DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2011-024
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Report on the Haju Subdistrict Survey in Papua, Indonesia
Ron Kriens Randy Lebold Jacqualine Menanti
Report on the Haju Subdistrict Survey in Papua, Indonesia
Ron Kriens, Randy Lebold, and Jacqualine Menanti
SIL International 2011
SIL Electronic Survey Report 2011-024, March 2011 Copyright © 2010 Ron Kriens, Randy Lebold, Jacqualine Menanti, and SIL International All rights reserved
Contents ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION 1. PREVIOUS WORK 1.1. ASUE AWYU LANGUAGE 1.2. KAYAGAR LANGUAGE 2. SURVEY AREA 2.1. MAP OF SURVEY AREA 2.2. TABLE OF VILLAGES VISITED 3. OBSERVATIONS 3.1. COMMUNICATION AND ELECTRICITY 3.2. TRANSPORTATION 3.2.1. Land Transportation 3.2.2. Water Transportation 3.2.3. Air Transportation 3.3. HEALTH AND MEDICAL 3.4. LIVELIHOOD, ECONOMY, AND INFLUENCE OF 'OUTSIDERS' 3.5. RELIGIOUS SITUATION 3.6. EDUCATION 3.6.1. Total Number of Students 3.6.2. Language Use in School 4. COMMUNITY GROUP QUESTIONNAIRES 4.1. PROCEDURE 4.2. RESULTS 4.2.1. Demography 4.2.2. Development 4.2.3. Language Use 4.2.4. Language Change 4.2.5. Language Preservation 4.2.6. Perceived Similarity and Intercomprehension 4.2.7. Language Attitudes 4.2.8. Language Vitality 5. WORDLISTS 5.1. PROCEDURE 5.2. RESULTS 5.3. COMBINING WORDLIST RESULTS WITH DATA ON REPORTED SIMILARITY 5.3.1. Asue Awyu Language 5.3.2. Kayagar Language 5.4. COMPARISON WITH DATA FROM PREVIOUS SURVEYS 5.4.1. Awyu Asue (and comparison with other Awyu Languages) 5.4.2. Kayagar Language (and comparison with Tamagario) 6. CONCLUSIONS 6.1. LINGUISTIC SITUATION 6.2. SOCIOLINGUISTIC SITUATION 6.3. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES 6.4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES 6.5. FUTURE RESEARCH APPENDIX A: VILLAGE LEADER QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX B: SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX C: GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE
2 APPENDIX D: RULES FOR LEXICAL SIMILARITY DECISIONS (From Blair 1990) APPENDIX E: MODIFIED RULES FOR LEXICAL SIMILARITY DECISIONS OF PAPUAN WORDLISTS APPENDIX F: WORDLISTS GATHERED DURING THIS SURVEY APPENDIX G: WORDLISTS GATHERED DURING THIS SURVEY(continued): REFERENCES
3 ABSTRACT
This report summarizes the findings of a linguistic and sociolinguistic survey conducted in a number of villages in Haju Subdistrict, Merauke Regency, in the province of Papua, Indonesia. Information was gathered by visiting eleven villages. The results indicate that four of these villages use the Asue Awyu language and seven villages use the Kayagar language. Vernacular use remains strong in private domains but national language use is increasing. Further survey is needed in the Kayagar-speaking villages that have not yet been visited to get a more complete picture of internal dialectology of Kayagar, as well as its relationship to the Tamagario language. Dialect intelligibility testing and/or participatory assessment may be needed in the Asue Awyu and Kayagar-speaking language areas to determine the number of language-development programs needed.
INTRODUCTION
This report summarizes the findings of a survey conducted in 11 villages in Haju Subdistrict, Merauke Regency.1 This survey was conducted by Joseph K. Liem (Kartidaya), Jacqualine Menanti (SIL staff), Benny Rumaropen (trainee), Pontie Ambrauw (trainee), and Hengki Semboari (trainee) during May 19–31, 2002. The purpose of the survey was to determine the language use in each of the indigenous villages in this area. This survey serves as a preliminary step to determine the language-program needs for the languages used.
The research questions asked were: • What speech variety is spoken in each village? • What are the sociolinguistic dynamics of the speech community (language attitudes, use, stability, change, vitality, and dialectology)?
The methods used to answer the research questions were to collect wordlists in each village to gain a preliminary picture of the relationship among the speech varieties encountered and to use sociolinguistic questionnaires in each village to discover the attitudes of the villagers towards their own language. In addition, four text recordings2 were obtained during this survey. Joseph and Hengki took turns gathering wordlists while the sociolinguistic information was gathered by Jacqualine, Pontie, and Benny.
Transportation is the main obstacle to conducting survey in Papua. Therefore, the survey team’s strategy was to follow geographic features, like rivers or roads, rather than necessarily trying to cover a single language in one trip. For this reason, only part of the Awyu Asue and Kayagar language areas were surveyed during this trip.3
1 The term 'regency' is used to translate the Indonesian term kabupaten, and the term 'subdistrict' is used to translate the term kecamatan (or distrik). Indonesian provinces are divided administratively into regencies, which are further divided into subdistricts. 2 In certain villages, texts were recorded in order to complement the transcribed wordlists. 3 A synthesized language report for each language (or cluster of languages) will be forthcoming when the total picture for each language is available.
4 1. PREVIOUS WORK
1.1. ASUE AWYU LANGUAGE
A number of Asue Awyu [psa]4-speaking villages had already been surveyed within the last couple of years prior to the present survey. The village of Busiri was surveyed in March 2001 as part of the survey of the Wildeman River area. The results of that survey can be found in Kriens 2010. In January 2002, 16 other Asue Awyu speaking villages were visited. The results of that survey can be found in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries, and Rumaropen 2010. Since the previous work on the Asue Awyu language is already mentioned in that report, the information will not be repeated in full here.
As mentioned in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries, and Rumaropen (to appear), in the past the Asue Awyu language was referred to by a number of other names. The edition of the Ethnologue current at the time of this survey (Grimes 2000) used the name Miaro Awyu; however, the name Awyu Asue will be used in this report instead of this previous name. The survey team decided to discontinue using the name Awyu Miaro because it is too limited. Most of the people using the Awyu Asue language live on the Asue River and its tributaries, only one of which is the Miaro River. The name of the river and the language is now being written with one ‘s’ (in accordance with the preference of the local people) while the name of the Subdistrict is written with two ‘s’ (Assue) in accordance with how it is spelled in government publications.
1.2. KAYAGAR LANGUAGE
In the past, a number of researchers have written about the location of the Kayagar [kyt] language and listed the villages they consider to be Kayagar speaking. Both Voorhoeve (1971) and Silzer and Heikkinen (1984) give identical lists of villages they consider to be Kayagar.
Previous research indicates that Kayagar and Tamagario [tcg] are closely-related languages. In fact, Voorhoeve (1971) states that the dialects of Kayagar and Tamagario may prove to be aberrant dialects of one language. The villages of Arare and Pagai, which were visited during the present survey, have been listed as Tamagario-speaking villages by both Voorhoeve and Silzer and Heikkinen (1984). Voorhoeve states that there are two Tamagario dialects: the Tamario dialect spoken in the center of the language area where Arare and Pagai are located, and the Yogo dialect spoken to the north and to the south-west. While the villages of Arare and Pagai have been considered to be Tamagario-speaking villages in the past, it will be shown in this report that the data gathered during this survey suggests that these two villages are better considered Kayagar-speaking villages.
In 1987, a survey of the Kayagar-speaking area was conducted by the University of Cenderawasih (UNCEN; Jayapura, Papua) and SIL with reference to beginning a SIL language program. The results of the survey are recorded in an unpublished report, “UNCEN/SIL Survey of the Kayagar Area” written by Eui-Jung Kim, Duane Clouse, and David Price (n.d). The team gathered wordlists and sociolinguistic data in the villages of Amyam (which at that time was a
4 Languages listed in the Ethnologue (Gordon 2005) are additionally referred to by their three-letter ISO 639-3 code.
5 hamlet5 of the village of Jamkap), Kawem (which at that time was a hamlet of the village of Puayo), Kumeru (which at that time was a hamlet of the village of Kundubawa), and Kaibu (which at the time was a hamlet of the village of Haibugir). The team also gathered an Atohwaim [aqm] wordlist in the village of Jauki for comparison.
Results of the 1987 survey indicate that Kayagar was used in virtually all domains, including at church. Indonesian, the national language, was only used in school, with government personnel, and with members of the neighboring language groups. The results of the lexical similarity comparison from that survey are shown in Table 1, which is labeled in the following format: language name/hamlet name (village name).
Table 1: Percentage of Lexical Similarity (1987 Survey) Kayagar (West)/Kawem (Puayo) 89 Kayagar (North)/Amyam (Yamkap) 81 82 Kayagar (East)/ Kaibu (Haipogira) 77 80 79 Kayagar (South)/Komeru (Kundubawa) 33 32 37 34 Atohwaim/Jauki a This village name was also spelled Haibugir in the 1987 survey report. The name is not found in current government documents. When the team visited the villages of Warogom and Gairipim, the people there reported that these two villages and a third village, Kaibusene (not visited during this survey), were previously merged under the name Haipogir. It is not clear if Kaibusene is the same as “Kaibu” where a Kayagar wordlist was elicited during the 1987 survey.
The authors of the 1987 report felt that it was a good time for SIL to begin a language program in the Kayagar area and suggested the village of Kawem as an allocation site.
Despite the fact that a survey was conducted in 1987, the present survey team felt it was necessary to conduct further survey of the Kayagar-speaking area to gather linguistic information from additional Kayagar-speaking villages. The intent was to get a better understanding of the relationship between the Kayagar and Tamagario languages, as well as to gather more complete sociolinguistic information from the Haju Subdistrict survey area (see Figure 1).
5 The term 'hamlet' is used in this report to refer to a grouping of houses that has no government administration of its own, but falls under the administration of another, usually larger village.
6 2. SURVEY AREA
2.1. MAP OF SURVEY AREA
Figure 1: Haju Subdistrict Survey Area.
7 2.2. TABLE OF VILLAGES VISITED
In table 2, the villages that were visited are listed in alphabetical order, along with global positioning system (GPS) coordinates.
Table 2: Table of Villages Visited in Haju Subdistrict GPS Coordinates Village Language South East Amagatsu Asue Awyu 06˚15.853' 139˚01.867' Katage Asue Awyu 06˚18.466' 139˚02.471' Sogope Asue Awyu 06˚16.742' 139˚01.862' Yagatsu (Subdistrict Capital) Asue Awyu 06˚16.099' 139˚02.988' Arare Kayagar 06˚22.068' 139˚08.955' Atsipim Kayagar 06˚17.347' 138˚58.102' Gairipim Kayagar 06˚17.347' 138˚57.572' Okor Kayagar 06˚15.766' 138˚58.054' Pagai Kayagar 06˚22.555' 139˚13.460' Tsemtaipim Kayagar 06˚16.031' 138˚58.267' Warogom Kayagar 06˚17.280' 138˚57.680'
3. OBSERVATIONS
Haju Subdistrict is bounded on the north by Assue Subdistrict, on the east by Obaa Subdistrict, on the south by Nambioman Bapai (Nambai) Subdistrict, and on the west by Fayit Subdistrict. The majority of the villages are along the banks of the Asaret River and the upper reaches of the Juliana River.6
The survey team collected information through observations and group interviews in each of 13 villages using an extended formal questionnaire, a short questionnaire made specifically for use with the leader of each village, and a short questionnaire for use with the school principal. The majority of the information in this section comes from the village leader questionnaire. For an English translation of the village leader questionnaire, see Appendix A.
In a number of Kayagar-speaking villages, the people reported that the name of their language was Wiyagar, not Kayagar. In other cases, the people reported that their ethnic group name was Wiyagar. Based on this information alone, it might appear that Wiyagar is an alternate name for Kayagar. However, during a previous survey, the Tamagario-(a language related to Kayagar) speaking villages of Kaumi and Kabe reported that their language name was Wiyagar, as well. So it is clear that Wiyagar is not another name for the Kayagar language, yet it appears possible that Wiyagar is an ethnic group name that is used by both Tamagario and Wiyagar speakers, or that Wiyagar is an alternate name for both the Tamagario and Kayagar languages.
6 This river was named by the first Dutch explorers to travel along that river, which happened to be on the birthday of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands.
8 According to at least some of Kayagar speakers visited during this survey, the name Wiyagar was a name given to them when William Lommertzen, the first priest that came into the area, visited the village of Arare for the first time, sometime around the 1950’s. He was accompanied by a guide (a Yaqay man from Kepi) who called them wiyar, which means ‘dirty people,’ probably because they always sought empty cans in the Kepi area.
It was also reported that the indigenous name for the Kayagar-speaking people that were surveyed is “Boupdam.” The same source claims that the Boupdam live in 63 villages scattered across the Subdistricts of Nambioman Bapai, Haju, and Pantai Kasuari. This source divides the Boupdam into several smaller groups: (1) the Tamario live in the villages of Pagai, Kerke, Arare, Teryamu, and Magabag; (2) the Yogo live in the villages of Khaumi, Kayaghae, Taraghae, Upin, Ati, and Kabe; (3) the Atiyoburu live in the villages of Yame, Sigare, and Kaitok; (4) the Khetpir live in the villages of Tsemtaipim, Kaibusene, Warogom, Atsipim, Gairipim, and Okor; (5) the Ohomkir live in the villages of Sene, Komru, Khogir, Kawem, Awaru, Kare, Ero, and other villages in the Pantai Kasuari Subdistrict.
Based on this reported information, it is possible that Wiyagar is the ethnic group name used by outsiders, while Boupdam is the ethnic group name used by the people for themselves. It is also possible that Wiyagar/Boupdam is the ethnic group name for the speakers of two languages: Kayagar and Tamagario.
3.1. COMMUNICATION AND ELECTRICITY
None of the villages visited during this survey in Haju Subdistrict was serviced by the national electric company (PLN). However, virtually every village had a 500-watt generator, television, satellite dish, and receiver given by the regency government. The generator was given only to power the TV, not for lighting. For the most part, these TVs were non-functional due to a lack of fuel for the generators (fuel is very costly and of limited availability).
There is no telephone service in the area, although there are several single-sideband (SSB) radios in the capital of Haju Subdistrict. These SSBs are owned by the Public Health Center and the subdistrict office. The operator of the subdistrict’s radio is Yerry Rumaseuw. It operates on a frequency of 500.5 Hz, and can be contacted mornings at around 7:30 am, local time.
3.2. TRANSPORTATION
3.2.1. Land Transportation
There are no motor vehicles or asphalt roads in Haju Subdistrict. Villages around the Haju Subdistrict capital can be reached on foot in the dry season. The survey team traveled to nearly all the villages by motorized canoe, since they were located alongside rivers. Only the village of Pagai was reached by walking from the landing at the Haju River to the village, a distance of about three kilometers. This village can best be reached from either the Kepi River or the Mapi River, because these rivers are even closer to the village.
9 Warogom and Gairipim villages are located only about 200 meters from the river. The team saw left-over pilings from piers which were formerly used by the people to walk between Amagatsu, Sogope, and Yagatsu villages in the area of the subdistrict capital. During the rainy season, these villages can only be reached by water transportation.
3.2.2. Water Transportation
The survey team reached the Haju Subdistrict by renting a motorized canoe in Senggo, the capital of Citak-Mitak Subdistrict. Rental included a driver and cost about 30 USD7 per day. Fuel was available for purchase in Senggo, Khanami Village (Assue Subdistrict), and Katage Village.
There is no transportation system in place, either private or public. In general, the local people only make use of their own dugout canoes or motorized boats in order to reach the villages around them. In order to go to the market in Eci (Assue Subdistrict) the people could ride in a boat belonging to the teacher or the subdistrict government at an average cost of about 3 USD for a one-way ticket.
3.2.3. Air Transportation
The main airstrip in the area is at Senggo, which can be reached by small plane (MAF). The flight is about two hours from the capital of Jayapura.
The river at Atsy Subdistrict Capital is long, wide, straight, and clear of debris. A floatplane should be able to land there.
There is no airstrip where a small plane can land around the Haju Subdistrict Capital. All the rivers are small with many bends in them; in the dry season they become even smaller. According to the local people, a floatplane sometimes lands on the Miaro River during the wet season.
3.3. HEALTH AND MEDICAL
According to the observations of the survey team, the main health-care problem in Haju Subdistrict is the lack of basic knowledge among the people regarding health and hygiene. The people use wells and rivers (whose water is muddy and cloudy) for bathing, washing, and sometimes also for drinking. Bathroom facilities were found only in several houses and schools among all the villages visited.
Many people suffer from poor health, an unhealthy environment, and a lack of clean water. This was evidenced by the many children with extended bellies (malnutrition) and skin diseases, such as framboesia. Based on the survey team’s observations, there did not seem to be a lack of staple foods, but the people did not seem to get enough variation into their diet. This is probably due to not being able to get enough variety or a lack of dietary knowledge.
There were no health workers working and living in any of the villages visited. Some villages did not even have a secondary health clinic, but every village has at least one traditional healer to
7 At the time of the survey, one US dollar equaled 9,300 rupiah, the local currency.
10 whom the people would turn for medical help. Almost all people turn first to the traditional healer in case of illness or, if help is needed, with childbirth.
The main health complaints reported in the villages visited are malaria, vomiting, framboesia and other skin diseases, polio, blindness, leprosy, dysentery, and typhoid. The primary health clinic in the subdistrict capital was not running properly due to a shortage of personnel.
3.4. LIVELIHOOD, ECONOMY, AND INFLUENCE OF 'OUTSIDERS'
The primary livelihood of people in Haju Subdistrict is hunting and gathering, and gardening. For most people, the staple food is sago supplemented with fish, which are caught in the river. They have already begun cultivating simple gardens in which they plant long-term crops such as coconut, rambutan, durian, mango, coffee, salak, jackfruit, chocolate, and cashews. The short- term crops include tubers, bananas, corn, and several kinds of beans and vegetables.
There is no large-scale business that can provide a living for the people. They gather eaglewood, which they sell to dealers and traders in the subdistrict capital; they can earn a substantial amount of money doing this.
There is no public market at the Haju Subdistrict Capital. There are several small stores, owned by non-Papuans, which sell fuel, basic supplies, clothing, house wares, and stationary. None of the other villages had any stores. There were some eaglewood dealers traveling by boat, who would visit these villages buying eaglewood and selling the same basic items. All of the prices are very high, so that there are few who can afford to buy from these traders. The high prices are undoubtedly influenced by the price of eaglewood in Eci Village.
3.5. RELIGIOUS SITUATION
The predominant religion in this region is Roman Catholicism. A portion of the transmigrants who have moved to the subdistrict capital from other parts of Indonesia are either Muslims or Protestant Christians. Every village visited has a church building; the church services are typically led by a group of lay leaders.
The people reported that they believe in supernatural powers around them, such as a big fish that is said to be guarding the mouth of the Juliana River. They admit that, when they pass by enchanted places in the forest, they offer small items to appease the spirits, such as batteries, tobacco, and coins. There is clearly a mix between the new religion and their traditional animistic beliefs, although the people who were interviewed would not acknowledge that there were still people who adhered to their traditional religion.
3.6. EDUCATION
In order to gather information about education, the survey team used a school questionnaire that was designed to be used with the school principal or a teacher. See Appendix B for an English translation of the school questionnaire that was used during this survey trip.
11 There are five villages that have a primary school: Katage, Sogope, Arare, Pagai, and Atsipim. Most students were from the local village but some were from other villages. A number of the students in Katage came from Amagatsu. The villages of Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, and Okor send their children to the primary school located in Atsipim. In addition, some of the students in this school came from Gairipim and Warogom; the school buildings in Gairipim and Warogom are broken down, and there are no teachers.8
In general, there is a lack of teachers. Every primary school has only one or two teachers (including the principal and local helpers). In the subdistrict capital, and many other villages, the team was not able to interview the teachers because they were not available. According to the mayor of Yagatsu, there is a primary school and a secondary school in the subdistrict capital but the secondary school is not functioning because there are no teachers.
3.6.1. Total Number of Students
Table 3 shows the number of students enrolled in each grade.
Table 3: Number of Students by Village and Grade Type of Grade Totals by Village school 1 2 3 4 5 6 school Katage Government 33 19 25 17 12 9 115 Sogope Government 44 30 9 15 15 14 127 Arare Catholic 32 21 35 19 23 11 141 Pagai Catholic 23 10 9 5 0 10 57 Atsipim Catholic 53 48 26 24 11 0 162 Totals by Grade: 185 128 104 80 61 44 602
Of the five villages having a primary school, three were Catholic schools (Yayasan Pendidikan dan Persekolahan Katolik or YPPK) and two were government-run schools (Instruksi Presiden or INPRES). There are usually fewer students present in school than enrolled because many children go with their parents to gather food in the forest. In general, sixth grade has only a few students; furthermore, many who do not pass their exam at the end of grade six try it again the following year.
In Pagai, there were no fifth grade students present because all were with their parents searching for eaglewood in the forest. In Atsipim, there were no students in sixth grade at all; this school had not been functional for three years but started up again in 2002. There had been students in grades one through five, and dropouts were encouraged to come back and finish their schooling; there were a total of 109 students.
3.6.2. Language Use in School
Table 4 shows the language use in school.
8 According to the people we interviewed, there was a misunderstanding between the teachers and the parents which resulted in the teachers moving to the primary school in Atsipim.
12 Table 4: Language Use in School First graders Length of time to Language of Language used Village understand become fluent in instruction during play Indonesian? Indonesian Katage I I and V Yes, a little About 12 months Sogope I and V I and V Yes, a little 4–5 months Arare I I and V Yes, but not well 4–5 months Pagai I I and V Yes 1–2 months Atsipim I and V I and V – 6–12 months I= Indonesian, V= Vernacular
The language of instruction in all the schools is Indonesian. In two villages, the teachers acknowledged that explanation in the vernacular was sometimes needed, especially in first grade. During play at school, the children use both the vernacular and Indonesian. Furthermore, the teachers claimed that the local people were proud of their own language.
Every teacher had a differing answers to the question of how long it takes for children to become fluent in Indonesian. They probably each have a different standard as to what it means to be fluent in Indonesian. However, it can be concluded that it takes time for the first grade students to understand and speak Indonesian fluently. This suggests that the Indonesian language is rarely spoken at home, at least not the formal Indonesian that is used in school.
4. COMMUNITY GROUP QUESTIONNAIRES
4.1. PROCEDURE
The group questionnaires were administered in every village by two survey-team members: a trainer and a trainee. The questions were put to groups that ranged between eight and 20. Often there were only a few people in the village, usually because many of the villagers were off in the forest looking for food or eaglewood. Although the interviewers were trained to encourage all people to participate, the discussions were usually dominated by only a few people. The whole questionnaire would generally take about an hour to complete. For an English translation of the group questionnaire, see Appendix C.
4.2. RESULTS
4.2.1. Demography
Table 5 shows the basic demographic information of every village: village name, population figures, people from other languages living in the village, and which languages/ethnic groups the people marry into.
People from other language groups usually move into the village for the following reasons: they are civil servants (teachers, health workers, midwives), church workers, or are married to a local. There are relatively few outsiders; the largest concentration of outsiders is found in the Subdistrict Capital of Haju.
13
Table 5: Demographic Information of Villages Visited in Haju Subdistrict Population People from other People who have Village House- People ethnic groups married in holds Buton, Toraja, Serui, Wiyagar, Kayagar, Yagatsu 141 626 Asmat, Ambon, Java Awyu, Kimaam Kimaam, Makasar Katage 95 400 Mor (Nabire) Wiyagar, Kayagar
Awyu Biak, Asmat, Amagatsu 72 300 Biak, Asmat, Marind Kimaam, Marind Sogope 87 430 Marind Marind Arare 123* 594* Java Awyu Pagai 60 200 Flores, Muyu Yaqay, Awyu, Muyu Atsipim 58 372 – Biak, Marind, Yaqay Okor 127 577 – Kimaam, Marind Tsemtaipim 94* 463* – – Kayagar Warogom 33 200 – – Gairipim 84 656 Yaqay, Sorong Yaqay, Sorong Totals: 974 4818 * This information was taken from Government sources: Pemerintah Kabupaten Merauke,1999, Data Perkembangan Pelaksanaan UU No. 5 Tahun 1979 (Model DS. 1 s/d DS. 10).
All the villages that were visited were mostly inhabited by indigenous people. In a few places, like the subdistrict capital, there were a number of non-indigenous people who were civil servants or merchants; their numbers are limited. The survey team met several non-indigenous people in the villages, but they were mostly traders who did not live there on a permanent basis.
4.2.2. Development
The Head of Haju Subdistrict is from the Ambai ethnic group (which is in Papua). With the exception of civil servants like teachers, health workers, and midwives, all village leaders were local people, chosen by their own people.
When in need of medical help, the majority of people reported that they would go to the traditional healer before seeking the help of a health worker. Some people reported that they would pray or ask to be prayed for before looking for other help. People possessed by spirits are usually brought to the traditional healer.
None of the villages visited has an organized committee of local representatives in charge of development work. Development work is coordinated through the existing village leaders or the Subdistrict Government.
There are no natural conditions at any time of the year that would isolate one village from another in this area. Rather, rain and flooding reduces traveling time because the water floods
14 across the numerous oxbows making the distances over the otherwise winding rivers shorter. During the dry season, most villages can be reached on foot, especially those close to the subdistrict capital.
4.2.3. Language Use
The majority of people can speak some Indonesian. Those who have had some education are able to use a more formal register of Indonesian, while others speak some level of Papuan Malay [pmy], which most regard as the same as the Indonesian language.
Table 6 shows the language use by domain in each of the villages.
Table 6: Language Use by Domain
Village
(Asue (Asue
Domain Yagatsu Awyu) (Asue Katage Awyu) Amagatsu Awyu) (Asue Sogope Awyu) Arare (Kayagar) Pagai (Kayagar) Atsipim (Kayagar) Okor (Kayagar) Tsemtaipim (Kayagar) Warogom (Kayagar) Gairipim (Kayagar) At home V V V B B V V V B B B With friends B B B B B B B B V B B In the garden B B B V B V V V V B B The city market I I I B I I B B B B B The clinic I I I I I I I I B I I Language of instruction at B B I I I I B B I I I school Language of explanation B B I I I I B B I I I at school Breaks at school B B B B B V B B B B B Traditional feast V V V V V V V V V V V Announcements V B B B B B B B V V V Formal town meeting B B B I ─ B B B V B B Church liturgy I B I I I I I I B I I Prayer in church I I I I I I I I B I I Songs and music in church B I V B B I B B B I B Sermon in church I B B B B B B B B B B Announcements after I B B B B B B B V B B church service I= Indonesian; V= Vernacular; B= both
Table 6 indicates that both the vernacular and Indonesian are used in almost all domains. In general, the people use both languages, whether in private domains or the more public domains, like at school or at a town meeting. But the vernacular language is still the main means of communication within the language group, as can be seen from its exclusive use during
15 traditional feasts. Indonesian is mainly used to communicate with the outside world and its institutions, like the government, government programs, and the formal aspects of church life.
The information provided concerning the language use of children during breaks at school is consistent with the information given by the teachers (see Table 4).
4.2.4. Language Change
One of the factors that indicate language change is the language use among young people. The reported language usage among young people in the villages visited is summarized in Table 7.
Table 7: Language Use Among Young People Mix vernacular Is that Village Reason with good? Indonesian?a So that people who do not speak the local Yagatsu Yes Yes language understand what you mean. Katage Yes Yes Because both languages are useful. Because we feel happy to be able to speak Amagatsu Yes Yes our own language and the Indonesian
Asue Awyu language. Because over time our language may Sogope Yes No disappear. Arare Yes Yes To make communication more fluent. If you know more languages it is easier to Pagai Yes Yes communicate with other people. Because for the children that go to school Indonesian is very important, so that they Atsipim Yes Yes will understand what the teacher is teaching them.
Kayagar Okor Yes ─ Because Indonesian is used widely. Because we are afraid that our language and Tsemtaipim Yes No culture will disappear. Warogom Yes Yes So that other people can understand us. Gairipim Yes Yes So that we are better able to communicate. a A misunderstanding that is hard to avoid is the difference between 1) mixing the words of two languages and 2) being bilingual. It is possible to speak two languages without mixing them, or one can mix words of one language within the other language. The question left unanswered is what the people understood when they answered this question. From the "Reason” column, it seems likely that many people understood it as being 2).
As indicated in Table 7, all villages reported that the young people mix the vernacular with Indonesian. Only two villages reported that mixing languages is not good, the reason being concern over the preservation of their own language. This answer was probably given out of a
16 concern for the strong influence of the Indonesian language. For economic reasons, the Indonesian language is seen in a positive light by virtually all of the people. Nevertheless, some of the people appeared confused when asked why their children should learn the national language.
In addition to the data reported in Table 7, in all villages the people reported that the vernacular is not mixed with any other vernacular language, only with Indonesian. Most villages reported that the young people use Indonesian as much as they do the vernacular. They all agreed that this was a good thing because in this way they would also be able to communicate well with the outside world and their own language would also be preserved. Furthermore, it enables them to understand lessons at school.
4.2.5. Language Preservation
The survey team gathered data on a number of factors that indicate language preservation. Two of the indicators are intermarriage patterns and whether or not the students who receive education outside the language area are returning to the language area. Table 8 has data relating to these two factors.
17 Table 8: Intermarriage Patterns and Graduates Staying in Town Village Intermarry Do graduates stay in the Are there with which city after finishing intermarriage ethnic school? restrictions? Why? groups? Why? Marind, Yes: There will be Yaqay, Asmat, Yes: It’s hard to find a job Yagatsu fewer people in the Kimaam, in the city village Wiyagar Yes: It will reduce Wiyagar, No: It depends on the Katage ethnic group Kayagar person population Biak, Asmat, Yes: It will lessen the No: Economic factors do
Asue Awyu Amagatsu Marind, ethnic group not support staying in the Wiyagar population city No: Economic factors do No: It depends on Sogope Marind not support staying in the individual preference city Asmat, Muyu, Yes: Depends on the Arare Mapi, Awyu, No: ─ money they get from their Kayagar parents Tamario, No: They want to visit Pagai No: ─ Yaqay their parents Manado, Kepi, Atsipim No: ─ No: They long for home Marind, Biak No: They long for home Kimaam, and economic factors do Okor No: ─ Marind Bian not support staying in the
Kayagar city No: Income is not Muyu, Mapi, No: Depends on the Tsemtaipim sufficient to support Java, Makasar will of the person staying in the city No: Depends on No: They are used to Warogom Awyu individual preference village life Mapi, Yaqay, No: Depends on No: A lack of funds to Gairipim Sorong individual preference continue studying
Although most of the people marry within their own language and ethnic group, there seems to be no taboo on marrying someone from another ethnic group. There are some who marry transmigrants (non-Papuans from other parts of Indonesia9) that come to live in their village, and
9 The term “transmigrant” is used in this report to refer to people who “move from one country or region to another and settle there” (http://dictionary.laborlawtalk.com). The majority of people who have moved into the language areas of Papua are from other parts of Papua and Indonesia, not from outside the country.
18 there are others who marry people from other Papuan ethnic groups, such as Wiyagar, Marind, Yaqay, Awyu, Asmat, Biak, and Kimaam.
In general, the young people who go to the city cannot cope with living there. The main reason is economical. Without work, a person cannot stay in the city, but in the village they have land rights, a garden, and the forest that can feed them. Another reason for returning to the village is family ties.
Another indicator of language preservation are the number of transmigrants living among the indigenous people and the language use with these transmigrants from other parts of Indonesia. Table 9 shows the reported data relating to this factor.
Table 9: Language Use With Transmigrants Are there Language used Do they Is that good? Village transmigrants? Where from? with learn the Why? Why here? transmigrants vernacular? Yes: Trader, Kimaam, pastor, teacher, Asmat, Bugis, Yes: It is easier to Yagatsu Indonesian Yes marriage, civil Toraja, Buton, communicate u
y servant Serui Indonesian & Yes: They are staying with Yes: Teacher, Mor (Nabire), Katage simple Yes people who speak their own marriage Kayagar vernacular language Asue Aw Yes: marriage, Biak, Asmat, Yes: It is easier to Amagatsu Indonesian Yes Civil servant, Marind communicate Sogope No ─ ─ ─ ─ Muyu, Asmat, Yes: It is easier to Arare Yes: Marriage Mapi, Awyu Indonesian Yes communicate Kayagar, Yes: It is easier to Pagai Yes: Work Muyu, Flores Indonesian Yes communicate with people who do not understand Indonesian
ar Atsipim No ─ ─ ─ ─ g a Okor No ─ ─ ─ ─ y Yes: Marriage, Ka Awyu, Mapi, Indonesian & Yes: So that the local people Tsemtaipim trader, civil Yes Java, Makasar vernacular can understand better servant Warogom No ─ ─ ─ ─ Yes: They are staying among Mapi, Yaqay, Gairipim Yes: marriage Indonesian Yes people who speak the local Sorong language
According to the reported data, Indonesian is predominantly used with anyone in the village who is from the outside. Only the villagers in Katage and Tsemtaipim reported that they also sometimes use the vernacular when communicating with these people. However, all villages that had transmigrants reported that these transmigrants are learning the vernacular. All the villages with transmigrants reported that it was a good thing that the transmigrants were learning the local vernacular, mainly because of better communication.
19
The survey team also gathered data relating to two other indicators of language preservation, the use of languages other than the vernacular, and whether or not the vernacular has been written. The data relating to these two factors is shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Use of Other Languages & Writing the Vernacular Who speaks Do you use Use other Has anyone ever Question What books? Indonesian Indonesian languages? written your Where are they? Village most fluently? every day? Which ones? language? Who?
u Yagatsu Young people Yes No No ─ y Yes (Kayagar, Katage Young people Yes No ─ Wiyagar) Amagatsu All speak it well Yes Yes (Wiyagar) No ─
Asue Aw Sogope Young people No No No ─ ‘Tamario’ language Yes (Father Arare All speak it well Yes No (in the Bishop's William L.) office in Merauke)
ar Pagai Young people No Yes (Yaqay) No ─ g
a Atsipim Young people Yes No No ─ y Okor Young people Yes No No ─ Ka Tsemtaipim Young people No No No ─ Warogom Adult men Yes No No ─ Gairipim Adult men Yes No No ─
From the data shown in Table 10, the villages visited most often stated that the young people speak Indonesian the most fluently. That would indicate the fluency in Indonesian is increasing. All villages reported that Indonesian was used every day in the villages. Table 10 also shows that only in one village had anyone attempted to write anything using the vernacular.
4.2.6. Perceived Similarity and Intercomprehension
Table 11 shows the reported data on the perceived similarity and intercomprehension of the speech varieties that are used in the surrounding villages of each village visited. The data was gathered by asking the following questions: 1) In what village do they speak the exact same dialect? 2) In what village do they speak the same language but a different dialect? and 3) In what village do they speak a completely different language?
After asking these three questions one at a time, the survey team wrote down the names of the villages that were mentioned by the people. Not all the neighboring villages were mentioned by each village visited, resulting in gaps shown in Table 11. In the left column, villages that were visited during this survey are shown in bold type for easy reference.
20 Table 11: Perceived Similarity of Speech Varieties
Village asked
Village compared Yagatsu (Asue Awyu) Katage (Asue Awyu) Sogope (Asue Awyu) Amagatsu (Asue Awyu) Arare (Kayagar) Pagai (Kayagar) Atsipim (Kayagar) Okor (Kayagar) Warogom (Kayagar) Gairipim (Kayagar) Tsemtaipim (Kayagar) Yagatsu - S S D L Katage S - S D Sogope S S - D Amagatsu D S S - Wiyage S S Kaibu D D S S Kasima D D S S Omuru D D Amenda D D S Eci D Kiki D Kopi D Asaren D Aboge D Emogon (Juvo Besar & Kabua)b D Arare L L - S D D D D L Pagai L L S - D D D D L Magabag S S D D D D Tereyemu S D D D D Kerke L S D D D D D Atsipim L L D D - S S S S Okor L L D D S - S S S Warogom L D D S S - S S Gairipim L S S S - Tsemtaipim L L D D S S S S - Sene D D S S D Kawem D D D S S Wagatsu D S S Kagare D S S Amkum D D D S S Amkai D S S Amagais D S S Amyam D D D S S Amaru D S S Kaibusene L D D D Konigir L D D D Komru D D D Ero D Yame (Tamagario) L L L L L Kaitok (Tamagario) L L L L L a The village of Kabu has also been spelled “Khabu” in government documents. b These two villages are close to each other; perhaps Emogon is the name of the dialect spoken there.
21
Village asked
Village compared Yagatsu (Asue Awyu) Katage (Asue Awyu) Sogope (Asue Awyu) Amagatsu (Asue Awyu) Arare (Kayagar) Pagai (Kayagar) Atsipim (Kayagar) Okor (Kayagar) Warogom (Kayagar) Gairipim (Kayagar) Tsemtaipim (Kayagar) Sigare (Tamagario) L L L L L Teragai (Tamagario) L L L Ati (Tamagario) L L L L Upin (Tamagario) L L L Khaumi (Tamagario) L L L L Khayagai (Tamagario) L L L Kabe (Tamagario) L L Bade (Ia & Bamgi Rivers) (South Awyu) L Jair (North Awyu) L Kogoyaman (Yaqay) L Katan (Yaqay) L Yatan (Yaqay) L S = Same Dialect; D = Different Dialect; L = Different Language
The four Asue Awyu-speaking villages that were surveyed generally reported each other as speaking the same dialect. The exceptions are that Amagatsu reported the other three villages as speaking a different dialect, and Yagatsu reported that Amagatsu speaks a different dialect. These four villages also reported a number of other villages to be either the same dialect or a different dialect (Wiyage, Kaibu, Kasima, Omuru, Amenda, Eci, Kiki, Kopi, Asaren, and Aboge), so it is likely that these villages can also be considered as Asue Awyu-speaking. A full comparison of all the data on reports similarity among all the Asue Awyu-speaking villages that have been surveyed is needed before being able to propose any internal dialect groupings of the Asue Awyu-speaking area.
Regarding the Kayagar speaking villages that were surveyed, the villages of Arare and Pagai reported each other as speaking the same dialect. Arare and Pagai also listed Magabag, Tereyemu, and Kerke as speaking the same dialect, so these five villages can very likely be considered as one Kayagar dialect. Arare and Pagai reported that all the other Kayagar-speaking villages as speaking a different dialect.
It is interesting that, in the past, linguists have stated that Arare, Pagai, Magabag, Teragae, and Kerke are Tamagario-speaking villages, not Kayagar-speaking villages. However, the reported similarity data indicates that the local people view the language in Arare and Pagai as a dialect of Kayagar. The people in Arare and Pagai consistently stated that the other Kayagar-speaking villages speak a different dialect, whereas they stated that the other Tamagario-speaking villages speak a different language.
The Kayagar-speaking villages of Atsipim, Okor, Warogom, Gairipim, and Tsemtaipim all reported each other as speaking the same dialect, but reported that Arare and Pagai speak a
22 different dialect.10 This suggests that these villages make up a second Kayagar dialect. There were a number of other villages that were reported to be either the same dialect or a different dialect (Sene, Wawem, Wagatsu, Kagare, Amkum, Amkai, Amagais, Amyam, Amaru, Kaibusene, Konigir, Komru, and Ero), but it is unclear how these villages might fit into the two Kayagar dialects mentioned or if they would better fit into another dialect grouping.
4.2.7. Language Attitudes
In order to assess language attitudes, the survey team gathered information about the people’s past experience with the written modality of the vernacular, which is recorded in Table 12.
Table 12: Past Experience with the Written Modality Question Ever had a language Local people ever Have any books been development written own produced? (Where are Village program? language (who?) they?) Yagatsu No No No Amagatsu No No No Katage No No No Sogope No Yes (1 layman) No Arare No Yes Namrio dialect (in Merauke) Pagai No No No Atsipim No No No Tsemtaipim No No No Okor No No No Gairipim No No No Warogom No No No
According to the people in nine of the 11 visited villages, their language has never been written down and promoted. William Lommertzen was the first priest that came into this area around the 1950’s. It was reported that he learned the dialect called “Tamario,” in the village of Arare. Whether or not there are reports and books made by him in the Tamario speech variety is not certain. The local people think these may be found in the Catholic bishop’s library in Merauke.11
The survey team also gathered data regarding the people’s attitudes toward potential language- development activities, which are recorded in Table 13.
10 A notable exception is that the people in Tsemtaipim reported that the varieties in Arare and Pagai are a different language. 11 During a previous survey, the team photocopied all the linguistic material from the Bishop's library and have found no Tamario among those materials.
23 Table 13: Attitudes toward Potential Language Development Question Want to What kind of How many What language Willing to Ready for read/write books would people a give language for literacy? their own they like to would what? program? Village language? read? participate? Adult Child Depends on Songs, portions Yagatsu Yes Labor Yes people’s V/I V/I of Scripture willingness Depends on Songs, health Produce Amagatsu Yes Yes people’s V/I V/I issues, handbooks and labor willingness Produce 90 Katage Yes Bible Yes V/I V/I and labor households Religion, culture, cultural stories, Produce Sogope Yes No/Yesb 5–10 people V/I V/I agriculture & and labor health issues Bible, health Produce Arare Yes issues, cultural Yes All people V/I V/I and labor stories Church related, 60 Pagai Yes handbooks, Labor Yes V/I V/I households cultural stories Songs, Bible, Atsipim Yes prayers, health Labor Yes Can’t say yet V/I V/I issues, handbooks Songs, prayers, Produce 20–76 Tsemtaipim Yes Yes V/I V/I Bible, religion and labor households Songs, prayers, Okor Yes Bible, health Labor Yes Can’t say yet V/I V/I issues, handbooks Songs, prayers, Bible, history, Labor and 84 Gairipim Yes cultural stories, Yes V/I V/I money households health issues, dictionary Songs, prayers, Bible, local The whole Labor and Warogom Yes history, cultural Yes village V/I V/I money stories, health population issues V = vernacular; I = Indonesian a The difficulty with this question is whether the people understand the difference between 1) learning the art of reading and writing (which can be done in any language) or 2) learning to read and write a specific language. In this case, people probably understood 2), due to the fact that Indonesian is the more prestigious language. In order to get the proper response, we should be asking: “If a reading and writing course would be given, besides the Indonesian schooling system (which will continue as usual), in which language would you prefer to learn to read and write? The same could be asked about the children, before they go to the Indonesian school.” b The people in Sogope said they were not willing to do literacy, but they did want a translation program.
24
The people were positive toward the possibility of learning to read and write their own language. The main reason they gave was, “It’s our mother tongue.”
All villages stated that they wanted to become literate in both their own language and Indonesian, adults and children alike. They would also welcome a language team to work in their language and expressed their willingness to help this team by contributing produce, labor, and money.
4.2.8. Language Vitality
In general, the people answered affirmatively when asked if they teach their children to speak their own language. When asked for an explanation as to how, the people said that the adults and young people speak the language all the time and that is how the children learn it. Others stated that they taught the language in order to preserve it for the future. Not once could anyone visualize their language not being spoken anymore in the future. They all expected their language to still be in use in 20 years time.
5. WORDLISTS
5.1. PROCEDURE
The survey team collected two full (239 item) Kayagar wordlists. One wordlist was gathered in Arare, while the other wordlist was gathered from representatives from the villages of Okor, Atsipim, and Tsemtaipim.12 Another full wordlist was gathered from the Awyu speaking village of Amagatsu. All full wordlists were also sound-recorded.13
Shorter “checklists” of only 50 words were taken in three Asue Awyu-speaking villages (Katage, Yagatsu, and Sogope) and two Kayagar-speaking villages (Pagai and Gairipim14).15
All wordlists were entered into the computer program WordSurv16 and grouped into lexically- similar groups. These groupings were made according to the criteria set out by Frank Blair in Survey on a Shoestring (Blair 1990)17 which were modified by the survey team for use with Papuan languages.18 See Appendix VI for the wordlists that were gathered during this survey.
12 The speech varieties used in Okor, Atsipim, and Tsemtaipim was reported to be identical. Because of this and the nearness of these villages to each other, the survey team decided to take only one wordlist, using one representative from each of the three villages, chosen by their own people. 13 While eliciting wordlists, the team did not attempt to probe for synonyms in an attempt to find words that might be lexically similar with data previously gathered in other villages. 14 No wordlist was gathered in Warogom (which is located near Gairipim), since the people claimed that the variety used in Warogom is identical to the variety used in Gairipim. 15 Upon entering a village for the first time, the team usually took a full wordlist of 239 words. However, a full wordlist was not taken when a surface inspection of the first 50 words showed more than 90 percent lexical similarity with previously taken wordlists. The rest of the words were not elicited, based on the assumption that these speech varieties were the same. This practice of taking only 50-word “checklists” has since been discontinued. 16 A computer program that is used to make lexical similarity comparisons. 17 For a more detailed description of Blair’s rules for lexical similarity descisions, see Appendix IV. 18 For further details of the modified rules for Papuan languages, see Appendix V.
25
In order to interpret the apparent lexical similarity results, the Papua survey team follows the guidelines outlined by SIL Indonesia. These guidelines state the following:
1. If apparent lexical similarity between two wordlists is between 0–60 percent, they can usually safely be interpreted to represent separate languages. For percentages above 60 percent, lexicostatistic data alone is not adequate to determine whether or not the speech varieties are the same language.
2. Lexical similarity results are always best interpreted alongside other lines of evidence. Additional sociolinguistic information gathered during the survey is to be used along side the lexicostatistical data to help determine whether or not the speech varieties are the same language. This sociolinguistic information includes data on reported intelligibility, ethnolinguistic identity, and attitudes toward the other speech variety.
3. There may be occasions when intelligibility testing or participatory assessment is needed to make decisions about whether or not the speech varieties are the same language (such as when lexicostatistical and sociolinguistic data do not clearly indicate whether or not the speech varieties are the same language) or to confirm impressions that arise from a rapid- appraisal survey.
Regarding this second guideline recommending sociolinguistic investigation to augment the lexicostatistical data, the survey team has gathered data about the reported similarity and intelligibility among speech varieties, which is reported in section 4.2.6.
5.2. RESULTS
Table 14 summarizes the percentage of lexical similarity between the full wordlists. The table format is: language name/village name(s).
Table 14. Percentage of Apparent Lexical Similarity (based on full wordlists) Asue Awyu/Amagatsu 0 Kayagar/Arare 0 69 Kayagar/Okor-Atsipim-Tsemtaipim
The matrix in Table 14 shows us that there are at least two languages spoken among these five villages, since the level of apparent lexical similarity between Asue Awyu and the two Wiyagar- speaking villages was 0 percent. Regarding the two Kayagar wordlists that were elicited, there is an apparent lexical similarity of 69 percent, indicating that lexicostatistical data alone is not enough to show if these two speech varieties are separate languages or two varieties of the same language; it is possible that these two wordlists represent two different dialects of Kayagar.
Table 15 shows us the lexical similarity matrix for the 50-word checklists that were taken, as well as the corresponding 50 words from the full wordlists. The table has the format: language name/village name.
26 Table 15. Percentage of Apparent Lexical Similarity (based on 50 words) Kayagar/Okor-Atsipim-Tsemtaipim 100 Kayagar/Gairipim 74 74 Kayagar/Arare 72 72 98 Kayagar/Pagai 0 0 0 0 Asue Awyu/Amagatsu 0 0 0 0 100 Asue Awyu/Sogope 0 0 0 0 96 96 Asue Awyu/Katage 0 0 0 0 94 94 94 Asue Awyu/Yagatsu
Since the percentages of apparent lexical similarity are very high among the four Awyu-speaking villages (94 percent–100 percent), it is highly likely that these four villages speak the same variety.
The previous data also confirms that the Kayagar speech variety in Gairipim (and Warogom, since the people claimed that these two neighboring villages speak exactly the same variety) is the same as in Okor, Atsipim, and Tsemtaipim (100 percent apparent lexical similarity). It also confirms that the variety spoken in Pagai is very likely the same as in Arare (98 percent apparent lexical similarity). The results in Table 15 also highlight that there seems to be two different Kayagar varieties that were surveyed since there is a significant drop in the level of similarity between the Okor/Atsipim/Tsemtaipim/Gairipim group and the Arare/Pagai group (72 percent– 74 percent apparent lexical similarity).
5.3. COMBINING WORDLIST RESULTS WITH DATA ON REPORTED SIMILARITY
5.3.1. Asue Awyu Language
As previously mentioned, the results of the comparison of wordlists indicate that the Awyu- speaking villages of Amagatsu, Sogope, Katage, and Amagatsu very likely speak one language. However, the people of these villages did not always report that their speech varieties were exactly the same (see Table 11). The villages of Amagatsu and Yagatsu both reported that the other village spoke a different dialect. In addition, the village of Amagatsu reported that the villages of Katage and Sogope speak a different dialect than their own. So, while the apparent lexical similarity is very high among these villages, the people are reporting that there are noticeable differences in the varieties of some of the other Asue Awyu-speaking villages.
5.3.2. Kayagar Language
As previously mentioned, the comparison of wordlists indicate that there seem to be two separate Kayagar varieties:
1. The first variety spoken in Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, and Gairipim. 2. The second variety spoken in Arare and Pagai.
27 This is consistent with the people’s report of two different names for the language spoken there. The villages of the first variety reported their language to be “Wiyagar” and the second reported their language to be “Tamario.”
This division of the Kayagar villages surveyed into two dialects is well supported by the data on reported similarity in Table 11. The people of the “Tamario” dialect in Arare and Pagai reported that the other village was the same dialect. The people in Arare and Pagai also reported that the other Kayagar speaking villages (Atsipim, Okor, Tsemtaipim, Warogom, and Gairipim) were a different dialect. The people of the “Wiyagar” dialect (Atsipim, Okor, Tsemtaipim, Warogom, and Gairipim) reported that the other villages within this group speak the same dialect as theirs. They also reported that Arare and Pagai speak a different dialect. The exception is that Tsemtaipim reported that Arare and Pagai speak a different language. It seems safe to say that, based on the comparison of wordlists and the data on reported similarity, two different Kayagar dialects were encountered during this survey.
5.4. COMPARISON WITH DATA FROM PREVIOUS SURVEYS
As mentioned in the section on previous work, some villages of the Asue Awyu and Kayagar languages have also been researched during previous surveys. In addition, other languages that are closely related to Asue Awyu and Kayagar have been surveyed. In this section, the lexicostatistical data from these previous surveys is brought together with data from the present survey in order to get a broader understanding of Asue Awyu and Kayagar, as well as their relationship to other closely-related languages.
5.4.1. Awyu Asue (and comparison with other Awyu Languages)
To make a broader analysis of all of the the Awyu languages (including Asue Awyu, Central Awyu [awu], North Awyu [yir], Jair Awyu [awv], Edera Awyu [awy], and South Awyu [aws]), the data gathered on this survey will be compared with that previously gathered:
1. Haju Subdistrict (this survey): village of Amagatsu. 2. Assue Subdistrict (Lebold, Kriens, de Vries, and Rumaropen 2010): villages of Khanami, Keru, Juvo Kecil, Juvo Besar, and Kabu.19 3. Edera Subdistrict (Susanto 2005): villages of Homlikia, Geturki, Pies, and Sahapikia. 4. Wildeman River (Kriens 2010): villages of Keta, Bursiri, Nohon, and Taim. 5. Mapi River (Susanto 2004): villages of Boma I, Boma II, and Karome.
Table 16 summarizes the lexical similarity among the Awyu-speaking villages that have already been surveyed.
19 The survey team gathered one wordlist from the villages of Juvo Besar and Kabu since these two villages have historically been one village with one language. They are located side by side, so that the people were able to gather in one place at the time they were visited.
28 Table 16. Percentage of Apparent Lexical Similarity of Awyu-Speaking Villages Asue Awyu/Amagatsu 70 Asue Awyu/Juvo Kecil 71 82 Asue Awyu/Juvo Besar and Kabu 71 76 75 Asue Awyu/Keru 70 72 73 94 Asue Awyu/Khanami 54 55 58 65 67 Asue Awyu/Busiri 45 49 50 52 52 62 Central Awyu/Keta 40 41 44 49 48 53 74 Central Awyu/Nohon 41 44 47 48 47 50 67 83 Central Awyu/Taim 31 37 37 38 37 38 42 41 44 North Awyu/Boma I 27 34 35 34 33 33 40 37 39 67 North Awyu/Boma II 38 22 23 24 24 25 25 27 29 25 25 Jair Awyu/Pies 41 26 28 29 30 19 31 32 35 27 23 46 Edera Awyu/Sahapikia 40 23 24 28 28 29 29 29 30 22 20 36 43 South Awyu/Homlikia 37 21 23 26 26 26 26 25 25 20 19 35 47 66 South Awyu/Geturki 19 20 22 24 25 23 22 21 23 25 23 17 25 43 43 South Awyu/Karome
The previous matrix indicates that the Asue Awyu variety spoken in Amagatsu shares the highest level of apparent lexical similarity with the villages of Keru, Khanami, Juvo Kecil, Juvo Besar, and Kabu (70–71 percent). Using the lexicostatistical data alone, it cannot be concluded that the speech varieties in all these villages are the same language, though they are most likely closely related.
Although the rest of the matrix shows the apparent lexical similarity among a number of Awyu languages, this report will not elaborate on the data in this matrix since similar matrices are elaborated on in Lebold, Kriens, de Vries, and Rumaropen 2010, and Lebold, Kriens, and Susanto (to appear). One notable difference in the data between this matrix and the matrix found in Lebold, Kriens, and Susanto is the level of lexical similarity between the South Awyu- speaking village of Karome and the other South Awyu-speaking villages. This matrix shows a level of apparent lexical similarity of 43 percent, which is low enough to consider Karome as speaking a different language than Homlikia and Geturki. However, the matrix in Lebold, Kriens, and Susanto shows the level of apparent similarity between Karome and the villages of Homlikia and Geturki to be 57–59 percent which is high enough to at least consider that Karome is the same language as Homlikia and Geturki. It is not clear why there is such a discrepancy between the numbers in these two matrices, other than that these are two different comparisons done by two different people. It is necessary to rely on the data on reported similarity of speech varieties gathered from these villages to get a better understanding of relationship of Karome to the other South Awyu-speaking villages.
Further survey of all the Awyu-speaking villages is needed before final decisions about language boundaries can be made.
29 5.4.2. Kayagar Language (and comparison with Tamagario)
We can now compare the Kayagar language data taken in Haju Subdistrict (Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, Gairipim, Warogom, Arare, and Pagai) with the Tamagario speech varieties taken in the Assue Subdistrict (Sigare, Yame, and Kaitok) and in the Nambai Subdistrict (Kabe, Khaumi, and Kayaghai) (Liem n.d).
Table 17 shows the results of the comparison of all full wordlists gathered so far in Kayagar- and Tamagario-speaking villages.
Table 17. Percentage of Apparent Lexical Similarity of Kayagar and Tamagario-Speaking Villages (based on full wordlists) Tamagario/Yame 96 Tamagario/Sigare 93 94 Tamagario/Kaitok 73 74 75 Kayagar/Okor-Atsipim-Tsemtaipim 59 61 61 69 Kayagar/Arare
Table 17 indicates that the Tamagario varieties in Sigare, Yame, and Kaitok have a high level of apparent lexical similarity (93–96 percent). The Kayagar wordlist gathered in Okor-Atsipim- Tsemtaipim actually has a slightly higher level of apparent lexical similarity with the Tamagario varieties (73–75 percent) than with the Kayagar wordlist from Arare (69 percent). However, based on the data on reported similarity, the people in Okor, Atsipim, and Tsemtaipim stated that the varieties used in Sigare, Yame, and Kaitok was a different language, whereas the people in Okok, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim and Arare listed each other as speaking a different dialect of the same language (the exception being that Tsemtaipim listed Arare as a different language).
Table 18 shows the results of the comparison of all the shorter wordlists that have been gathered in Kayagar- and Tamagario-speaking villages. The corresponding 50 words from the full wordlists have also been compared.
Table 18. Percentage of Apparent Lexical Similarity of Kayagar and Tamagario-Speaking Villages (based on 50 words) Tamagario/Kayaghai 100 Tamagario/Khaumi 100 100 Tamagario/Sigare 100 100 100 Tamagario/Kabe 98 98 98 98 Tamagario/Yame 98 98 98 98 100 Tamagario/Kaitok 74 74 74 74 76 76 Kayagar/Okor-Atsipim-Tsemtaipim 74 74 74 74 76 76 100 Kayagar/Gairipim 66 66 66 66 66 66 72 72 Kayagar/Pagai 64 64 64 64 64 64 74 74 98 Kayagar/Arare
30 Based on the previous tables we can draw the following conclusions:
1. The Tamagario varieties spoken in Kayaghai, Khaumi, Sigare, Kabe, Yame. and Kaitok are very likely the same language; their lexical similarity is between 98 percent–100 percent for the 50-word checklist (Table 18) and between 93 percent–96 percent for the full wordlists (Table 17). 2. The Kayagar varieties spoken in Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, and Gairipim are very likely the same language. Their apparent lexical similarity is 100 percent (Table 18). 3. The Kayagar varieties spoken in Pagai and Arare are very likely the same language, with an apparent lexical similarity percentage of 98 percent (Table 18). 4. The data gathered on reported similarity indicates that the varieties used in Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, Gairipim, and Warogom are best grouped with the varieties spoken in Pagai and Arare, even though the lexicostatistics indicates that Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, Gairipim, and Waragom have a higher level of similarity with the Tamagario wordlists.
6. CONCLUSIONS
6.1. LINGUISTIC SITUATION
From the data that was gathered during this survey, it is very likely that there are two languages spoken in the area surveyed: Awyu Asue and Kayagar. A comparison of the data gathered during this survey with data from the previous survey of the Tamagario language show that Kayagar and Tamagario are closely-related languages.
Table 19 groups the Asue Awyu, Kayagar, and Tamagario-speaking villages where wordlists have been gathered, both from the present survey and from previous surveys. The groupings are based on the lexicostatistical data as well as the data on reported similarity.
Table 19: Major and Minor Speech Varieties Major variety Minor variety Villages included (language) (dialect) (subdistrict) Keru, Khanami, Juvo Kecil, Juvo Besar, Kabu (Assue); Awyu Asue Amagatsu, Katage, Yagatsu, Sogope (Haju). Okor, Atsipim, Tsemtaipim, Khetpira Kayagar Gairipim, Warogom (Haju) Tamario Arare, Pagai (Haju) Kayaghai, Khaumi, Kabe Tamagario (Nambai); Sigare, Yame, Kaitok (Assue) a The name Khetpir was chosen for this dialect since all the villages listed here fit into the Khetpir sub-ethnic group that was described in section 3.
31 6.2. SOCIOLINGUISTIC SITUATION
In general, the vernacular is used as a means of communication within the ethnic group. The national language is used to communicate with the outside world and its institutions: government, education, health care and also the formal aspects of church life.
The local people could not imagine their language ever disappearing within the next 20 years. They teach their children the vernacular to preserve it, and it is an integral part of their culture and identity. The motivation for economic progress through the mastering of the Indonesian language, however, is strong.
6.3. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES
Community development possibilities can be found in the health care sector, such as hygiene, clean water, and a balanced diet. Another important need the survey team perceived is information about HIV/AIDS. More and more cases of AIDS are being found, which is possibly a side effect of the eaglewood trade, which has its center in the neighboring Subdistrict Capital of Assue (Eci).
Other possibilities for development are found in the area of economy and agriculture. It could be worthwhile if former government projects in these areas would be continued. In the past, the projects were aimed at improving the economic situation by planting cash crops like rubber and coffee. If a similar thing could be done with eaglewood, this could be profitable for the social welfare of the people. At the moment, they are out of the village for weeks on end in search of this precious eaglewood. Furthermore, a better system of eaglewood trade could be set up (such as a cooperative) which would ensure that the local people will not be exploited.
6.4. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT POSSIBILITIES
From the data collected during this survey, it is likely that a language-development program is needed for the Kayagar and Awyu Asue languages. The Awyu Asue language has high language-development possibilities since the people have a positive attitude toward their own language. In general, the Kayagar people still use the Kayagar language, and they would welcome a language program. Some of the Kayagar villages have not been surveyed, so our data on Kayagar is not complete.
6.5. FUTURE RESEARCH
It has become evident from the lexical-similarity matrices that Asue Awyu is a different language from the Awyu languages spoken to the east of the Wildeman River. However, there are also language differences among the villages that speak Awyu Asue, and this needs further investigation. A full comparison of the reported similarity data among all the Asue Awyu- speaking villages (that have been surveyed) is needed to clarify internal dialect groupings. Dialect-intelligibility testing may be needed to determine if one language program is sufficient for the entire Asue Awyu speaking area or to determine potential reference dialect(s).
32 The Kayagar villages that have been surveyed up to this point seem to be speaking two distinct dialects, and these dialects show significant similarity with Tamagario. Further survey is needed in the Kayagar- and Tamagario-speaking villages (that have not yet been visited) to get a more complete picture of the relationship between these two languages. Intelligibility testing may be needed to determine the number of language programs needed for these two languages.
33 APPENDIX A: VILLAGE LEADER QUESTIONNAIRE
SIL Indonesia Branch, Papua Questions for the Mayor/Chief/Subdistrict Leader October 2000
(These questions are administered with the highest leader in the area.) Village: ______Subdistrict: ______Regency: ______Researcher’s name: ______Date: ______GENERAL: Name: ______; Place of birth: ______Education: ______Mother tongue: ______; Language used at home: ______
DEMOGRAPHICS: 1. How many residents live in this village? ______Households; ______People 2. Are there foreigners who live in this village/hamlet? Y / N; How many? ______a. From what country do they originate? 1. ______3. ______2. ______4. ______b. Why do they live here? Lumber / mining / mission / other: ______3. Are there people from other ethnic groups who are living here? Y / N a. From what ethnic groups; how many of them? 1. ______: ______3. ______: ______2. ______: ______4. ______: ______b. Why do they live here? Marriage / work / other: ______4. Are there members of this ethnic group that have married other ethnic groups? Y / N; What ethnic groups? ______/ ______/ ______
ECONOMY: 5. What is the main source of livelihood for people in this village? agriculture / hunting / fishing / forestry / gold / eaglewood / ______/ ______a. When does planting season begin? J F M A M J J A S O N D b. When does harvest season begin? J F M A M J J A S O N D c. When is the wet season? J F M A M J J A S O N D d. When is the dry season? J F M A M J J A S O N D 6. Are there residents who work outside the village? Y / N; If there are, what is their job? Lumber company / fishing / gold mine / other: ______7. What kinds of crops are planted here? Corn / rice / bananas / other: ______8. Is the result of the harvest enough to eat for the people of this village? Y / N: If not enough, where does extra food come from? ______
34 DEVELOPMENT OF THE AREA: 9. Is there electricity here? Y / N; PLN / diesel generator / hydro generator / solar power 10. Is there a single-side-band (SSB) radio here? Y / N 11. Where do you go to make telephone calls? ______12. Where do the people get drinking water? Well / river / pump / rain water 13. Are there toilets here (other than the river/forest)? Y / N 14. Where do you go for market? ______15 Where is the closest market? ______16. Where is the biggest market? ______16. Is there public transportation in this area? Ship / boat / airplane / other:______17. Where is the post office? ______; police station? ______18. Is there: a. A primary school? Y / N; Where is the closest one? ______b. A middle school? Y / N; Where is the closest one? ______c. A high school? Y / N; Where is the closest one? ______d. A theological school? Y / N; Where is the closest one? ______
RELIGION: 19. Is there a mosque here? Y / N; How many? ____; Where? ______20. Is there a church here? Y / N; How many? ____; Where?______21. Is there a public meeting hall here? Y / N; How many? ____; Where?______22. Is there a house for traditional ceremonies here? Y / N; How many? ____; Where? ______
HEALTH: 23. Is there a community health center? Y / N; Where is the closest one?______24. Is there a doctor / medical worker / midwife that lives here? Y/ N; Where?______25. Is there a traditional healer or expert in traditional medicine who lives here? Y / N; Where?______26. Are there many illnesses here? Y / N; What kinds of illnesses? ______/ ______/ ______/ ______
35 APPENDIX B: SCHOOL QUESTIONNAIRE
SIL Indonesia Branch, Papua Questions for the Headmaster / Teacher October 2000
(These questions are administered to the highest leader in the school.) Village: ______Subdistrict: ______Regency: ______Researcher’s name: ______Date data gathered: ______GENERAL: Schools that exist here: Primary / Middle / Secondary / Theological / other: ______Name of interviewee: ______; Place of birth: ______Mother tongue: ______; Language used at home: ______
GRADES AND STUDENTS 1. How many grades are at this school? 3 grades / 6 grades 2. How many students are in each class? Primary: Grade 1 ____; Grade 2 ___; Grade 3 ___; Grade 4 ___; Grade 5 ___; Grade 6 ___ Middle: Grade 1 _____; Grade 2 _____; Grade 3 _____ Secondary: Grade 1 _____; Grade 2 _____; Grade 3 _____ Other: ______, ______, ______, ______, 3. How many students are from this village? 0 – 10 / 11 – 20 / 21 – 30 / 31 – 40 / 41 – 50 / 51 – 60 4. Are their students from other villages? Y / N; How many? _____; From where? ______5. How many students have graduated from this school and continued schooling? ______
LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION 6. What language is used in class? Vernacular / Indonesian / Melanesian Pidgin / Malay / other: ______7. Have you ever spoken the local vernacular in class? Y / N 8. Have you ever spoken the vernacular outside of class to the students? Y / N 9. What language is used by the students when they play? Vernacular / Indonesian / Melanesian Pidgin / Malay / other: ______, ______10. Can the students in grade 1 already speak Indonesian when they start school? Y / N 11. Can the students in grade 1 understand Indonesian when you speak to them? Y / N 12. How long until they are able to speak Indonesian fluently? ______
ENVIRONMENT 13. What language is used by the residents of this village? Vernacular / Indonesian / Melanesian Pidgin / Malay / other: ______14. Do the residents of this village feel proud of their language? Y / N; Why ______15. Have you ever heard the people of this village speak another language? Y / N; What language? ______/ ______/ ______/ ______/ ______
36 APPENDIX C: GROUP QUESTIONNAIRE
SIL Indonesia Branch, Papua Group Questions October, 2000 Interviewer: ______Recorded by:______Date: ______Time: ______Language name:______Researchers present: ______,______; Officials present: ______,______Total people present: _____; Adult men: _____; Adult women: _____; Youth: ______Village: ______; River: ______; Subdistrict: ______; Regency: ______Total Pop.: ____ Households (H), ___ People (P); Indigenous Pop.: ____ H,_____ P; Immigrants: ____ H, _____ P Total people who give answers: ______; Total adult men who give answers: ______; Total women who give answers: ______; Total young people who give answers: ______
I. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCES LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Subdistrict Mayor School Traditional Religious Leader Headmaster Leader/Chief Leader Leader originates from where? How old? 1. What is the method for choosing leaders if a change is needed? Elected by the people / appointed by the government / generational / Other method ______2. Where do you go when you: have a severe wound ______; have malaria ______; give birth ______; are possessed by evil spirit ______3. Is there a special community-development committee? Y / N 4. What projects have they recently done? ______, ______5. Is this village cut off from connection with the outside if there is a flood, dry season, landslide, etc? Y / N 6. Which villages?______
II. LANGUAGE USE What language is used when: Domain Vernacular Indonesian Other Languages Private 1. At home 2. With friends 3. In garden/sago plantation 4. In the village market 5. In the city market 6. At the clinic School 7. At break time 8. For instruction
37 Domain Vernacular Indonesian Other Languages 9. Explanation (homework, etc.) Public 10. Traditional ceremony 11. Announcements 12. Village council meetings Church 13. Prayer 14. Liturgy/Mass 15. Singing 16. Sermon
17. How many Christians live here? Protestant: ______Households, ______People; Catholic: ______Households, ______People 18. Approximately, how many Muslims live here? ______Households; ______People 19. How many people follow traditional religion? ______Households; ______People
III. LANGUAGE CHANGE 1. Do the young people here more frequently use a language other than the vernacular? Y / N; Language:______2. Do the young people mix the vernacular with Indonesian? Y / N 3. Is this a good thing Y / N; Why? ______4. Do the young people mix the vernacular with Indonesian? Y / N; Is this a good thing? Y / N; Why? ______
V. LANGUAGE VITALITY 1. Into which ethnic group do people usually marry? ______, ______2. Are there any restrictions? Y / N; Why? Religion / tradition / ethnic group / language / other: ______3. Do the young people prefer to stay living in the city after they finish higher education? Y / N; Why? ______4. Are there any immigrants who live here? Y / N; How many people?____ Households, ______People 5. For what? (Work, marriage, other.) ______,______,______6. From what ethnic group? ______,______,______7. What language is used to speak with them? ______, ______8. Do they learn to speak the local language? Y / N 9. Is that a good thing? Y / N; Why?______
VI. DIALECTOLOGY 1. Where is the language the same as the vernacular here? Village name Language name
38 2. Where is the language a little different but you still can understand it easily? Village name Language name
3. Where is the language very different, so different that you cannot understand it? Village name Language name
4. Other than here, in which village do the people speak your language the best?______5. What language do you use when you meet with people who don’t speak the same as you? When you meet What What Do you speak If there is a child Does this someone from language language slowly or normally? that has never person the do you does s/he S=slowly, heard this come from village/language use? use? N=normally language, will the same of ... this child ethnic understand what group? s/he says? You S/he S N S N Y / N Y / N S N S N Y / N Y / N S N S N Y / N Y / N 6. Do you use Indonesian every day in this village? Y / N 7. Do you use another language in this village? Y / N; Language ______, ______8. What group of people speaks Indonesian the best? Young people / Adult men / Adult women
VII. LANGUAGE ATTITUDES 1. In this village, is there a literacy program in the vernacular? Y / N 2. Has there ever been someone who has written using the vernacular? Y / N; Who? ______3. What books have been written in the language of this village? Songs, prayers, the Bible, other religious books, parts of the Bible, other books ______; Where are these books? ______4. Are you interested in reading and writing the vernacular? Y / N; Why?______5. What do you want to have written in the vernacular? (See question 2) 6. What contribution can you give for the making of such books? ______Local produce; ______Labor; ______Donations 7. Are you ready to participate in a literacy program in the vernacular? Y / N 8. Approximately how many people want to participate? ______Households, ______People
39
Vernacular Indonesian Other 9. What language do you want to use for learning to read and write? 10. What language do you want to be used by the children for learning to read and write?
VIII. LANGUAGE EXTINCTION 1. Do you teach the children to speak the vernacular? Y / N; Why? ______2. Do the children use the vernacular when they play together? Y / N 3. Will the people here speak the same vernacular 20 years into the future? Y / N
40 APPENDIX D: RULES FOR LEXICAL SIMILARITY DECISIONS (From Blair 1990)
Word Length Category I (A) Category II (B) Category III (C) Number of phonetic segments Exact C or Similar C or Dissimilar C or in the longer of the two words Similar V Other V pairs C or V with no pair being considered: Two 2 0 0 Three 2 1 0 Four 2 1 1 Five 3 1 1 Six 3 2 1 Seven 4 2 1 Eight 4 2 2 Nine 5 2 2 Ten 5 3 2 Eleven 6 3 2 Twelve 6 3 3
If a given word pair is at least as similar as the numbers in the preceding chart, it is considered cognate. If it is not, (for example, if a four-segment word pair has only one Category I match) the words are not considered cognate.
Phonetically-Similar Consonants (Cat. II) Phonetically-Similar Vowels (Cat. I) p - b - m i - y - ɪ - ʏ - e - ø - ɛ p - b - ɓ - pʰ - pʷ- pʲ -ᵐp - ᵐb - bʲ - ᵐbʲ ɨ - ʉ - ǝ - ɵ - ᴈ v – f - ɸ - ɸˁ - β, β - b - m, p - ɸ - ɸˁ e - ø - ɛ - œ - æ t - d - n - d̪ - t ̪ - n̪ - ʈ - ɗ - tʷ - dʲ - dʷ - c - ɟ i - y - ɪ - ʏ - ɨ - ʉ - ǝ t - s, d - z, d - ɾ, s - ɕ, z - ɹ ɨ - ʉ - ǝ - ɯ - u - ʊ s ̪ - s - sʲ - sˁ - ʃ - z - zˁ - ʒ - - ʝ - ç - ᶂ - ɕ ɯ - u - ʊ - ɤ - o - ɔ t - tʃ,͡ d - d͡ʒ, t͡ʃ - d͡ʒ, z - dz͡ ɤ - o - ɔ - ʌ c - ɟ - k - ɡ - ᵑk - ɡ - kʰ - kʷ - ɡʷ - q - qʷ - Ɂ - ᵑɡ - æ - œ - a - ᴈ - ɐ - ʌ - ɑ - ɒ ɢ - ɢʷ - ɠ, ɡ͡b - ɡbʷ͡ - ɡ - b ç - ʝ - x - ɣ - χ - ʁ - ħ - ʕ - ɦ - hʲ c - ç, ɟ - ʝ, k - x, g - ɣ, q - χ, ɢ - ʁ m - n - n̪ - ɳ - ɲ - ŋ - mʲ - mʷ - nˁ - nʷ - ɴ ɾ - r - l - ɭ - ɽ - ɹ - ɽ - ʎ - l ̪ - ɾ ̪ Ɂ - h - Ø w - ɥ - j, ʝ - j
41 APPENDIX E: MODIFIED RULES FOR LEXICAL SIMILARITY DECISIONS OF PAPUAN WORDLISTS
Wordlists the survey teams have elicited in the south coast area indicate that Papuan languages in this area are different from Austronesian languages. So far, they have discovered some features of Papuan languages through eliciting sentences informally. What they have found is that the Papuan languages on the south coast have more complicated affixes on verbs and nouns than Austronesian languages. Therefore, the survey team decided to modify the criteria from the ones given by Blaire in his book, Survey on a Shoestring (1990). However, they tried to follow his principles.
Here are the modified rules: 1. Initial, medial, and final glottal stops are sometimes considered as C and sometimes as null. Lengthened vowels are sometimes considered as VV, but sometimes as V. Since it is not known if the glottal stop will be interpreted as C and lengthened vowel as VV before work is done on the interpretation of syllables in each language, the survey team decided to interpret glottal stop as C or null and lengthened vowels as V or VV.
2. Phonetically similar segments, which occur consistently in the same position in several word pairs, are grouped together. For example, in CVC and CV syllables of some of the following languages, if the initial CV is the same, the survey team ignored the final C and grouped them together, as in the following: No. 14. ‘he’ [jʊ] and [juːβ] No.108. ‘wind’ [ɸː] and [ɸːβ] No. 23. ‘flesh’ [nɔ] and [nɔːp] No. 26. ‘person’ [jæˈnɔʔ] and [jænɔːp] No.158. ‘five’ [wæˈjænɔʔ] and [wæjæˈnɔːp] (from Tsaukambo and Korowai)
Awyu and Yaqay have the same features in the nasalized and non-nasalized vowels. Thus, [õ] and [ɑ̃] are considered the same as nasalized vowels and velar nasals like [õŋ], [ãŋ]. No. 21. ‘blood’ [gõ] and [gõŋ] No.189. ‘know’ [nɐˈɸɐ]̃ and [nɑˈfɑŋ] (from Awyu)
3. Affixes are ignored; however, affixes (prefixes, infixes, or suffixes) in Papuan languages are difficult to identify, especially in verbs, as Papuan languages sometimes have the subject, object, tense, or aspect embedded in the verb. For example, when the following words are grouped together, they begin to see what may be interpreted as roots, as follows: No.196 ‘awaken’ [nɑɣɑˈfi nu] [nɑ niˈnũ] [ne fi nu] [ˈnɐɣɐˈɸinɐ] [dɪ ɸinu] (from Awyu)
42 4. Affricates [t͡s, d͡ʒ, d͡z] and modifications [ᵐb, dʲ] can be considered as one segment.
5. Diphthongs can be considered two segments or one segment, depending on the comparison being made.
6. In phrases, the most similar words are compared. This generally occurs with numbers, prepositional adverbs, adjectives, and interrogative pronouns, as follows: No.174. ‘bad’ [jɐmɐ] [jɑmɑh] [jɑˈmɑ nepʰ] [jɑmam bɛk] (from Yaqay)
In addition, words that look like compounds, especially nouns and pronouns, are grouped together, even if they do not match exactly lexically. No. 2. ‘hair’ [xɑbɑjoŋ] [hɐbɐjõ] [xɐbɐjoŋ] [jõŋ] (from Awyu ) 7. The following segments are considered exact matches; [u] = [w] and [i] = [j]:
8. Consistent sound change or sound shift, which occurs in some languages, are considered exact matches, as follows: In the Awyu language, [f] and [ɸ], [j] and [d͡ʒ] are the same. No. 233. ‘name’ [fi] and [ɸi]
In Yaqay, [k ʰ] and [x] are the same. No. 142. ‘cold’ [kox] and [kokʰ]
In Kombai language, sounds [r] and [s] are exactly the same. No. 24. ‘urine’ [iri] and [isi] No. 95. ‘rattan’ [ri] and [si]
9. Unreleased consonants, accents, and nasalized vowels are ignored.
43 APPENDIX F: WORDLISTS GATHERED DURING THIS SURVEY
Kayagar / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Kayagar / English/Indonesian Atsipim-Okor- Amagatsu Sogope Katage Yagatsu Arare Pagai Gairipim Tsemtaipim 001 head/kepala aibaŋ aibaŋ aibaŋ aibaŋ toˈɣom toˈɣom toˈɣom toˈɣom 002 hair/rambut aibaroŋ aibaroŋ aibaroŋ aibaroŋ upũm upũm toˈɣom um toˈɣom um 003 eye/mata keːro keːro keːro keːro taˈɣam taˈɣam saˈɣam saˈɣam 004 ear/telinga t͡ʃuˈruŋ t͡ʃuˈruŋ t͡ʃuˈruŋ t͡ʃuˈruŋ ipˈram ipˈram rəˈpam rəˈpam 005 nose/hidung susuŋ / siː susuŋ / siː siŋ susuŋ / siː d͡ʒup d͡ʒup jup jup 006 mouth/mulut ata ata ata ata boːupʰ boːupʰ boupʰ boupʰ 007 lip/bibir banːga banːga bagəna̯ banːga boupːpip boupːpip boupipʰ boupipʰ 008 tooth/gigi maga maga maga maga oˈɣom oˈɣom oxom oxom 009 tongue/lidah haˈge haˈge haˈge haˈge baˈrap baˈrap baerapʰ̯ baerapʰ̯ 010 upper arm/ tangan biˈda biˈda biˈda biˈda d͡ʒep d͡ʒep jepʰ jepʰ 011 elbow/siku bokĩ bokĩ bidabuŋ bidabuŋ d͡ʒep kupiaˈɣam d͡ʒep kupiaˈɣam kupiaˈɣam kupiaˈɣam 012 finger/jari bidatoraŋ bidatoraŋ bidatoraŋ bidatoraŋ d͡ʒepːeˈnopʰ d͡ʒepːeˈnopʰ d ͡ʒepenopʰ d ͡ʒepenopʰ 013 fingernail/kuku bidakeˈa bidakeˈa bidakeˈa bidakeˈa d͡ʒepgwop d͡ʒepgwop oˈnopʰ oˈnopʰ 014 breast/susu õ õ õ õ eːˈrem eːˈrem eːˈrem eːˈrem 015 stomach/perut kaˈku kaˈku kaˈku kaˈku kʰap kʰap kʰapʰ kʰapʰ 016 liver/hati wouŋ wouŋ wouŋ anat͡siŋ umu umu umu / epiaˈɣam umu / epiaˈɣam 017 leg/kaki kiˈto kiˈto kiˈto kiˈto aˈpir aˈpir aˈpir aˈpir 018 knee/lutut maˈro maˈro maˈro / boki maˈro/ˈbokig aˈpir kʰupiaɣam aˈpir kʰupiaɣam kuˈpiaɣam kuˈpiaɣam 019 body hair/bulu roŋ roŋ roŋ roŋ uːpũm uːpũm upːm̩̃ upːm̩̃ 020 skin/kulit aː aː aː aː pipʰ pipʰ pipʰ pipʰ 021 blood/darah goŋ goŋ goŋ goŋ d͡ʒetʰ d͡ʒetʰ jes jes 022 bone/tulang bagɪ bagɪ bagɪ bagɪ noˈmopʰ noˈmopʰ noːˈmopʰ noːˈmopʰ 023 flesh/daging kad͡ʒu kad͡ʒu kad͡ʒu kad͡ʒu gʷoˈɣom gʷoˈɣom dʲakoˈɣom dʲakoˈɣom 024 urine/ air kencing ĩː ĩː ĩː ĩː aˈnu aˈnu aˈnu aˈnu 025 faeces/tahi oː oː oː oː aˈna aˈna aˈna aˈna 026 person/orang roʔu roʔu roʔu roʔu d͡ʒo d͡ʒo janaˈpʰe janaˈpʰe
44 Kayagar / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Kayagar / English/Indonesian Atsipim-Okor- Amagatsu Sogope Katage Yagatsu Arare Pagai Gairipim Tsemtaipim d͡ʒoːoratap / d͡ʒoːoratap / nimpaɣamokʰ / nimpaɣamokʰ / 027 man/laki-laki hoːuː hoːuː hoːuː hoːuː ni:m paɣamokʰ ni:m paɣamokʰ bapʰuˈrep bapʰuˈrep 028 woman/ oˈnopʰoratap / oˈnopʰoratap / raraŋ raraŋ raraŋ raraŋ wasi / wasijepʰ wasi / wasijepʰ perempuan noː paɣamokʰ noː paɣamokʰ 029 husband/suami ouʔ ouʔ ouʔ ouʔ niːm niːm nim nim 030 wife/isteri raŋ raŋ raŋ raŋ / garad͡ʒu nu̯oː nu̯oː nuː nuː 031 mother/ibu keni keni keni keni ou̯pʰ ou̯pʰ ein̯ ein̯ 032 father/ayah ai ai ai ai aintʃ͡ aintʃ͡ aiː aiː oho / sirio / baˈpʰu / baˈpʰu / rap paɣamokʰ / rap paɣamokʰ / 033 child/anak oho / sirio oho / sirio oho / sirio nanasirio aːpaɣamokʰ aːpaɣamokʰ wasmesjep bijapʰ wasmesjep bijapʰ 034 elder sister/ kakak nade nade nade nade d͡ʒuaoːpũm d͡ʒuaoːpũm naˈxan naˈxan perempuan 035 elder brother/ kakak laki-laki akabu akabu akabu akabu d͡ʒuaːpʰ d͡ʒuaːpʰ / dʒuˈnim naˈxan naˈxan 036 younger sister/ adik perempuan aˈbe aˈbe aˈbe aˈbe d͡ʒenaoːpũm d͡ʒenaoːpũm djenaːum djenaːum 037 younger brother/ adik laki-laki aˈbe aˈbe aˈbe aˈbe d͡ʒenapʰ d͡ʒenapʰ d ͡ʒeˈnapʰ d ͡ʒeˈnapʰ 038 grandmother/ nenek nawi nawi nawi nawi tar tar taˈxar taˈxar 039 grandfather/tete nat͡ʃi nat͡ʃi nat͡ʃi nat͡ʃi apeit̯ ʃ͡ apeit̯ ʃ͡ taˈxar taˈxar d͡ʒatːñ̩tarep/ d͡ʒatːñ̩tarep/ 040 grandchild/cucu enaŋgo enaŋgo enaŋgo enaŋgo d ͡ʒatʰ naˈrepʰ d ͡ʒatʰ naˈrepʰ napirap napirap daitñ̩baˈβu / daitñ̩baˈβu / 041 friend/teman habiːm/bari habiːm/bari habiːm/bari habiːm/bari daːiʔ daːiʔ daitñ̩apʰ daitñ̩apʰ 042 I/saya nu nu nu nu daχ daχ dax dax 043 you/kamu gu gu gu gu aχ aχ ax ax 044 he/she/dia eˈke eˈke eˈke eˈke aχːnem̩̃ / waˈti aχːnem̩̃ / waˈti aɣarːakʰ aɣarːakʰ 045 we(excl.)/kami nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu depʰ watpaɣad͡ʒiː depʰ watpaɣad͡ʒiː depʰ depʰ 046 we(incl.)/kita nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu nuŋgu menˈmu depʰ depʰ depʰ depʰ
45 Kayagar / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Kayagar / English/Indonesian Atsipim-Okor- Amagatsu Sogope Katage Yagatsu Arare Pagai Gairipim Tsemtaipim 047 you(pl)/ kamu orang gugu gugu gugu gugu aɣanekʰ aɣanekʰ aɣaːno aɣaːno 048 they/dorang joːo joːo joːo joːo wenːekʰ wenːekʰ enː enː 049 bird/burung iː iː iː iː tuːpam tuːpam supaːm supaːm 050 wing/sayap jaˈgio jaˈgio jaˈgio jaˈgio ˈmumu ˈmumu mumuːapʰ mumuːapʰ
46 APPENDIX G: WORDLISTS GATHERED DURING THIS SURVEY (continued):
English/Indonesian Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Amagatsu Arare Atsipim-Okor-Tsemtaipim 051 egg/telur muŋgo bapʰiaˈɣam bapiaˈɣam 052 rat/tikus rumah keso gougʰːuˈmatʰ sojaˈkʰam 053 bandicoot/ tikus tanah keso beːpuˈmatʰ poxoˈni 054 dog/anjing aŋgi epːpe eːˈpe 055 tail/ekor wobu kʰaːpm̩̃ xaːˈm 056 pig/babi weɪ waˈɣum waːˈkʰum 057 fish/ikan aeː dʲaˈkʰam dʲaˈkʰam 058 snake/ular waˈd͡ʒi eːkʰor d ͡ʒeˈkʰor 059 goanna/soasoa teije wiːˈpʰam wiːˈpam 060 worm/cacing euˈru tʰarːap tarapʰ 061 mosquito/nyamuk eisʲa diː niʔ 062 louse/kutu meru nuːm num 063 crocodile/buaya nagru kʰeːo kʰoː 064 leech/lintah t͡ʃɪriŋ iːˈrir ɾir 065 cassowary/ kasuari karuɛ kʰuˈd͡ʒo kʰuːˈje 066 ant/semut t͡ʃetʃaːa͡ / roʔoɲio d͡ʒuːˈrum juːˈrum 067 cuscus/ kuskus pohon t͡ʃenoʔ kʰoupʰur kou̯ˈpʰur 068 tree kangaroo/ laolao t͡ʃebaˈʔi dauˈgʰar seːˈpair 069 kangaroo/ kanguru t͡ʃebaˈʔi toɣoːipʰ - -no entry- - 070 tree/pohon jeː gʰum wum 071 bark/kulit kayu ɲʲaʔa gu̯omːpipʰ wumˈpipʰ 072 leaf/daun ɲiroŋ gu̯omˈkʰap kʰaxapʰ 073 root/akar ɲiaʔe kʰouːrupʰ kuˈrupʰ 074 thorn/duri ⁿjiːmoʔo eːˈtor oːˈsor 075 seed/biji muŋgo aˈrum aˈrum 076 betel nut/pinang d͡ʒuˈkʰuro dʲaɣaim dʲaˈɣam dʲaɣaim bu̯ajaˈɣam 077 chewing betel/ sirih fʷoidanupepʲeo enaɣap djaˈɣam enajaˈɣam 078 lime/kapur ami ku̯o - -no entry- - 079 coconut/ kelapa (tua) pajosaː d͡ʒap kamˈkum jaˈxapʰ sop 080 green coconut/kelapa muda paˈjokʰaru d͡ʒapː ˈtop jaˈxapʰ kup 081 banana/pisang t͡ʃuː χer xer 082 salt/garam diˈse χaːˈram - -no entry- - 083 cassava/kasbi - -no entry- - ũpːˈkaij - -no entry- - 084 breadfruit/sukun raˈwo d͡ʒor jor 085 taro/keladi wɜ toɣoˈmokʰ soxomokʰ 086 sweet potato/betatas ed͡ʒiŋ χareˈpʰu xaraˈpʰu 087 sago tree/pohon sagu duʔ kʰepːm̩̃ kʰeipːm̯ ̩̃ 088 sago flour/isi sagu duʔ baˈɣam baˈɣam
47 English/Indonesian Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Amagatsu Arare Atsipim-Okor-Tsemtaipim 089 sago porridge/papeda - -no entry- - taˈpe taˈpe 090 sago pancake/sinole - -no entry- - baˈɣampap baˈɣam kʰou̯m̩̃ 091 rice/beras - -no entry- - - -no entry- - baˈɣam kuˈprap 092 rice/nasi - -no entry- - - -no entry- - baˈɣam kuˈprap 093 bamboo/bambu fɪoː oːpoχ soːˈpʰo 094 kunai/alang-alang suso piːtʰ tapˈkis 095 rattan/rotan joɣu orːˈpʰam rʊm 096 soil/tanah soʔo beipʰ̯ bep 097 stone/batu ɛiro̯ baitñ̩ kʰuwa 098 sand/pasir giriŋ tiˈnipʰ tiˈnip 099 beach/pantai wadiaˈbio tinipʰ baruˈpʰe - -no entry- - 100 mud/lumpur tawe peːˈipʰ peipʰ̯ 101 water/air aija oˈɣom oɣʊm 102 sea/laut aijajaɣa oˈɣom χaˈɣam koprapʰ 103 river/sungai waˈdɪ buːˈru buːˈru 104 lake/danau pouˈwo pʰaram xokapm̩̃ 105 cloud/awan ouːafro kʰou̯ˈpupʰ kou̯pupʰ 106 rain/hujan aː muˈnaː munaː 107 sky/langit(biru) ouː kʰou̯ˈpupʰ iˈmiː kʰaˈnepʰ 108 wind/angin keɸi χapoːxoupʰ naˈmu 109 sun/matahari saɸo tamaˈrum taɣam 110 moon/bulan bidʒiŋ͡ χaɣaˈram xaram 111 night/malam aˈsu etmoːupʰ iːˈsi 112 star/bintang miʔ tuːˈpup suːpupʰ 113 fire/api jĩː aˈruː aˈru 114 smoke/asap naˈkʰu aruaˈripʰ reripʰ 115 ashes/abu ⁿtaˈkʰɪ ereˈrepʰ reːˈrepʰ 116 forest/hutan xoˈro kaˈpur jaxaikapʰ 117 mountain/gunung - -no entry- - taːreij parəpʰtepe-jaˈɣam̃ 118 garden/kebun hoˈro oːtoˈa wumrere-aˈɣam 119 house/rumah haʔə goːukʰ wouː 120 roof/atap weˈniŋko apːa apah 121 village/kampung butʃu͡ d͡ʒapːu japuh 122 fence/pagar haˈrɪ taːpip - -no entry- - 123 rope/tali piraɣaijo oteːreaˈɣam esereoɣom / rumː 124 canoe/perahu jaɣuŋ aːˈmuː aˈmu 125 paddle/dayung kawɪ warːu waˈru 126 path(road)/ jalanan jedʒi kʰamein kʰaˈmin 127 machete/parang - -no entry- - agʰip fekʰaˈni / xotaɣam
48 English/Indonesian Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Amagatsu Arare Atsipim-Okor-Tsemtaipim 128 axe/kapak aˈbuː patam kere 129 bow/busur d͡ʒuŋ peʔ peʔ 130 arrow/anak panah eptʃi͡ ɣeˈmam kirakʰ / kʰaneir̯ 131 knife/pisau sogʰi toˈkakʰ koroaˈxam 132 net bag/noken jat͡ʃuŋ d͡ʒaːˈpi jaːpʰi / kopreˈpʰi 133 this/ini taŋgo amar aˈmar 134 that/itu toʔo omar oˈmor 135 here/di sini taŋgo amu̯ro amu̯ro 136 there/di situ toʔo umˈro omu̯ro 137 over there/di sana tato umˈrogoijʰ wokʊmˈro 138 above/di atas siri ˈwapʰi wafena 139 below/di bawah soɣo d͡ʒeˈni jeina 140 in front/di depan samam ˈd͡ʒuːpro weina 141 behind/di belakang ˈbũbɐ ̃ deimaroɣo̯ neina 142 inside/di dalam gʷoˈmu wanːi waina 143 outside/di luar ᵐbaˈga weːij waɣairuˈro 144 left/kiri aˈɸi/wa piː pikʰi 145 right/kanan aˈɸi/ou̯ʔ d͡ʒokʰepe jetram 146 black/hitam asiˈrɪ saˈkʰum saˈkʰum 147 white/putih taˈja kopˈrap kʰoprapʰ 148 red/merah kɐŋgõŋ̃ imːi kuˈper 149 green/hijau woɣu aˈpːɜr - -no entry- - 150 blue/biru woɣu aˈpːɜr taˈɣam - -no entry- - 151 yellow/kuning waʔˈma iːmitaˈɣam - -no entry- - 152 all/semua taˈrin watːopaɣaˈd͡ʒi waspakʰi 153 many/banyak taˈrin boˈra biapʰ 154 one/satu teisʲa paɣamokʰ paɣamokʰ 155 two/dua kʰɔrman tou̯tiˈgi tuskʰi 156 three/tiga kʰorˈman ˈdʒuma workʰetiˈgi wankʰesi 157 four/empat sendoˈma bapmatiˈgi bapmatem 158 five/lima bedaˈxi burma jepkapˈtɜm jeprekʰapir 159 six/enam bedaˈxi waˈdo jepʰkapˈtɜm paɣamokʰ jeprem paɣamokʰ bedaˈxi 160 seven/tujuh jepʰkapˈtɜm tou̯tiˈgi jeprem tuski wadoˈmaɣa 161 eight/delapan bedaˈxi hoiwoˈmu jepʰkapˈtɜm workʰetiˈgi jeprem ˈwakʰesi 162 nine/sembilan bedaxi seomaɣa jepʰkapˈtɜm bapmatiˈgi jeprem bapmatem bedaxi bedaxi 163 ten/sepuluh jepʰkapˈtɜm jepʰkapˈtɜm jeprekʰapir jeprekʰapir burma bedaxi bedaxi 164 twenty/dua puluh jeprekʰapir jeprekʰapir burmo ketaxi jepʰkapˈtɜm aˈpirkapˈtɜm aiprekʰapir̯ aiprekʰapir̯ ketaxi burmo
49 English/Indonesian Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Amagatsu Arare Atsipim-Okor-Tsemtaipim 165 big/besar jaŋro poxuˈda taˈpur 166 small/kecil meʔno tapːdeaχ tebreakʰ 167 old(things)/lama tʃɪˈmɪ ougʰːaˈtap woru 168 new/baru togo wamaˈtap wamjasepʰ 169 old(people)/tua pat͡ʃuː nindapʰ joraˈme 170 young/muda adʰaʔɪ wamaˈtap wamjasepʰ 171 hot/panas aˈpa aˈrupouχ pesepe 172 cold/dingin taˈru iːˈnip inːipʰ 173 good/baik nenɪ boˈɣe boːeʔ 174 bad/rusak(jahat) keijoŋ χareaɣaˈnim nainˈmap 175 sharp/tajam kitʃɪŋ͡ baˈraptoˈɣor orː 176 dull/tumpul bogo daˈgupʰ taˈkʰup 177 near/dekat kʰiraŋ iːrapʰ jiːˈrapʰ 178 far/jauh aˈma iːrapʰmjaɣaij wijoxonokʰ 179 wet/basah t͡ʃouː tipʰ tip 180 dry/kering sakra takoˈdap sɔˈkrapʰ 181 long/panjang pirɪ maneatʰ woru 182 short(things)/ pendek bogo tadeaχ taxareakʰ 183 tall/tinggi sirɪ waitʰnepʰ wapioɣonokʰ 184 short(people)/pendek soʔo tadeaχ jeinioɣoˈno 185 blind/buta keropajoː taˈɣamturupʰ saɣam maˈxam 186 deaf/tuli t͡ʃuruŋkara jiˈprammanim ripamam 187 see/lihat heˈtoː taɣaˈpʰe sixapʰe 188 hear/dengar riadakʰɪ d͡ʒiraɣeˈpe jirarə 189 know/tahu naxaŋ deiːdiʔˈpa dasjeˈpʰe 190 speak/berkata ruˈro uːˈroχ oroxfaˈre 191 tired/cape kʰerokʰunu aˈpuntaˈɣam apunsaɣam 192 afraid/takut mokiki toː tou̯ 193 sleep/tidur kuˈnunari aˈpun apusaˈɣam 194 sit/duduk aˈbe meːˈme tjeˈpe 195 wake up/bangun doˈtoː erepʰe reˈpe 196 awaken/kasih bangun dotonoɪ kʰarubare arepe 197 stand/berdiri mat͡ʃena erepʰe reˈpe 198 walk/jalan kaki kʰajɪː apʰiriˈgiːinima mamˈaxam 199 run/lari kʰɪriai ̯ kʰɪrɪd͡ʒina d͡ʒou̯pʰ joupʰ 200 swim/berenang kʰɪntoi kʰipukʰupʰ trerinima 201 fly/terbang buruŋxoː kʰepinima frerinima 202 wash/cuci ajakuno toɣotox soˈxoso 203 scratch/garuk ˈnagɪ teiˈtiː seˈsi
50 English/Indonesian Asue Awyu / Kayagar / Kayagar / Amagatsu Arare Atsipim-Okor-Tsemtaipim 204 hold/pegang nadi d͡ʒaɣaˈpe jaɣaˈpʰe 205 split(wood)/belah opoˈnu taruːˈru womtaruru 206 tie/ikat joːnado keːˈke kʰekʰe 207 dig/gali toːnaku taɣanaˈma saxanma 208 stab/tikam ugi aˈpuri pisˈpʰi 209 fall/jatuh akirimamarki depeˈme deˈpenːme 210 drop(tr)/kasih jatuh adasum-d͡ʒimarkʰɪ d͡ʒaɣapkoteˈme kʰapkuˈseme 211 bathe/mandi ajakɪˈme apʰuː aːˈpʰu 212 bathe/kasih mandi ajakuˈno apʰuɣapˈrare aːˈpʰujaprare 213 eat/makan and͡ʒa ɣaˈpri jɪnima̯ 214 drink/minum aˈmɪ d͡ʒuˈri jori 215 kill/bunuh aːhu waˈte wase 216 die/mati kuŋgɪ ɣatˈnepe kʰatñ̩epe 217 give/beri(kasih) daʔe ɣarˈpʰe kʰarpʰe 218 come/datang daː ɣai eikʰai̯ 219 go/pergi noɪ oːˈnom aim̯ 220 laugh/tertawa apgige d͡ʒiː jeʔ 221 cry/menangis eɸiaroŋgi deːir̯ deir̯ 222 burn(intr)/bakar indokʰi deˈpeaɣaˈpe sɪnmə 223 burn(tr)/membakar nadʒu ɣeipʰupu̯ kʰaˈsentepe 224 dry in sun/ menjemur sawotoˈhena tatɣoˈte atma 225 blow/tiup gaˈhume/ gahunu puˈpu ˈfupʰu 226 hit/pukul oːhuraŋ poˈɣom foˈɣum 227 search/cari agʰuˈxe d͡ʒaˈja kax 228 shoot/panah teɪreː apuˈriː sesie̯ 229 bite/gigit magaugi munˈmun tau̯ˈte 230 cough/batuk ɪsʲa poʔ foʔ 231 no(not)/tidak dekʰaˈra χanaɣan ine 232 language/bahasa ruː boːupˈdam boupʰ 233 name/nama ɸiː naʔ naʔ 234 who/siapa moɣu mein mein̯ 235 what/apa maˈka manˈdʒi takˈwapʰ bakʰam 236 where/di mana maˈka ˈmaŋke tamroin tamro 237 when/kapan sawome-makeː takʰariˈgin ənikʰi 238 why/kenapa ˈmakemoː takʰaˈren bakʰamfakʰe 239 how many/berapa maˌkam-d͡ʒeriˈgɪ tametiˈgin tamsekʰi
51 REFERENCES
Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a Shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys, Dallas: The Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. Grimes, Barbara F., ed. 2000. Ethnologue. 14th edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Kim, Eui-Jang; Duane A. Clouse; David S. Price. n.d. A Report on the UNCEN/SIL Survey of the Kayagar Area. Unpublished Manuscript. Kriens, Ron, and Randy Lebold. “Report on the Wildeman River Survey.” SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2010-010. http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2010-010. Lebold, Randy; Ron Kriens; Peter Jan de Vries; Benny Rumaropen. To appear. “Report on the Assue Subdistrict Survey.” SIL Electronic Survey Reports. Lebold, Randy; Ron Kriens; Yunita Susanto. “Report on the Lower Digul River Survey.” SIL Electronic Survey Reports. http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2010-024. Liem, Joseph. n.d. Report on the Nambai Subdistrict Survey. Unpublished Manuscript. Pemerintah Kabupaten Merauke. 1999. Data Perkembangan Pelaksanaan UU No. 5 Tahun 1979 (Model DS. 1 s/d DS. 10). Silzer, Peter J.; Heikkinen, Heljä. 1984. Index of Irian Jaya Languages. Jayapura: University of Cenderawasih (Irian; v. 12). Susanto, Yunita. 2004. “Report on the Mapi River Survey South Coast of Irian Jaya.” SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2004-03. http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2004-003. Susanto, Yunita. 2005 “Report on the Edera District Survey South Coast of Irian Jaya.” SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2005-025. http://www.sil.org/silesr/abstract.asp?ref=2005-025. Voorhoeve, C. L. 1971. Miscellaneous Notes on Languages in West Irian, New Guinea. In: Dutton, T. et al. Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 14. Canberra: Australian National University. 47–114. (Pacific Linguistics, Series A; v. 28).
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