 12 Notes on Civilisation and Culture ................................................. 14 Research design and methodology .............................................. 18 Structure of dissertation – chapter by chapter .............................. 20 Some notes about cultural context ............................................... 24 1. The Civilising Mission: Object Versus Subject Approaches to Bildung................................................................................................... 26 1.1 Bildung: two approaches ........................................................ 27 1.1.1 The German concept of Bildung – The Weimar circle .......................................................................................... 31 1.1.2 The Victorian Civilisers ............................................. 43 1.2 A theoretical framework .......................................................... 49 1.3 Summary ................................................................................ 56 2.0 The Civilising Mission: Hegemony and Government ................... 58 2.1 Antonio Gramsci and the notion of cultural hegemony .......... 60 2.2 Governmentality and discourse: Michel Foucault ................... 66 2.3 Gramsci and Foucault – strange bedfellows? ........................ 74 1 2.4 Summary ................................................................................ 81 3.0 Research Design ............................................................................. 83 3.1 Discursive practices ............................................................... 83 3.2 The discourses of cultural policy research ............................. 90 3.3 The cultural policy researcher and the field ............................ 97 3.4 The suspicious researcher ................................................... 102 3.5 Empirical approach ..............................................................