Meanings of Figures of Speech Used in Tourism Advertising Slogan Texts in the Internet

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MEANINGS OF FIGURES OF SPEECH USED IN TOURISM ADVERTISING SLOGAN TEXTS IN THE INTERNET

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum.) Degree in English Language Studies

SISKA BOCHARI Student Number: 096332020

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else's ideas, phrases, or sentences without proper references.

Yogyakarta, 17 March 2011

SISKA BOCHARI

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Siska Bochari Nomor Mahasiswa : 096332020

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

Meanings of Figures of Speech Used in Tourism Advertising Slogan Texts in the Internet beserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian saya memberikan hak kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 17 Maret 2011

Yang menyatakan,

Siska Bochari

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost, Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin, I praise to Allah SWT, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful who has given me the greatest love, grace, and blessing that I have finished this thesis. My deepest gratitude and appreciation goes to Dr. B. B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. as my advisor, who gave me advice and guidance during the writing of this thesis especially in GRP class. I would also like to extend my gratefulness to all lectures, Prof. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo, Prof. Bakdi Soemanto, Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons.), Dr. Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J. and staff of English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University, who have taught, guided, and helped me during the study. My endless love and appreciation are presented to my beloved mother for her never ending support and prayer, my late father for his love, my brother and sisters who have supported me to accomplish my study. You have been there for me and helped me to get through every happy and sad moment in my life. Very special thanks to all ELS students of 2009 class, especially my best friends, Suzana „emak‟ Maria, Vivi „giant‟ Rachmawati, Tira „tuyul‟ Mariana, thanks for being there for me both in ups and downs, thanks for every kindness that you give me; love, care, and friendship. For “someone” in heaven, thanks for everything, it was so precious. Memory of you will still remain. Last but not least, I would like to thank to my colleagues at Tadulako University, who have given me opportunity to continue my study. May God bless you all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………...... i APPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………………………. ii DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ………………………………………………...... iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……………………………………………… iv LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS …………………………………………………….. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………………………………………... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ………..……………………………………………...... vii LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………...... ix LIST OF APPENDICES ………………………………………………………….. x ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………… xi ABSTRAK ………………………………………………………………………... xii

I INTRODUCTION ..………………………………………………………… 1 A Background of the Study ……………………………………………… 1 B Problem Formulation ………………………………………………….. 6 C Research Objectives …………………………………………………… 6 D Research Benefits ……………………………………………………… 7

II THEORETICAL REVIEW ………………………………………………… 9 A Literature Review …………………………………………………...... 9 1 Meaning …………....……………………………………………..... 10 a. Meaning Based on Semantics ………………………………….. 11 b. Meaning Based on Pragmatics …………………………………. 14 c. Speech Acts ……………………………………………………. 18 2 Figures of Speech ………………………………………………...... 23 a. Characteristics of Figures of Speech ……...…………………… 24 b. Types of Figures of Speech …………………………………..... 25 c. Purpose of Figures of Speech ……………………………..…… 41

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d. Place of Figures of Speech in Advertisement …………………. 42 3 Advertising …………..…………………………………………….. 43 a. Language of Advertising ……………………………………..... 44 b. Slogan Texts and Text Types …………………………………... 47 c. Short Functional Texts …………………………………………. 50 d. Generic Structure and Lexicogrammatical Features ………….... 50 B Review of Related Studies …………………………………………….. 52 C Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………... 53

III METHODOLOGY ………………………..………………………………... 55 A Type of Study ………………………………………………………….. 55 B Research Data ………………………………………………………..... 56 C Data Analysis ………………………………………………………….. 58 D Test (Result Verification) ……………………………………………... 60

IV ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION …………………..……………………… 62 A Observed Figures of Speech ….....…………..………………………… 62 B Meanings of Figures of Speech .……………………………………….. 73 C Illocutionary Acts in Figures of Speech ……………………………….. 81

V CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………….. 88 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………….. 93 APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………… 98

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS ……... 20 TABLE 2.2 DEFINITION OF FIGURES OF SPEECH .……………… 39 TABLE 2.3 THE EXAMPLES OF GENRES AND TEXT TYPES .….. 49 TABLE 4.3 THE EXAMPLES OF FIGURES OF SPEECH ….……….. 63 TABLE 4.4 THE EXAMPLES OF MEANINGS …..………………….. 74 TABLE 4.5 THE EXAMPLES OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS .………. 81 TABLE 4.6 THE TAXONOMY OF ILLOCUTIONARY POINTS AND EXAMPLES OF ACTS ..………………………………….. 82

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. LIST OF FIGURES OF SPEECH IN TOURISM SLOGANS .. 98 Appendix 2. LIST OF MEANINGS OF FIGURES OF SPEECH IN TOURISM SLOGANS ………………………………………. 100 Appendix 3. LIST OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACTS IN TOURISM SLOGANS ………………………………………..………….. 102 Appendix 4. LIST OF TOURISM SLOGAN TEXT IN PICTURE (EXAMPLES) ……………………………………………….. 104

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ABSTRACT

Siska Bochari. 2011. MEANINGS OF FIGURES OF SPEECH USED IN TOURISM ADVERTISING SLOGAN TEXTS IN THE INTERNET. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This thesis analyzes about the meanings of tourism slogan texts in internet. Since the language used in tourism slogans is arranged as attractive as possible to grab people‟s attention, it becomes different from the language used day to day. The tourism slogan texts commonly apply different language use which makes people having different personal and contextual interpretation. Then, the writer attempts to study the meanings of the slogan texts based on the figures of speech and speech acts, especially on illocutionary acts. There are three problems of the study: (1) What figures of speech do the tourism advertising slogan texts have? (2) What meanings do figures of speech show in tourism advertising slogan texts? and (3) What illocutionary acts do the slogan texts have in tourism advertising slogans? As a source of data, the writer employed 130 slogan texts taken from Google pages. Since the object of this study was tourism slogan texts, they were taken randomly and not limited to the year of 2010 as the latest ones. Then, this study applied cyclic system which is a system used for corpus data, to analyze all 130 slogan texts by using descriptive qualitative research. The results of the analysis show that there are 14 figures of speech used in tourism advertising slogan texts. From the 14 figures of speech, alliteration and personification become the dominant ones. Next, the meanings of figures of speech can be categorized into five groups, namely to make the slogan memorable, to make the slogan attractive and imaginative, to give characteristic and symbol, to offer experience, and to give modest assertion. Finally, from the data, it is found that assertive act dominates the tourism advertising slogan which functions to highlight the state or the character of the location. As a matter of fact, although the slogans have one act, assertive, they have many kinds of figures of speech on their texts. By studying and analyzing meaning of tourism slogan texts through figures of speech and speech acts, the writer expects people, especially students and teachers, can obtain some information about tourism slogan. They can obtain practical use of speech act and figures of speech in making tourism slogans and implementing those theories with the purpose of promoting the image and attract people‟s attention. The writer also expects teachers to develop the teaching materials both in semantics and pragmatics. Since there is limited information regarding the application of figurative language in promoting image, especially image of tourism location, this study can provide semantically comprehensible reference how to understand and analyze slogan texts using figurative language. Pragmatically, it can give perception how to interpret and analyze monologic (one-way transmission of communication) discourse considering the context.

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ABSTRAK

Siska Bochari. 2011. MEANINGS OF FIGURES OF SPEECH USED IN TOURISM ADVERTISING SLOGAN TEXTS IN THE INTERNET. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Analisis makna dan tujuan dari pemakaian majas pada teks slogan pariwisata di internet menjadi topik dari tesis ini. Bahasa yang digunakan pada slogan pariwisata berbeda dengan bahasa yang digunakan sehari-hari karena harus memiliki susunan kata atau kalimat yang dapat membuat orang tertarik. Umumnya penggunaan bahasa pada teks slogan pariwisata berbeda sehingga membuat orang memiliki interpretasi secara personal dan kontekstual. Oleh karena itu, penulis mencoba mengkaji arti dan maksud dari teks yang ada pada slogan pariwisata dari sisi penggunaan majas dan tindak tutur, khususnya tindak ilokusi. Terdapat tiga masalah dalam kajian ini: (1) Majas apa sajakah yang dipakai pada teks iklan slogan pariwisata? (2) Apa sajakah arti dan maksud pemakaian majas tersebut dalam teks iklan slogan pariwisata? dan (3) Tindak ilokusi apa sajakah yang dipakai pada teks iklan slogan pariwisata? Sebagai sumber data, penulis mengambil 130 teks iklan slogan pariwisata dari Google. Karena obyek kajian ini adalah teks slogan, maka pengambilan data dilakukan secara acak dan tidak dibatasi pada slogan edisi terbaru. Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif kualitatif dengan memakai sistem cyclic, yaitu sistem yang digunakan untuk data korpus untuk menganalisis 130 teks slogan tersebut. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa teks iklan slogan pariwisata memakai 14 majas. Dari 14 majas tersebut, majas aliterasi dan personifikasi yang paling menonjol. Selanjutnya, arti dan maksud pemakaian majas tersebut memiliki 5 kategori, yaitu untuk membuat slogan mudah diingat, membuat slogan menarik dan imajinatif, menonjolkan karakteristik dan simbol, menawarkan pengalaman, dan memberikan pernyataan tegas dan sopan. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan ketiga, tindak ilokusi yang paling menonjol pada iklan slogan pariwisata adalah tindak asertif yang berfungsi menonjolkan karakter dari lokasi pariwisata tersebut. Walaupun slogan-slogan tersebut memiliki satu tindak ilokusi tapi mewakili beberapa jenis majas. Dengan mengkaji dan menganalisis arti dan maksud dari teks slogan pariwisata melalui pemakaian majas dan tindak tutur, penulis berharap orang, khususnya siswa dan pengajar, mendapatkan informasi lebih lanjut mengenai slogan pariwisata. Dari informasi tersebut diharapkan orang memahami kegunaan tindak tutur dan majas pada pembuatan slogan pariwisata dan penerapan teori dalam promosi dan cara menarik perhatian. Penulis juga berharap pengajar dapat mengembangkan materi ajar untuk semantik dan pragmatik karena kajian ini memberikan referensi mengenai cara memahami dan menganalisis teks slogan yang menggunakan bahasa kiasan serta memberikan persepsi mengenai cara menginterpretasi dan menganalisis wacana monolog berdasarkan konteks.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This sub-topic has four sections, specifically background of the study, problem formulation, research objectives, and research benefits. The first section discusses about the phenomenon of communication industry, the language used in advertising, and the reason of choosing this topic. The second section contains problem formulation which formulates research questions. The third section is about research objectives providing the goals of this research that will be achieved. The fourth section refers to research benefits which present the theoretical and practical benefits for those who are interested in this research.

A. Background of the Study

Since communication industry has developed rapidly nowadays, people all over the world can communicate one another easily. One of communication devices is internet which has become the useful device in spreading news and also in advertising product or image globally. Globalization makes people to do both communication and promotion through internet. Promotion by using advertisement, especially, is really required in free trade market these days because “advertisements use fictions, word play, compressed story-telling, stylized acting, photography, cartoons, puns and rhythms in ways which are often memorable, enjoyable, and amusing” (Cook 2001:3). Then, Cook (2001) concludes that words and details in

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI advertisements often reach people‟s attention more promptly than those of novels, poems, and plays.

Basically, there are two major types of advertisements, namely broadcast and printed advertisements. The advertising texts or pictures that occur both in printed media and broadcast media function to present the product being desirable or attractive. The texts or pictures can be used to advertise a product, an idea, or an image.

Since its function is to promote new product, idea, or image, advertisement needs an attractive language use to persuade the customer to get interested in what is being advertised or offered. The texts used in advertisement are one of attractive language use which needs creative word play such as short, likable, and memorable one. According to Goddard (1998:6), “texts are hardly ever simply „informative‟ or

„persuasive‟, for example”. Information texts always have a private or corporate perspective behind them, such as university prospectuses; persuasive texts often do their job by the way they present information, such as political manifestos or film trailers. In fact, advertising texts should contain persuasive texts in terms of seeing as persuading and attracting people‟s attention,

Moreover, Goddard (1998:10) claims that “advertising texts are seen as potentially involving complex notions of audience, where readers have to work hard to decode messages and understand different address relationships”. Commonly people notice texts in advertisement as a part of product. They do not take more time to understand the meaning behind the texts. People mostly interpret advertising texts literally than figuratively.

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However, every text in advertisement has not only literal or denotative meaning but also non-literal and intended meaning. The non-literal meaning can be seen in the use of figures of speech. As we know, figures of speech are mostly used in literature works. Yet, the figures of speech are also used as the element of advertisement texts, such as advertising slogan, which functions to attract people‟s attention. According to Holtgraves as cited in Colston and Katz (2005:76),

“activation of the literal meaning of a remark is obligatory and must occur prior to the

(optional) recognition of the non-literal (figurative) meaning”. But research signifies that for many figures of speech, the literal and figurative meanings are reviewed all together; in some cases, they are reviewed in a reversed order. For example, several studies have determined that the non-literal meaning of a figure of speech is activated even when the literal meaning is acceptable in context and sometimes people recognize the literal meaning only after first considering and then rejecting the non- literal meaning. (Colston and Katz 2005).

To know the meaning behind the advertisement, it is important for people to have better understanding of figures of speech, in order to be able to grasp the intended meaning in the use of figures of speech. The intended meaning can be identified based on the context of the discourse occurs. In analyzing context of the discourse, types and act of communication should be considered including speech acts. It is similar to Cook (2001:103) who clarifies “meaning is semantically and pragmatically arrived at by the application of rules: componential analysis, sense relations, logic, conversational principles, and speech acts theory”.

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The speech act theory provides an account of language use as intentional action. That is, speakers, in performing an illocutionary act, are trying to do things with their words. This highlighting on intentional action stands in stark contrast to the deconstructionist view that an author‟s intention is temporary and uncertain

(Holtgraves 2002). The problem always occurs on the recognition of author‟s or speaker‟s intention because people frequently mean more than what they write or say.

In speech act terminology, the intended illocutionary point is often different from the literal illocutionary point. This can be seen quite clearly with requests. For example, the sentence “It’s warm here” has the literal illocutionary point of an assertive, a statement about the way the world is. But in several contexts the intended illocutionary point of the sentence “It’s warm here” is that of a directive, an attempt to get the hearer to do something (e.g., open a window) (Holtgraves 2002). It can be assumed that many speech acts are presented indirectly. An illustration has been proposed by Searle (1979) in which a speaker in uttering a sentence may mean something different from what the sentence means, as in the case of metaphor; or may even mean the opposite of what the sentence means, as in the case of irony; or may mean what the sentence means but mean something more as well, as in the case of conversational implications and indirect speech acts. Thus, relating to the slogan texts, they might have both direct and indirect speech acts.

Since its importance, especially in communication, the writer is interested in study of slogan texts. The purpose of this research is to analyze ads as discourse.

“The process of activation of a text by relating it to a context of use is called discourse” (Verdonk 2002:18). According to Verschueren (1999:50), “discourse will

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI be used to designate any spoken or written variety of language use”. One of type of language use is text. Text will be limited into written types of discourse. It is a matter of degree to a text which has an ability to be observed. A reader (or hearer) will search the text for signals that may assist to reconstruct the writer‟s (or speaker‟s) discourse. Then, a text can be recognized by any kind of language as long as it is acquired to record a meaningful discourse when it is correlated to an appropriate context of use (Verdonk 2002). Slogan texts consist of words, phrase, or sentence which give space for readers to explore the meaning generously. The words, phrase, or sentence in slogan texts cannot be taken literally so that readers should know the meaning behind the slogan texts. In this case, readers should recognize the meaning figuratively which is represented by the use of figures of speech as well as the illocutionary acts which refer to the intended meaning of the slogan texts.

Generally, the language used in tourism slogans is different from the language used day to day. It is arranged as attractive as possible to grab people‟s attention to visit the place. Since the tourism slogan texts mostly employs different language use which will be interpreted by people based on the personal intention as well as the context, the writer tries to observe the meanings of the slogan texts based on the figures of speech and speech acts, especially on illocutionary acts.

The writer is interested in analyzing meanings of slogan texts in tourism advertising slogan because the language used in slogan texts is interesting through the play on words or diction. Every country has its own way to deliver its message through its slogan which consists of intended meaning.

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B. Problem Formulation

The problem of the research can be formulated below.

1. What figures of speech do the tourism advertising slogan texts have?

2. What meanings do figures of speech show in tourism advertising slogan texts?

3. What illocutionary acts do the slogan texts have in tourism advertising slogans?

C. Research Objectives

As previously stated in the problem formulation, this research is conducted in order to find the answer for the questions above. There are three goals this research tries to answer.

The first goal is to find the figures of speech used in international tourism slogan advertisement. As we know that figures of speech is mostly used in literary texts especially in poems. The writer aims to observe through this research that figures of speech are also used in non-literary texts, such as slogans. Since the kinds of figures of speech are extremely numerous, the writer would like to see what figures of speech often used in tourism slogan texts.

The second goal is to identify the meanings of the figures of speech. The writer intends to discover the sense of using the figures of speech on tourism slogans.

At a definite point, tourism slogan functions to promote location by advertising the image of the place. Then, the use of figures of speech on the slogan texts might give a positive effect to the promotion. By knowing the meanings of the figures of speech on tourism slogan texts, the writer can figure out how the simple slogan texts, in fact, can illustrate and represent the socio-cultural environment of the tourism locations.

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The third goal is to identify the illocutionary acts in the texts of international tourist board advertising slogans. Generally, illocutionary acts occur in oral communication. Through this research, the writer attempts to show that illocutionary acts also occur in written communication which is then known as indirect speech acts.

As advertising language is persuading, most of advertising slogan texts consist of illocutionary acts. Moreover, it shows the way of slogan texts as the act of communication.

D. Research Benefits

This research concerns with the aspect of semantics and pragmatics. It tries to notice meaning and context. Therefore, this research will be beneficial for those who are interested in the study of two aspects above.

This research will describe the meaning of slogan texts which consists of phrase or sentence in terms of whether or not the meaning can occur literally or figuratively. In doing this research, the writer would like to give the theoretical and practical benefits. Students and people who have interest in meaning are the target of those benefits. They will find this research beneficial since it tries to see the meaning by using semantic and pragmatic approaches.

The theoretical benefit of this research is to give more information about tourism slogan. Since there is limited information regarding the application of figurative language in promoting image, especially image of tourism location, this research can provide semantically comprehensible reference how to understand and

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI analyze slogan texts using figurative language. Pragmatically, it can give perception how to interpret and analyze monologic discourse considering the context.

Besides having theoretical benefit, this research has practical benefit as well.

For the teachers of English, it tries to provide practical information regarding non- literal meaning and intended meaning. It is beneficial for language teaching in particular texts analysis employing insight from semantics and pragmatics. This research can enrich people‟s knowledge regarding linguistic work in understanding meaning of tourism slogan texts. This result can also be used as material in teaching figures of speech used both in literary and non-literary works.

The findings of this research may also contribute indirectly to the practical use of speech act and figures of speech in making tourism slogans and also in teaching. In making tourism slogans, it is possible to employ speech act theory and figures of speech in order to promote the image and attract people‟s attention. In teaching, this may contribute to the materials development for teaching particularly in teaching semantics and pragmatics.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This sub-topic is divided into three sections namely literature review, review of related studies, and theoretical framework. The section on literature review discusses the theories from some linguists which relate to the research problems. The review of related studies contains the studies which have similarity done by some researchers. On theoretical framework, it consists of the function and purpose of theories in literature review.

A. Literature Review

Literature review consists of the theories used in this research to answer the three problems which have mentioned in previous chapter. This subsection is then divided into five kinds of theories. The first theory relates to the theory of meaning which focuses more on denotative and connotative meanings including speech acts which deliberates more on illocutionary acts. The second theory conveys the theory of figures of speech which concentrates to the kinds of figures of speech and the characteristics. The third theory relays on advertising which discusses more about the language of advertising, the component of advertisement, functions of advertising slogan, and slogan texts.

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1. Meaning

As meaning of figures of speech to be the center of this research, it is then separated into two kinds of meaning which are based on semantics and pragmatics.

Meaning based on semantics relates to the word meaning or lexical meaning used in figures of speech which is subsequently connected to the figurative meaning.

Moreover, meaning based on pragmatics discusses about the intended meaning which is influenced by the notion of implicit in context. To discover the intended meaning of figures of speech, the theory of speech act can be applied to the analysis.

Any word, phrase, clause, or sentence may have a meaning. For that reason, it is required to differentiate types of meaning. The first should be known is lexical meaning which refers to ―the meaning of a word or affix as found in the dictionary‖

(Poedjosoedarmo 2000:16). The lexical meaning has two types, namely the meaning of a word in isolation and the meaning of a word in a phrase. Once the meaning of a word is in a phrase, it can be related to the denotative meaning and connotative meaning or literal and metaphorical meaning (Poedjosoedarmo 2000). The idea of lexical meaning also comes from Shaumyan (1986:204) who claims that lexical meanings are ―meanings of morphemes which constitute word stems‖. He argues that lexical meanings are closer to reality than grammatical meanings.

Besides lexical meaning, there are two other types of meanings, namely grammatical meaning and discourse meaning. In grammatical meaning, Leech as cited in Poedjosoedarmo (2000) claims that it is associated with different morpho- syntactic arrangement while in discourse meaning, it is connected with different shape of discourse. These two types of meanings will not be dealt in the next

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI discussion because the focus of this study is on the denotative and connotative meanings. a. Meaning Based on Semantics

In line with Lyons and Jackson as cited in Gouws (1996:103), denotation can be defined as ―the relationship between a lexical item and the places, things, properties, persons, processes and activities outside the language system‖. The aspect of meaning of a lexical item is called connotation when people attempt to associate certain things with particular experiences and these associations are transferred to the words representing those things in the language system (Gouws 1996).

According to Leech (1981), denotative meaning or conceptual meaning is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication which then can be shown to be fundamental to the essential functioning of language in a way that other types of meaning are not.

Similar to Leech, Jackson (1988:45) states that the term denotation ―deals with the first level of meaning in concepts‖. It refers to basic or literal meaning of a word, in which it is easily recognized or distinguished by readers. In other word, denotation states directly the meaning of the word. As a matter of fact, tt often deals with dictionary meanings. From the definition above, it is clear that the term denotation relates to literal meaning and Searle (1979:119) has defined literal meaning ―as the meaning which has independently of any context whatever; and, diachronic changes apart, it keeps that meaning in any context in which it is uttered‖.

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Corresponding to Jackson, Riemer (2010:41) clarifies about the term denotation which is ―the set of all referents of lexeme, which can be translated from one language to another, paraphrased, or defined in a dictionary‖. Consequently, denotation can be assumed as the dictionary meaning or the literal meaning of the word. Denotation, in addition, can be articulated as the primary meaning of a word

(Lehtonen 2000).

Besides having denotation, a word may have connotation. Connotation is what it suggests beyond what it expresses: its implications or overtones of meaning. It acquires the connotation by its past history and associations, by the way and the circumstances in which it has been used. For instance ―the word home by denotation means only a place where one lives, but by connotation it suggests security, love, comfort, and family‖ (Perrine, 1969:38).

In accordance with Leech (1981:12), ―the connotative meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content‖. Still based on Leech, the connotative meaning is peripheral compared with conceptual meaning is that connotations are relatively unstable: that is, they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Moreover, the connotative meaning is indefinite, vague, and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not. The connotative meaning is open-ended in the same way as our knowledge and beliefs about the universe are open-ended.

According to Jackson (1988:45), the term connotation refers to ―the association that a word has and above its literal with the intended meaning, since it

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI does not state directly the meaning of the word‖. Riemer (2010) has similar idea to

Jackson in which connotation names those aspects of meaning i.e. referent, denotation, sense which do not affect a word‘s sense, reference or denotation, but which have to do with secondary factors such as its emotional force, its level of formality, its character as a euphemism, etc. It is similar to Lehkonen (2000) who defines connotation as a number of qualities linked to a word‘s referent, such as contexts and emotional reactions.

Gouws (1996:106) argues that ―the situational context of a word, i.e. the speaker, the hearer and the specific occasion on which an utterance is made can determine the connotative value of a lexical item used in that specific discourse‖.

Therefore, connotation provides many sources for people to explore and interpret a word based on its context or situation because different context can result different meaning. The word or phrase in slogan texts can be interpreted literally and figuratively. If a word or phrase cannot be literary true in any circumstances, the word or phrase is taken figuratively.

Since this research focuses on literal and non-literal meaning, the explanation of theory of meaning generally emphasizes on two types of meaning, namely denotative and connotative meaning. Thus, to distinguish denotative and connotative meaning, it is crucial to use semantic features through componential analysis in defining the vagueness of word-meaning. There is an opinion urged by Zwicky as quoted in Leech (1981) that semantic features are treated as semantic keys which constitute word-meanings of varying complexity. Similar to Zwicky, Poedjosoedarmo

(2000:27) asserts that ―the function of a distinctive semantic feature is to distinguish

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI meanings‖. As indicated by Paducheva (1991:195), ―in many cases, semantic features can be interpreted as a label for one or more semantic components in the semantic decomposition of a lexeme‖. Conclusively, the use of semantic features is effective in terms of understanding the meaning and the relationship between the one item and the rest of the vocabulary of a language. This can be used in identifying figures of speech, for example personification sense. b. Meaning Based on Pragmatics

Previously, it is already said that people can interpret a word based on its context or situation. ―Every single word may have various senses and that these senses are signaled by the context; that is, the other words with which it occurs‖

(Larson, 1984:111). It means that in interpreting the word‘s meaning it should not be only on the independent meaning of the word itself but also on its relation with the context. Therefore, the study of word meaning within the context is concerning to the theory of pragmatics.

According to Yule (1996:3), ―pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms‖. From the definition above, it can be understood; Firstly, it is the study of speaker meaning in which it is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer and interpreted by a listener or reader. Secondly, it can be understood as a study of contextual meaning in which it involves the interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. Thirdly, it is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. It deals with how listeners can make inferences about

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker‘s intended meaning

(Yule 1996).

In accordance with Levinson (1983:15), the notion of pragmatics might be

―the study of aspects of meaning not covered in semantics certainly has some cogency‖. But we need to know how the broad sense of meaning, on which the definition relies, is to be delimited. This broad sense should include the ironic, metaphoric and implicit communicative content of an utterance, and so it cannot be restricted to be conventional content of what is said.

From those explanations above, it can be concluded that the idea of pragmatics is talking about meaning dealing with the context. Utterance is identified by its context. As the consequence, to interpret the utterances based on pragmatic approach, it needs to understand the term explicature which refers to pragmatics of reference and disambiguation; and the term implicature which denotes the pragmatics of hints.

Griffiths (2006:6) says that an explicature is ―a basic interpretation of an utterance, using contextual information and world knowledge to work out what is being referred to and which way to understand ambiguous expressions‖. For example the sentence:

(1) It‘s very hot.

There are two possible contexts to be considered in analyzing the use of the utterance in sentence (1). They lead to different explicatures.

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Firstly, the context is when John is in a room and he feels uncomfortable because of the temperature. When he says ―it‘s very hot‖ to you and you respond

―let‘s go out of here‖. In this situation, the statement from John can probably be interpreted as meaning ―this temperature in this room is very hot, I need some fresh air‖.

Secondly, Anne says to her friend about the taste of food that they are having.

She says ―it‘s very hot‖. Her friend hurried reply is ―drink a glass of water, please!‖

The sentence uttered by Ann is probably interpretable as ―the food is very hot and I need a glass of water‖.

These explicatures of utterances go beyond the literal meaning of the sentence

(1). They are interpretations based on the linguistic context (John‘s and Anne‘s utterances respectively) and the non-linguistic context (it is about temperature problem in John‘s case; and it is about taste experience in Anne‘s case). Context facilitates disambiguation (between the ‗final‘ and ‗previous‘ meanings of hot) and helps establish what things are referred to when the second individual in each scenario uses the expressions.

Still based on Griffiths (2006:7), in working out an implicature, we go

―further and ask what is hinted at by an utterance in its particular context, what the sender‘s ―agenda‖ is‖. He says that we would have to know more about the kind of relationship that John and You have, and about Anne and her friend‘s reaction, but if we had been participants in these exchanges we would have been able to judge fairly confidently whether John‘s statement conveyed a command or an asking to leave the room, and whether Ann‘s utterance meant to express an experience or a request to her

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI friend. Fairly obviously, Ann‘s utterance can be taken as an implicit request for drink.

These are assumption derived by trying to understand, in the light of contextual and background information, the point of a sender producing utterances that, in context, are likely to have particular explicatures. We cannot forget about the literal meaning of the sentence in (1) because literal meaning is the foundation for explicature, on which implicatures are based, but it is important to note that it cannot be claimed that the sentence (1) generally means ‗Let‘s go out of here‘ or ‗I need some drink‘.

In short, ―the theory of implicature reflects the impingement of general properties of co-operative interaction on language structure and use‖ (Levinson

1983:161). Relating to the use of metaphorical term or figurative language, the error of a very general cognitive ability is involved in interpreted the metaphorical term. It needs a capacity to reason analogically on language structure and use.

Indeed, the general concern for the study of pragmatics is ―to understand the meaningful functioning of language as a dynamic process operating on context- structure relationships at various levels of salience‖ (Verschueren 1999:69). Relating to the use of figurative language in advertising slogan, it is needed to understand salience in generating meaning. Since salience refers to mind in society, it involves consciousness in language use. It indicates that there is no opposition between society and cognition, for instance utterer voices (or copy writers) and interpreter roles (or readers) are mentally constructed, the entire mental world including beliefs, emotions, desires, and intentions is within the range of contextual correlates of adaptability

(Verschueren 1999). As a result, cognitive principles can be used to interpret the figurative language, such as the use of figures of speech. Then, Giora (2003) claims

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI that literal and nonliteral utterances, based on standard pragmatic model, involve different processes initially, although both will be processed literally first, regardless of context and salience. c. Speech Acts

Speech act theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions and how hearers understand intended meaning form what is said. Relating to the topic of this research, the position of speakers is changed into writers whereas the hearers becoming the readers.

Holtgraves (2002:11) claims ―all speech acts have a dimension of meaning (or propositional content) and a particular force‖. Any utterance involves the simultaneous performance of a number of different acts. The first is locutionary act which involves the dimensions of language (phonetics, syntax, and semantics) with which linguists have traditionally been concerned. The second is illocutionary act or

―act in saying‖. The illocutionary act is the conventional force associated with the uttering of the words in a particular context. Thus, John‘s utterance—―I promise to come tonight‖—will have the force of a promise. The third is perlocutionary act which refers to the effects the utterance has on the hearer. Concerning the problem formulation which is stated in introductory section, this explanation concentrates mostly on the illocutionary acts.

According to Austin as cited in Riemer (2010:109), ―the illocutionary act is the act that the speaker performs in saying something‖. In many contexts, utterance of the statement You will get your car broken is intended and can be understandable as

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI an act of warning: the utterance thus has the illocutionary force of a warning. Thus, thanking, congratulating, and advising are all acts which differ in their illocutionary force; in all of them, the speaker does more than explain or assert facts about some circumstances.

There are a number of categories or types of illocutionary acts. Searle (1979), who has developed Austin‘s theory of illocutionary acts, divides the illocutionary acts into 5 categories: assertive, directives, commissive, expressive, and declarative.

Assertives commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, using such verbs as: state, suggest, boast, complain, claim, report, and warn (Cruse 2000).

The examples of assertive:

(5) It was a warm sunny day. (6) The name of the British queen is Elizabeth.

Directives have the intention of eliciting some sort of action on the part of the hearer: order, command, request, beg, advise, recommend, and ask (Cruse 2000). The examples of directive:

(7) Don‘t touch that! (8) Would you make me a cup of tea?

Commissives commit the speaker to some future action: promise, vow, offer, undertake, contract, and threaten (Cruse 2000). The examples of commissive:

(9) I‘ll be back. (10) I promise to come at eight and cook a nice dinner for you.

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Expressives make known the speaker‘s psychological attitude to a presupposed state of affairs: thank, congratulate, condole, praise, blame, forgive, pardon (Cruse 2000). The examples of expressive:

(11) I‘m really sorry! (12) Thank you for coming over my house.

Declaratives are said to bring about a change in reality: that is to say, the world is in some way no longer the same after they have been said (Cruse 2000). The example of declaratives can be seen when someone says I quit! Then thereafter he no longer hold the post he originally held, with all that entails. Some examples of declarative:

(13) I now pronounce you husband and wife. (14) I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead.

The following table is the classification table of Searle‘s illocutions (illustrated by Ssentanda)

Table 2.1: Classification of Illocutionary Acts

Direction of fit Illocutionary Point Psychological State words facts

ASSERTIVE Commitment of S Belief to truth DIRECTIVE Commitment of S Wish to a certain action COMMISIVE Commitment of S Intention to a certain future course

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Table 2.1: (cont‘d)

Direction of fit Illocutionary Point Psychological State words facts

EXPRESSIVE Commitment of S to a certain attitude DECLARATIVE Commitment of S, Zero H and others to a state of affairs

Previously, it has already discussed that a word, a phrase or a sentence might be interpreted differently. The interpretation thus influences the illocutionary acts. The occurrence of different interpretation depends on the speaker‘s intention and on the contextual situation as well as the paralinguistic features (stress, timbre, and intonation).

Griffiths (2006) says that speech acts can be expanded into several indirect meaning, such as (a) statement: ―I lived in Jakarta for five years”; (b) order: ―Do your homework right now‖; (c) question: ―Where do you go?‖; (d) prohibition: ―No smoking‖; (e) greeting: ―Hi‖; (f) invitation: ―Serve yourself.‖; (g) felicitation: ―Happy

Birthday.‖; or (h) apology: ―I am sorry for coming late‖.

Besides done in speaking, speech acts can be done in writing; the birthday wish in point (g), for instance, would be equally appropriate printed in a card or spoken. The utterances above are each based on single sentences. According to

Verschueren as cited in Griffiths (2006:148), ―the sentence is the level of language

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI that speech acts are tied to, which means that an average ceremonial speech or political speech is not a speech act, but a sequence of speech acts‖.

In addition, Verschueren as cited in Griffiths (2006) identifies the speech acts in point (a–c) are placed at the head of the list because the three examples above represent the default uses for three of the main patterns according to which English sentences are constructed. A declarative sentence construction, as in point (a), is possible to be the medium for a statement unless factors in the context suggest otherwise. Orders are the speech acts carried by utterances based on imperative sentences, as in point (b), unless context indicates that it is advice, from your best friend for instance. Interrogative constructions, like the one in point (c), have questioning as their essential use, but context can lead to them being interpreted as other speech acts reminders, for instance “Have you issued the ticket flight?”, or requests “Could you hold the phone for a moment?” When a sentence type is used in the performance of speech acts different from their default kind, we have what are called indirect speech acts.

In the same way to Griffiths, Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:124) consider that

―people may directly or indirectly convey their intention to promise, predict, warn, complain, offer, advice, and so on‖. They say that the particular context in which the act is performed is the part of the communicative purpose of a speech act. Here are some sentences, together with reasonable interpretations of their purpose if they are uttered as speech acts: (1) It’s getting late; it seems a request for someone to leave with the speaker, (2) Tell me your work experience; it is such an inquiry which means a request for information, (3) There is a prospect of heavy rain later in the day; it

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI might be a prediction, (4) I’m afraid that I’ve made you waiting; it seems an apology,

(5) Break it, and you’ll pay for I; it can be interpreted as a warning, (6) Do you want a drink?; it is an offer, (7) I recommend him to be the finalist; it is such a nomination,

(8) Wish you luck; it could be a wish, (9) Don’t take it; it is a prohibition, (10) I will be there; it can be a promise, (11) It would be a good idea to change your proposal; it might be an advice.

Subsequently, the simple declarative sentence ―it is already 12 o’clock” can be interpreted in at least two ways. It can be either understood literally as a reply to the question ‗what time is it?’ or it can be taken as an indirect request to ask somebody to go or to stop to do something or possible a request to have lunch out. So it can be concluded that the sentence has two illocutionary forces which have a common proposition or content. The first meaning refers to a direct speech act and the second one refers to indirect speech act.

2. Figures of Speech

According to Perrine (1969), figures of speech are another way of inserting or adding extra element to language. Broadly defined, a figure of speech is an extra ordinary of saying something other than ordinary way. In addition, there are more or less 250 types of separate figure which have classified by some theoreticians.

However, a figure of speech is narrowly definable as a way of saying one thing and meaning another and the readers or listeners need to concern with no more than a dozen (Perrine 1969).

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Griffiths (2006:80) claims that ―figures of speech cover various kinds of figurative, as distinct from literal, uses of language‖. It means that figurative usage refers to construction involving an untruth which then can be reinterpreted to understand the intended truth. In addition, McArthur (1992) provides two definitions of figures of speech based on Longman Dictionary of the English Language and

American Heritage Dictionary. The previous defines figures of speech as a form of expression (e.g. a hyperbole or metaphor) used to convey meaning or heighten affect, often by comparing or identifying one thing with another that has a meaning or connotation familiar to the reader or listener. The later classifies them as an expression, such as a metaphor or hyperbole, in which a non-literal and intensive sense of a word or words is used to create a forceful, dramatic, or illuminating image. a. Characteristics of Figures of Speech

The various figures of speech are influenced by four fundamental rhetoric operations, namely repetition, suppression, permutation, and substitution (Dormann

1999). These rhetorical operations are used to convert a sentence or a larger part of a text. They are expansion, abridgement, transferring, and switching.

Figures of speech can be divided into two categories, namely scheme and trope. Scheme which means the form or shape is figure of speech that changes the ordinary or expected pattern of words. Trope which means to turn is to change the general or normal meaning of words into something else.

Moreover, Zhang (2005:87) claims that ―schemes comprise the figures that arrange words into schematized patterns of fore grounded regularity of form,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI syntactic or phonetic‖. Due to the definition of scheme is to change the normal arrangement or pattern of words in a sentence structure, the figures of speech which can be categorized into scheme should have characteristics as follow: having structure of balance, such as isocolon; containing changes in word order, such as anastrophe; having omission, such as asyndeton; producing repetition, such as alliteration, anaphora, assonance.

Trope, by its definition, is figure of speech which contains a play on words that is using a word in a way other than what is considered its literal or normal form.

Zhang (2005:87) describes that ―tropes have to do with the way words are made to mean other than what they would normally imply, involving the deviation from its ordinary and literal meaning‖. It can be simply concluded that trope relates to figures that play on the sense of words. Then, Rice and Schofer (1983) propose four fundamental relationships in tropes. They are similarity, causality, inclusion, and opposition. b. Types of Figures of Speech

There are many types of figures of speech that occur in advertising slogan, such as personification, hyperbole, alliteration, assonance, simile, etc. The writer provides the definition and some examples of the most common figures of speech in alphabetical order.

Alliteration etymologically comes from Latin meaning ‗putting letters together‘. This figure of speech gives repetition of an initial consonant sound.

Alliteration, according to Abrams (1999:8), is ―the repetition of a speech sound in a

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI sequence of nearby words‖. The term is usually applied only to consonants, and only when the recurrent sound begins a word or a stressed syllable within a word. It is similar to Scaife (2004) who defines alliteration as the repetition of the same sound beginning several words in sequence. Harris (2009:5) describes that alliteration is

―the recurrence of initial consonant sounds. The repetition can be juxtaposed (and then it is usually limited to two words)‖. The examples of alliteration are:

(2) I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet (Robert Frost, 1928, Acquainted with the Night) (3) Vini, vidi, vici (Julius Caesar, 47AD) (4) Those tidal thoroughbreds that tango through the turquoise tide (Paul McCann, Dancing Dolphins)

Anaphora is ―the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences, commonly in conjunction with climax and with parallelism‖ (Harris 2009:2). It is parallel to Scaife (2004) who mentions anaphora as the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines. McArthur (1992) also cites that anaphora is a term in rhetoric for the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, sentences, and stanzas. The examples of anaphora:

(15) To think on death it is a misery,/ To think on life it is a vanity;/ To think on the world verily it is,/ To think that here man hath no perfect bliss (Peacham) (16) Not time, not money, not laws, but willing diligence will get this done. (17) She stroked her kitty cat very softly, very slowly, very smoothly.

Anadiplosis in rhetoric means ―a word repeated for effect‖ (McArthur

1992:62). As stated by Scaife (2004), it is the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI next. Later, Harris (2009:2) concludes that ―this figure of speech repeats the last word of one phrase, clause, or sentence at or very near the beginning of the next‖. It can be generated in series for the sake of beauty or to give a sense of logical progression, for example:

(18) Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business (Francis Bacon, 398- 401, Works VI) (19) Victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory however long and hard the road may be (Winston Churchill, 1940, First Speech as Prime Minister)

Antithesis is a figure of speech where there is a juxtaposition of two contrasting ideas in a balanced clause or sentence. According to McArthur (1992), this figure of speech is ―a construction in which words are opposed but balanced‖.

Similar to McArthur, Abrams (1999:11) defines it ―as a contrast or opposition in the meanings of contiguous phrases or clauses that manifest parallelism—that is, a similar word-order and structure—in their syntax‖. Then, Scaife (2004) summarizes the meaning of antithesis as opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. Some examples of antithesis:

(20) To err is human, to forgive; divine (Pope, 1711). (21) Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike (1735, Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot)

Assonance etymologically comes from Latin meaning ‗sound‘. It relates to identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.

Traditionally, the term has been reserved for vowel repetition alone and consonance has been reserved for consonants, but this distinction is now rare. Assonance has been

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI described ―as both a kind of rhyme and an alternative to rhyme‖ (McArthur 1992:86).

It is parallel to Abrams (1999:9) who defines assonance ―as the repetition of identical or similar vowels—especially in stressed syllables—in a sequence of nearby words‖.

Briefly, assonance is repetition of the same sound in words close to each other (Scaife

2004). Some examples of assonance are:

(22) Those images that yet Fresh images beget, That dolphin-torn, that gong-tormented sea. (W.B. Yeats, 1928, Byzantium) (23) It beats as it sweeps as it cleans. (Slogan for Hoover vacuum cleaners)

Asyndeton is lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words (Scaife 2004). It consists of omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. In a list of items, asyndeton gives ―the effect of unpremeditated multiplicity, of an extemporaneous rather than a labored account‖ (Harris 2009:1). Some examples of this figure of speech:

(24) We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty (J. F. Kennedy) (25) They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.

Chiasmus is ―an inversion of word order that creates a counterbalancing effect in the second of two linked phrases‖ (McArthur 1992:209). It refers to ―a sequence of two phrases or clauses which are parallel in syntax, but reverse the order of the corresponding words‖ (Abrams 1999:272). Concisely, this figure of speech has two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted order (a-b-b-a); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X) (Scaife 2004), for example:

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(26) One must eat to live, not live to eat (Cicero) (27) Works without show, and without pomp pres.

Climax is ―an ascending series of words, ideas, or events, in which intensity and significance increase step by step‖ (MrArthur 1992:223). In brief, it is ―an ascending sequence of importance‖ (Abrams 1999:20). In climax, the words or clauses are arranged in ascending order of importance. Similar to the two people above, Scaife (2004) cites climax as arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next. These phrases have a similar theme and arranged in increasing order according to the impact they create on the reader. A few illustrations:

(28) Love creates happiness, happiness creates joy, joy creates enlightenment. (29) We'll collect pennies in tens, hundreds and millions! Power starts small, becomes significant then becomes unstoppable.

Epithet etymologically comes from Greek meaning ‗added‘. This figure of speech denotes ―an adjective or adjectival phrase used to define a distinctive quality of a person or thing‖ (Abrams 1999:82). Epithet is also ―an expression added to a name as a characterizing description, a formulaic phrase containing an adjective and a noun, a word or phrases that substitutes for another, or a word or phrase used to abuse and dismiss‖ (McArthur 1992:377). Harris (2009:6) mentions it ―as an adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the subject‖. The examples of Epithet are:

(30) A devil of a doctor.

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(31) William the Conqueror. (32) The snotgreen sea. The scrotumtightening sea. (James Joyce, 1922, Ulysses) (33) Bravely bold Sir Robin rode forth from Camelot. He was not afraid to die, oh brave Sir Robin. He was not at all afraid to be killed in nasty ways, brave, brave, brave, brave Sir Robin. (1975, Monty Python and the Holy Grail)

Euphemism is ―an inoffensive expression used in place of a blunt one that is felt to be disagreeable or embarrassing‖ (Abrams 1999:83). It refers to ―the use of a mild, comforting, or evasive expression that takes the place of one that is taboo, negative, offensive, or too direct‖ (McArthur 1992:387). Scaife (2004) concludes that euphemism is substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant. Thus, the use of a polite and gentle word substitutes an offensive of rude word is called euphemism. Like for instance:

(34) Differently abled instead of disabled. (35) Put to sleep instead of euthanasia

Exclamation is from Latin word which means ‗to call‘. It expresses strong feelings by making an exclamation. According to McArthur (1992:394),

―exclamation conveys a strong emotion‖. It is similar to Lanham (1991) who states exclamation is the same as ecphonesis which is expressing emotion. Thus, exclamatory form is used to draw greater attention to a point. The examples of exclamation are as follows:

(36) What a grand thing, to be loved! What a grander thing still, to love! (Victor Hugo) (37) Go confidently in the direction of your dreams! (Henry David Thoreau)

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(38) Calgon! Take me away! (advertising slogan)

Hendiadys, according to McArthur (1992:468), is ―a term in rhetoric for equal words joined by and, instead of one word with a modifier and similar words joined by and where one might have been enough, usually for emphasis, sometimes for phonaesthetic effect‖. In brief, this figure of speech refers to the use of two words connected by a conjunction, instead of subordinating one to the other, to express a single complex idea (Scaipe 2004), for example:

(39) It sure is nice and cool today! (for "pleasantly cool")

Hyperbole etymologically comes from Greek meaning ‗excess‘. It is ―a rhetorical term for exaggeration or overstatement, usually deliberate and not meant to be taken (too) literally‖ (McArthur 1992:491). Hyperbole can be categorized as a trope which means a figure that changes the typical meaning of a word or words.

Hyperbole defined by Abrams (1999:120) is ―bold overstatement, or the extravagant exaggeration of fact or of possibility‖. Parallel to the definitions above, Harris

(2009:5) states hyperbole ―as the counterpart of understatement, deliberately exaggerates conditions for emphasis or effect‖. This figure of speech is mainly used either for serious, ironic, or comic effect. It is to overstate a common situation or to make it look worse. Some hyperbole examples:

(40) The whole world was staring at me. (41) It is going to take a zillion years to get through medical school.

Irony is ―a statement in which the meaning that a speaker implies differs sharply from the meaning that is ostensibly expressed‖ (Abrams 1999:135). In

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI rhetoric, irony has a consequence contradictory to their usual meaning (McArthur

1992). It means that it is an expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning; the words say one thing but mean another (Scaipe 2004). An example of irony is:

(42) The boy is so intelligent that he failed in all the subjects. (Verbal Irony)

Isocolon etymologically comes from Greek which means ‗of equal members or clauses‘. It shows a succession of phrases of approximately equal length and corresponding structure. Stevens (2009) classifies isocolon as figures of repetition which involves repetition of the same grammatical structure in two or more phrases or clauses. Lanham (1991) also states that isocolon relates to phrases of approximately equal length and corresponding structure. In narrow definition, isocolon calls for the clauses to have the same number of syllables, for example:

(43) Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get. (Mark Twain) (44) It takes a licking, but it keeps on ticking! (advertising slogan of Timex watches) (45) I'm a Pepper, he's a Pepper, she's a Pepper, we're a Pepper--Wouldn't you like to be a Pepper, too? Dr. Pepper! (advertising jingle for Dr. Pepper soft drink)

Litotes etymologically comes from Greek meaning ‗plainness, simplicity. It is a figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. In rhetoric, according to McArthur (1992:622-

623), ―it is a positive and often emphatic statement made by denying something negative, as when St Paul called himself 'a citizen of no mean city' (Acts 21: 39)‖.

Concurrently, Abrams (1999:120) defines litotes ―as the assertion of an affirmative

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI by negating its contrary‖. Likewise, Harris (2009:1) defines that litotes is ―generated by denying the opposite or contrary of the word which otherwise would be used‖.

Common phrases involving litotes include:

(46) This kind of writing may be termed not improperly the comedy of romance (using litotes to make a modest assertion, saying "not improperly" rather than "correctly" or "best"). (47) A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.

Metonymy is ―a figure of speech which designates something by the name of something associated with it‖ (McArthur 1992:656). In metonymy, according to

Abrams (1999:98), ―the literal term for one thing is applied to another with which it has become closely associated because of a recurrent relationship in common experience‖. In depth, Harris (2009:5) defines metonymy ―as another form of metaphor, very similar to synecdoche, in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely associated with the subject with which it is to be compared‖. Here are some metonymy examples:

(48) The Crown substituting for monarchy. (49) The stage for the theatre. (50) The bottle for alcoholic drink. (51) No. 10 Downing Street for the British Prime Minister. (52) The White House for the US President.

Metaphor is ―a word or expression that in literal usage denotes one kind of thing is applied to a distinctly different kind of thing, without asserting a comparison‖

(Abrams 1999:97). Similar to Abrams, McArthur (1992:653) classifies metaphor ―as a figure of speech which concisely compares two things by saying that one is the other‖. It is an indirect comparison of two unconnected things. Harris (2009:5) clearly

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI characterizes metaphor ―as comparison of two different things by speaking of one in terms of the other‖. Very frequently a metaphor is stated by the to be verb. Some examples of metaphors include:

(53) He was a lion in the battlefield. (54) He is the apple of my eye.

Onomatopoeia sometimes called ―echoism, designates a word, or a combination of words, whose sound seems to resemble closely the sound it denotes‖

(Abrams 1999:199). As indicated by McArthur (1992:729), it is ―a figure of speech in which words are formed from natural sounds or used and sometimes adapted, including visually, to suggest a sound‖. Scaife (2004) concludes that onomatopoeia is the use of words to imitate natural sounds; accommodation of sound to sense.

Examples of onomatopoeia:

(55) The buzzing of bees. (56) The whirring of the washing machine.

Oxymoron is ―the paradoxical utterance conjoins two terms that in ordinary usage are contraries‖ (Abrams 1999:201). In accordance with McArthur (1992:739), oxymoron is ―a term in rhetoric for bringing opposites together in a compact paradoxical word or phrase‖. Next, Scaife (2004) decides that oxymoron is apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one another.

Some oxymoron examples are:

(57) I burn and freeze. (58) I must be cruel only to be kind (Shakespeare, 1603, Hamlet)

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Paradox is ―a statement which seems on its face to be logically contradictory or absurd, yet turns out to be interpretable in a way that makes good sense‖ (Abrams

1999:201). McArthur (1992:748) also states that paradox is ―a term in rhetoric for a situation or statement that is or seems self-contradictory and even absurd, but may contain an insight into life‖. The similarity comes from Scaife (2004) who concludes the definition of paradox as an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it. The examples of using paradox:

(59) One short sleep past, we wake eternally And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. (60) The child is father of the man.

Personification is ―a subtype of metaphor where something inanimate is treated as if it has human qualities or is capable of human actions‖ (Knowles and

Moon 2006:5). Similar to Knowles and Moon, McArthur (1992:764) states that personification has been regarded ―as both a figure in its own right and as an aspect of metaphor in which non-human is identified with human‖. Subsequently, Harris

(2009:5) asserts that ―personification metaphorically represents an animal or inanimate object as having human attributes--attributes of form, character, feelings, behavior, and so on. Ideas and abstractions can also be personified‖. The example of personification given by Knowles and Moon (2006:6) and Harris (2009) can be seen as follows:

(61) The wind began to scream, and we could see the tops of the long- leafed pine trees doing a mad dance against the black sky. (62) After two hours of political platitudes, everyone grew bored. The delegates were bored; the guests were bored; the speaker himself was bored. Even the chairs were bored.

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Obviously, the trees are not actually dancing; while verbs such as scream, howl, whisper, shriek, which more literally describe human or animal noises, are conventionally used metaphorically to describe the sound made by the wind, machines, or other in-animates. It also occurs on the adjective bored which belongs to human attribute.

Polysyndeton is the use of a conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause, and is thus structurally the opposite of asyndeton. ―The rhetorical effect of polysyndeton, however, often shares with that of asyndeton a feeling of multiplicity, energetic enumeration, and building up‖ (Harris 2009:1). Briefly, Scaife (2004) defines it as the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses. Some examples of this figure of speech:

(63) They read and studied and wrote and drilled. I laughed and played and talked and flunked. (64) [He] pursues his way, / And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies (John Milton)

Simile is a figure of speech, in which ―a more or less fanciful or unrealistic comparison is made, using like or as‖ (McArthur 1992:935). Abrams (1999:97) states that ―in a simile, a comparison between two distinctly different things is explicitly indicated by the word like or as". Also Harris (2009) asserts that simile is a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way.

In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc.) known to the reader. Simile examples are:

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(65) O my love is like a red, red rose. (66) Life is like an onion: You peel it off one layer at a time, and sometimes you weep.

Synathroesmus is etymologically from Greek meaning ‗collection‘. It is a figure of speech for the piling up of adjectives, often in the spirit of invective.

According to Cuddon and Preston (1998), this figure of speech relates to an accumulation of words of different meaning in a sentence or a sequence of clauses. In short, Lanham (1991) asserts this figure of speech is word heaps which has a meaning with congeries and acumulatio. It means that synathroesmus is a heaping together of words of different meaning, with or without a recapitulation at the end (Joseph 1947).

The example of using synathroesmus:

(67) He's a proud, haughty, consequential, turned-up-nose peacock. (Charles Dickens, 1838, Nicholas Nickleby) (68) He was a gasping, wheezing, clutching, covetous old man. (Charles Dickens, 1843, A Christmas Carol) (69) Lipsmackin' thirstquenchin' acetastin' motivatin' goodbuzzin' cooltalkin' highwalkin' fastlivin' evergivin' coolfizzin' Pepsi. (commercial slogan for Pepsi Cola)

Synecdoche etymologically is a Greek word which means ‗shared understanding‘. In synecdoche, ―a part of something is used to signify the whole, or

(more rarely) the whole is used to signify a part‖ (Abrams 1999:98). This figure of speech is classified as trope which changes the typical meaning of a word or words. It is defined as substitution of part for whole, genus for species, or vice versa. It is similar to McArthur (1992:1014) who classifies synecdoche as ―a figure of speech concerned with parts and wholes‖. Scaife (2004) supports the idea of synecdoche as

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI an understanding one thing with another; the use of a part for the whole, or the whole for the part. Synecdoche examples are:

(70) The city posted a sign, where 'the city' refers to the government. (71) The gray beard refers to an old man. (72) White-collar criminals.

Tautology is ―a term in rhetoric for unnecessary and ineffective repetition, usually with words that add nothing new‖ (McArthur 1992:1022). Scaife (2004) states concisely that it is a repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence. Some examples about tautology:

(73) With malice toward none, with charity for all (Lincoln, 1865, Second Inaugural) (74) She was all alone by herself; Me myself personally.

Zeugma in Greek means "yoking"; in the most common present usage, it is applied to ―expressions in which a single word stands in the same grammatical relation to two or more other words, but with an obvious shift in its significance‖

(Abrams 1999:272). In rhetoric, zeugma is ―a phrase in which a word, usually a verb, is followed by two or more other words that commonly collocate with it, but not together‖ (McArthur 1999:1146). Harris (2009) specifies that zeugmatic usage would include one subject with two (or more) verbs, a verb with two (or more) direct objects, two (or more) subjects with one verb, and so forth. The main benefit of the linking is that it shows relationships between ideas and actions more clearly. Some examples of zeugma:

(75) I was on the plane and my bags on the ground. (76) Pride opresseth humility; hatred love; cruelty compassion (Peacham)

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(77) Alexander conquered the world; I, Minneapolis.

The following table is the brief explanation regarding the most common figures of speech.

Table 2.2: Definition of Figures of Speech

No. Figures of Speech Definition

1 Alliteration Repetition of initial consonants

The repetition of the same word or group of 2 Anaphora words at the beginning of successive clauses

Repetition of a word at the end of a clause at the 3 Anadiplosis beginning of another

The juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting 4 Antithesis ideas

The repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly 5 Assonance within a short passage of verse.

6 Asyndeton Omission of conjunctions between related clauses

Reversal of grammatical structures in successive 7 Chiasmus clauses

The arrangement of words in order of increasing 8 Climax importance

A descriptive name or phrase used to characterize 9 Epithet someone or something

Substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable 10 Euphemism term for another

11 Exclamation To draw greater attention to a point

Use of two nouns to express an idea when the 12 Hendiadys normal structure would be a noun and a modifier

13 Hyperbole Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis

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Table 2.2: (cont‘d)

No. Figures of Speech Definition

Use of word in a way that conveys a meaning 14 Irony opposite to its usual meaning

Use of parallel structures of the same length in 15 Isocolon successive clauses

Emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by 16 Litotes denying its opposite

Substitution of a word to suggest what is really 17 Metonymy meant

18 Metaphor An implied comparison of two things

19 Onomatopoeia A word which imitates the sound it makes

Using two terms together, that normally 20 Oxymoron contradict each other

Use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out 21 Paradox some underlying truth

Attributing a personality to some impersonal 22 Personification objects

23 Polysyndeton Repetition of conjunctions

24 Simile An explicit comparison between two things

25 Synathrouesmus The piling up of adjectives

A form of metonymy, in which a part stands for 26 Synecdoche the whole

Redundancy due to superfluous qualification; 27 Tautology saying the same thing twice

A figure of speech related to syllepsis, but 28 Zeugma different in that the word used as a modifier is not compatible with one of the two words it modifies

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Language using figures of speech refers to figurative language or non-literal language in which the language cannot be taken literally. In relation to meaning, figurative language provides new ways of looking at the world. According to

Holtgraves as cited in Colston and Katz (2005:73), non-literal language, however, is

―not a monolithic phenomenon‖. Instead, there is a massive number of ways in which non-literal meanings can be expressed and comprehended, and one of the most important ways in which these meanings differ is in terms of their sensitivity and understanding to the context (Colston and Katz 2005). The main principle should be noted that literal meaning of a word has constantly meaning and it will remain the same while the figurative meaning has variable meaning but still has similarity to the basic meaning. c. Purpose of Figures of Speech

The important characteristic of advertising can be seen through the extensive use of figures of speech. Chuandao (2005) states the use of figures of speech in advertisements aims at arousing and persuading consumers to buy what is advertised.

Their proper use can make an advertisement sweet to the ear, and pleasing to both the eye and the mind.

Rhetorical figures or figures of speech could be advantageous to advertisers for several reasons. McQuarrie and Mick (1999) claim that artful deviation, most importantly, adds interest to an advertisement. Furthermore, Stern (1988) states that figures of speech have important functions for advertising in general and services messages in particular. She says that the purpose of non-literal usage through the use

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI of figures of speech is to make things more imaginatively appealing. According to

Barnet as cited in Stern (1988), figurative language is imaginatively exciting in three ways: concrete, condensed, and interesting. It means that the creative use of figurative language through figures of speech in advertising slogan texts can create messages which are expressively alive, rationally appealing, and memorable. d. Place of Figures of Speech in Advertisement

Advertisement consists of some texts which present information about the product. Texts used in advertisement generally contain descriptive information about the product and function to catch the readers‘ attention. For instance, it can be found in the implementation of short phrases used in slogan.

Since headline, body-copy, and slogan are the components of advertisement, they consist of some texts as well. Those three components contain message and advertising appeal. In order to catch people‘s attention and create memorable impression, advertisement should have rhetorical device or figures of speech on its text whether it is on headline, body-copy, or slogan.

Furthermore, Aiwei (2010) classifies advertisement style into eight features, namely (1) concision, (2) clarity, (3) comparative and superlative construction, (4) neologism, (5) repetition, (6) non-sophistication, (7) promise function, (8) rhetorical device. He summarizes those eight features as follows: concision and clarity can be labeled as belonging to the category of text features; neologism and repetition can be put under the general category of lexical features; comparative and superlative and non-sophistication under the category of grammatical features; promise function in

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the category of functional feature; and rhetorical device traditionally in the category of rhetoric feature.

3. Advertising

Advertising exists in the media such as newspapers, magazines, radio, television, outdoor hoardings and posters, and even internet. The sole purpose of advertising is to sell something, namely a product, a service, or merely an idea through effective communication. Advertising is defined by Harris & Seldon

(1962:40) as a public notice `designed to spread information with a view to promoting the sales of marketable goods and services'. Corresponding to Harris &

Seldon, Economist Books as quoted in Brierley (1995:3), advertising is ―use of media to inform consumers about something and/or to persuade them to do something‖. It means that advertising can be classified as a type of promotion which occupies communication and persuasion. In the simple word, Dyer (1982:2) claims that advertising means ―drawing attention to something, or notifying or informing somebody of something‖. Consequently, advertising is a form of communication which attempts to persuade or convince people, in this case reader, viewer, or listener, to pay for the product, image, idea, or service.

Since it proposes as promotion media, advertising can be utilized in provoking consumer to purchase goods and to change opinions. This promotion can be successful if the advertising completes the five functions, namely (1) attracting attention, (2) commanding interest, (3) creating desire, (4) inspiring conviction, and

(5) provoking action. (Vestergaard and Schroder, 1985). Based on its purpose,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI advertisement can be categorized into non-commercials and commercials. The former relates to common public service, such as government organization or other various associations which intend to social activities or interests, charity, or propaganda. The latter then can be sub-classified into commercial consumer advertisements which involve consumer goods and prestige advertisements which include services (Nayak

2002).

Seeing as non-commercials and commercials, advertisement conveys information and promotion by the use of audio, visual, and language. In the internet, the information and promotion are communicated with the mixture of the three mentioned above. The messages in internet are text and picture based (Janoschka

2004). The language used in advertisement has important role in delivering the message using persuasion and it has some components which can be divided into (1) headline, standing on the top of the advertisement and composes message with attractive manner, (2) body copy, containing the main part of advertising message, (3) signature line, stating the brand name together with slogan, price tag, and trade mark,

(4) standing details, including the location of company. a. Language of Advertising

―Leisure and tourism experiences are literally constructed in our imagination through advertising and the media‖ (Morgan and Pritchard 2000:10). As a result, the language used in advertisement is different with the language used in day to day conversation because it should have sense of persuading, promoting, and selling. It is similar to Holmes (2005) who describes language used in advertisement as functional

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI dialect. She correlates the term functional as a language which is chosen and used for a particular purpose and the term dialect as a language which consequently becomes a variety of its own because it becomes associated with the particular function.

As stated by Leech as quoted in Bruthiaux (1996:26), ―advertising language is a subliterary genre‖. He says that the advertisement writer often relies on unexpected strategies of novel and creative exploitation of language within predictable linguistic patterns and techniques. Hence, attracting and sustaining the reader‘s attention, making the advertisement memorable, and prompting the reader into appropriate action are the writer‘s rhetorical aim in which it is met by systematically setting of a familiar pattern against creative and original use. The writer‘s rhetorical aim here refers to the use of metaphors or figures of speech. It is logical since metaphors are the common denominators of advertising. It is clearly stated by Brierley (1995:139) in which ―metaphors work by transferring the feelings, emotions and images from one set of objects or they work by associating certain objects with the brand‖. It means that advertisers try to place different things together to suggest that a connection or a link exists.

People, as the object of advertisement, try themselves to create their own meaning from given item. The copywriter of advertising should consider the different perspective which people get. Advertisers who use people in advertisements often face problems with the interpretations of meaning by different groups in society.

Consequently, Brierley (1995:140) claims that our understanding of human categories of gender, ethnicity, age, class, and sexuality makes it more difficult for the advertiser to convey a simple linear message to the viewer. Furthermore, advertising

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI copywriters, as stated by Goddard (1998), regularly produce texts which are as highly created as any piece of literature, using completely the resources of language and asking creative and subtle readings from their users. ―As semiotic beings, texts are characterized by their potential multiplicity of meanings‖ (Lehkonen 2000:78). The preconditions for the formation of meanings differ concerning the different types of written and other texts. As an example, an obvious difference occurs in producing a science report and an advertising slogan. The former is written as an attempt to follow the rules, whereas the latter is written in such a way as to leave sufficient space for the reader‘s connotations.

Related to Goddard, Dyer (1982) states that advertisers use language quite distinctively and copy writers are used to play with words and manipulate the meanings; they break the rules of language for effect, use words out of context and even make up new ones. Hence, grabbing attention and sustaining memory can be categorized as the functions of advertising language. It can be seen in advertising slogan texts which use unusual or stylish words and short. They should be able to bring people‘s attention in the most attractive way.

As mentioned by Bruthiaux (1996), the message of advertisement must be explanatory and attention grabbing which obviously consists of persuasive elements.

Since the function of advertising language is to attract people‘s attention, slogan as a part of advertisement should be easy to remember. According to Shankel as quoted in Lu (2004:51), slogans are ―significant symbol of a society inasmuch as they are carefully crafted phrases or expression that suggest actions, evoke emotional responses, and perform persuasive functions‖. Due to this, advertisers or copy writers

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI often employ numerous rhetorical devices or figures of speech to present vivid imagination and strong appeal and to persuade and attract people‘s attention so that they are interested in product or image which is promoted through advertising slogan.

There are many strategies applied by the copywriters to communicate their ideas through advertising slogans. The use of various rhetorical terms or figures of speech is one of the approaches they used in delivering the message and persuading people. With the intention of comprehending the meanings of message conveyed by slogan texts, the theory of language used in advertising should be recognized by people who are positioned as the object of advertisement. b. Slogan Texts and Text Types

Bovéé and Arens (1989) describe that slogan is successful headline that became a battle cry of a company in the course of time. It is known that slogan becomes the most important element of advertisement. Slogan is usually short and simple, thus memorable and easy to repeat, distinguishing the product, service or company from its competitors. The successful slogan lies on the texts which should be catchy and easy to remember. Since its functions are to persuade and attract people‘s attention by using persuasive language, the rhetorical devices such as metaphor, simile, exaggeration, etc are also applied intentionally in advertising slogan.

The use of rhetorical device also occurs in proverbs which are also used as headlines in many advertisements. Copywriters have also attempted to create proverb-like slogans that will be easy to remember and recognize. As stated by

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Mieder (2004:244), ―the difference between the slogan and the proverb lies therefore not so much in form but rather in the intended message‖. Still based on Mieder

(2004), the statement in slogan expresses narrow and particular advertising theme while proverb articulates general reality and truth. Subsequently, it can be assumed that slogan is the most important element of advertisement and proverb is frequently used in creating slogan.

After having understanding about slogan, text in slogan should be given attention in order to catch the meaning behind the text. Different types of texts have distinctive features, depending on what they are made to do, such as for everyday, formal, entertaining, or informational uses. Knapp and Watkins (2005) classify text into three different types, namely literary texts, factual texts, and media texts. They say that the language used in literary texts is to create images in readers‘ minds by using figurative language and poetics which enable readers to create their own meanings. In factual text, it has primary aim of communicating knowledge which refers to the exchange of knowledge in learning areas whereas media text is text used in channel of mass communication, such as print, film, or broadcasting. Since the use of figurative language, namely rhetorical term and the channel of communication, specifically internet, it can be decided that text used in tourism advertising slogan with figures of speech is part of literary and media texts.

According to Halliday and Hasan (1989), text is language that is functional and playing some parts in a context of situation. It can be either spoken or written.

Text is made of words or sentences and certainly has meanings. In social-semiotic perspective, text is a social exchange of meanings. ―The text is an instance of the

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI process and product of social meaning in a particular context of situation‖ (Halliday and Hasan 1989:11). Concerning to the context of situation, it can be divided into three features, namely field refers to what is happening, tenor refers to who are taking part, and mode refers to what part the language is playing (Halliday and Hasan,1989).

Relating to the tourism advertising slogan texts, it is clear that the field is promoting tourism location, the tenor is between (copy) writers and tourists, and the mode is written text which occurs in internet.

Furthermore, Hammond et al. as cited in Lee (2001) classify text types together with their genres in the following table.

Table 2.3: The Examples of Genres and Text Types

Genre Text Type Recipe Procedure Personal letter Anecdote Advertisement Description Police report Description Student essay Exposition Formal letter Exposition Format letter Problem–Solution News item Recount Health brochure Procedure Student assignment Recount Biology textbook Report Film review Review

From the table above, it can be seen that more than one genre may share the same type. For example, the genres of advertisement and police report may both share the

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI text type of description. Equally, a single genre, such as formal letters, may be associated with more than one text type; in this case, exposition and problem-solution

(Paltridge 1996) c. Short Functional Text

Short functional text is a short text which consists of command, direction, or something which consists of prohibition, invitation, greeting cards, short message, shopping list, notice, brochure, advertisement or announcement. Advertisement, for instance, is categorized as a type of short functional text since it functions to advertise or promote a product, image, or idea. The text used in advertisement is commonly short and memorable. It is more clearly seen in slogan as a component of advertisement. The text used in slogan must be short and memorable because it is used to offer something or to persuade the readers. Furthermore, Klauke (1992:98) explains that ―the functionality of text is to provide the reader with information‖.

Thus, he differentiates text segments with different functions: descriptive, instructive, and directive. Relating to texts used in advertisement, those three functions are applied in advertisement or in advertising slogan. d. Generic Structure and Lexicogrammatical Features

The purpose of text influences the text structure including grammar and vocabulary. The text structure is influenced by the text types, for example, whether it is recount, description, exposition, or report. Yet, there are certain similarities within the texts with the same purposes. The similarities create an expectation of the general

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI schematic structure of the text which then is called generic structure of a text

(Listyani 2006).

Due to advertisement is categorized as one of description text types, it can be said that its generic structure is different, for instance, from recount text. The purpose of advertisement is to catch people‘s attention, then, its text structure must be different from other text types. It can be seen from the beginning structure of the text.

Most of advertisements consist of assertion or direction in the beginning of their texts which function to convince and request people to buy the product. They also identify phenomenon to be described and describes parts, qualities, and characteristics.

Besides generic structure, lexicogrammatical features are also different in every types of text. Gerot and Wignell (1994:190) claim that ―lexicogrammatical features of various genres are integral to those genres, for it is through the lexicogrammatical choices that meaning is built up in a text‖. As the genre of advertisement is a text type of description which functions to describe a particular person, place or thing, it has a tendency to use simple present tense, focus on specific participants, and use of attributive and identifying processes. Comparing to the recount text, it uses simple past tense because the purpose of recount text is to retell the past event.

Since slogan is a component of advertisement, it is useful to keep in mind that the texts of slogans syntactically consist of short sentences, elliptical sentences, interrogative sentences, negative sentences, imperative sentences, minor sentences.

Besides having syntactic features, slogan texts also contain lexical features, i.e. the use of the first and second person pronoun, i.e. I, You, and We; the use of emotive and

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI evaluative adjectives, such as best, great, etc; the use of negative words, for example: no, nothing, never; the use of inclusive words, for instance: always, everything; the use of compound words, such as first class, home-made; and the use of coined words, for example: twogether, everywear, etc.. These features can be noticed more detail in the examples of analysis.

B. Review of Related Studies

There are two studies that discuss figurative language used in advertisement.

One is a study about critical discourse analysis by Jalilifar (2010). The title of his study is The Rhetoric of Persian and English Advertisement. It studies about the use of rhetorical figures or figures of speech in advertisement.

There are five parts of advertisement which are analyzed in the study above, namely headline, body copy, slogan, illustration, and trade mark. The study tries to trace the application of rhetorical figures in Persian and English advertising in order to discover how this genre is treated in the two languages and aims to scrutinize the rhetorical features and generic characteristics of advertisements in order to identify the characteristic features of the sample advertisements in the two languages.

Newspapers description is chosen for analysis in the study.

Another study is done by Xang and Gao (2009) entitled An Analysis of

Conceptual Metaphor in Western Commercial Advertisements. The focus of this study is only on verbal advertisements and pictorial advertisements. This study wants to make clear how conceptual metaphor works effectively in advertising for the purpose of persuading the audience into buying the product advertised.

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As a consequence, there is a different purpose between the two studies and the current study. The focus of the current study is on the meaning of advertising slogan texts using figures of speech particularly on the tourism slogans while the two studies focus on the application and the influence of rhetorical figures or metaphor in advertisements.

C. Theoretical Framework

As has been mentioned in the first part of this sub-topic, meaning can be implied literally and figuratively. Since the focus of this study is on the meanings of figures of speech, it has a tendency to the sense and the importance of figures of speech used in tourism slogan texts.

The theory of meaning based on semantics tries to explain what meaning is and to describe what is and what is not a meaningful expression as well as the systematic relation between words and sentences along with what they mean. This theory will assist the writer to distinguish and classify whether the word or the sentence has denotative meaning or connotative meaning, such as using semantic features.

The theory of meaning based pragmatics is needed to analyze a text from its context. This theory concerns mainly with the interpretation of discourse using explicature and implicature. It is how a text is interpreted by a reader with regard to the context. It provides the writer with a major clue in her attempts in interpreting the slogan texts based on (copy) writers‘ and readers‘ interpretation.

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The speech act theory provides sufficient inputs in relating the word or sentence to speaker‘s or writer‘s intention and in interpreting the word or sentence in any context. By applying this theory, the writer is able to determine the intended meaning of the texts in tourism advertising slogans.

The theory of figures of speech elaborates some criteria of diction which cannot be taken literally. This theory is expected to assist the writer to identify and understand the creation of interesting images represented by figures of speech.

The theory of advertising gives details the component of advertisement, the language used in advertising, the function of advertising. This theory is required to support the writer to recognize the slogans as a part of advertisement and the common features used in slogan text.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This sub-topic is divided into four sections, namely type of study, research data, data analysis, and test (result verification). The first section discusses about the type of research which uses descriptive qualitative. The second section is research data which conveys data collection and system. The third section is about data analysis which provides the steps and procedures to answer the research problems.

The fourth section refers to result verification which presents the pre-analysis of the data.

A. Type of Study

The field of the study is basically semantics and pragmatics. This study attempts to see the semantic and pragmatic aspects of meaning, particularly the non- literal meaning based on the figures of speech and the intended meaning based on illocutionary acts.

Singleton and Straits (1999) mention that the sources of available data could be placed in five categories: (i) public documents and official records, (ii) private documents, (iii) mass media, including newspaper, magazines, television, radio, films, (iv) physical, as well as oral and nonverbal materials, and (v) social science data archives. Relating to the categorization, the nature of this study is descriptive qualitative research using available data taken through internet.

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The intention of descriptive research used in language study is to describe and explain certain language phenomena based on the observed data which then result kinds of description, explanation, and even prediction. Relating to the intention of descriptive research, this research attempts to describe the use of figurative language particularly in tourism advertising slogan texts and to explain the meanings of the slogan texts using figures of speech and illocutionary acts.

According to Berg (2001:3), “qualitative research refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things”. “Qualitative research is time intensive, requiring dwelling with text, tracking insights, revisiting the texts again and again in light of changing appreciation of its depth and implications” (Fischer 2006:XXI). The reason to use qualitative methodology is on the intensity of this method which in this case attempts to discover the use of figurative language in non-literary texts and to describe the relationship between the non-literary meaning and the intended meaning. Therefore the intensity of this method is considered to answer the three research problems which have been mentioned in chapter I.

B. Research Data

Data collection is appropriate when study items have been decided.

Techniques in collecting the data permit us to systematically gather information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena). One of the data collection techniques is using available information, such as data from internet. Qualitative research relies primarily on the collection of qualitative data (i.e., nonnumeric data

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI such as words and pictures). “Many qualitative studies rely on a single data-collection method, either document analysis or interviewing” (Jankowski and Wester 1991:59).

For this reason, the data collection was taken from selected searches in Google pages which were mostly taken from the database of tourism advertising slogans. Since the object of this study was tourism slogan texts, the slogan texts were not limited to the latest ones but they were taken randomly from the year of 2007 as the oldest until the year of 2010 as the latest. The total number of slogan texts found in internet was 130 which were taken as the data including tagline and motto because they had similarity in promoting and advertising the image of tourism location. The 130 slogan texts collected had represented the 5 continents in the world.

The cyclic system was used to analyze all 130 slogan texts collected. Hence, there were 20 slogan texts analyzed at the first cycle in order to identify the figures of speech and it was found 9 figures of speech. Then, other 20 slogan texts were taken at the second cycle to obtain other different types of figures of speech and the result was

5 new types of figures of speech found at this cycle. Once more, there were 20 different slogan texts taken at the third cycle to recognize whether there is a new type of figures of speech or not. Significantly, there was nothing found at this cycle. Since addition of new data did not yield a new result or finding, the data selection were terminated at the third cycle.

The source of the data was from internet which was known as the most effective mass media in delivering message globally. The reason deciding internet as the source of data was it used English mostly and it had become a means of

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI communication in which people all around the world were accustomed using it nowadays.

C. Data Analysis

Dealing with the method to accomplish the analysis, the writer introduced several procedures to answer the three research problems. The first procedure was employed as a preliminary step in gathering the data. The writer started collecting all slogan texts from the database in internet randomly. As mentioned previously, the slogan texts were not limited to the latest ones but they are taken from 2007 until

2010 because some countries had not updated their slogans yet. After browsing through internet, the data, then, were stored as soft copies.

The second procedure was to identify the figures of speech used in the advertising slogan texts. From 130 slogan texts collected at the first procedure, the data collected, then, were sorted to separate whether they have figures of speech or not. The separation was entailed to simplify the process of classification.

Conclusively, the 130-collected data would be used for major data to answer the three research problems.

The third procedure was to answer the first research problem, namely what figures of speech do the tourism advertising slogan texts have? by classifying the slogan texts based on their figures of speech. The process of classification was derived from the explanation of types of figures of speech. Based on the data sorted, there were 14 types of figures of speech that would be used to analyze the data, namely, in alphabetical order, alliteration, anaphora, assonance, asyndeton, epithet,

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI exclamation, hyperbole, isocolon, litotes, metonymy, oxymoron, personification, simile, and synathroesmus.

The fourth procedure was to answer the second research problem, namely what meanings do figures of speech show in tourism advertising slogan texts? through analyzing the meaning of the figures of speech occurred in the slogan texts.

Consequently, this process of analysis might involve the organized explanation of sense and purpose using the figures of speech. The explanation enabled the writer to discover the relation among sense, purpose, and socio-cultural background in using the figures of speech on the slogan texts. For instance: the tourism slogan from

Iceland: Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. The way life should be. This slogan offered a promise and an experience of perfect place for tourists. It could be seen on the three adjectives which refer to the untouchable place. Based on the semantic features (detailed on chapter 2), the three adjectives above Pure, Natural, Unspoiled might be represented as a set of features related to cleanliness and freshness. Tourists could find the real genuine atmosphere there in which Iceland should be in the forefront of environment-friendly tourism.

The fifth procedure was to answer the third research problem, namely what illocutionary acts do the slogan texts have in tourism advertising slogans? regarding the analysis of the kinds of illocutionary acts occur in the slogan texts. In this procedure, the writer attempted to explain the influence of figurative language through the use of figures of speech to the intended meaning. The pragmatic theory, namely indirect speech acts became applicable in analyzing these slogan texts which were categorized as monologic (one-way transmission of communication) discourse.

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The sixth procedure was to make sure the reliability of the analysis done by the writer. This step was used to construct the second opinion from others. The writer started asking some of her friends regarding their ideas to the meanings of figures of speech used in tourism slogans. Then, the writer began to compare their answers to the writer’s analysis. It can be seen on the next subheading regarding the result verification.

D. Test (Result Verification)

Result verification was required to construct pre-analysis of the data. It was useful to illustrate how the data were tested to answer the three research problems in chapter I. The following was the illustration of the analysis to a single slogan text.

The tourism advertising slogan from Panama It Will Never Leave You was taken as an example of result verification test. It could be seen that personification was used in the slogan in which it represented an inanimate object as having human attribute. Obviously, the subject it referred to Panama which lexically had the feature non-living, while the verb leave required that its subject be living. Noticeably, the verb leave, which more literally described human or animal action, was used metaphorically to describe the action made by the tourism location, Panama.

Representation of human attribute could convey many more meanings than inanimate attribute besides making the slogan persuasive and attractive. The explanation and examples of personification in detail can be seen in chapter 2 page 35.

From the sense of personification occurred in the slogan, the meaning of verb leave corresponded to the action done by Panama. It figuratively meant that after

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI visiting Panama, the memory of the place would still remain in the tourist’s mind.

The diction of verb leave pointed to the never-ending memory. Thus, the meaning of personification used in this slogan is to attract and persuade people to visit the place.

Corresponding to the illocutionary act, the tourism advertising slogan from

Panama could be interpreted as a promise. It could be seen from the use of modal verb will which was used to express inevitable event in this case the never-ending memory. In using the phrase will never leave, the slogan made the force as an implicit promise instead of using the explicit promise, such as we promise you. Thus, the intention of this slogan showed the commitment of Panama to a certain future action.

It related to commissive act which its explanation can be seen in chapter 2 page 19.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

As stated in the research objectives in the introductory section, this research is conducted in order to find the figures of speech used in tourism advertising slogan texts, to identify the meanings of the figures of speech, and to identify the illocutionary acts in the texts of tourism advertising slogans.

This section provides discussion on the findings from the analyses of the data which are presented in three sections. The first section deals with a scrutiny on the figures of speech. The second section deals with a discussion on the meanings of the figures of speech. The third section deals with the meaning implied by the illocutionary acts in the text of tourism advertising slogans.

A. Observed Figures of Speech

This analysis is to answer the first research problem which tries to identify kinds of figures of speech used in tourism slogan texts. By observing the data collected, there are 14 figures of speech found in data, namely alliteration, anaphora, assonance, asyndeton, epithet, exclamation, hyperbole, isocolon, litotes, metonymy, oxymoron, personification, simile, and synathroesmus (see appendix 1 for details).

The analysis firstly goes to the most frequent figures of speech used on tourism slogans.

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The figures of speech, the data number, and the examples can be presented as follows:

Table 4.3: The Examples of Figures of Speech

No. Figures of Speech Data Number Examples

1 Alliteration 78 Beautiful Bangladesh

79 Colorful Colorado

80 Definitely Dubai

86 My sunny side of life

2 Anaphora 108 Best place best taste

109 Right here. Right now

110 Worth a visit worth a lifetime

112 Great faces. Great places

3 Assonance 113 Feeling is believing

114 A new point of view

115 Once you go you know

117 Smiling faces beautiful places

4 Asyndeton 134 Come see for yourself

5 Epithet 103 Land of midnight sun

104 Great potatoes tasty destination

106 Splendid Lebanon

107 Amazing Thailand

6 Exclamation 135 Smile! You are in Spain!

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Table 4.3: (cont’d)

No. Figures of Speech Data Number Examples

7 Hyperbole 123 A world of treasures

124 A whole world on a single island

125 Soul of the earth

8 Isocolon 118 Admit it you love it

119 Once you come you will never leave

121 Small miracle, find your miracle

122 What happens here, stay here

9 Litotes 126 We can’t wait to say G’day

127 No artificial ingredients

10 Metonymy 128 The Grand Canyon State

129 Land of Lincoln

130 The islands of Aloha

131 Heart of the Mayan world

11 Oxymoron 132 Little big country

133 Come as you are. Leave different

12 Personification 89 One happy island

90 Keys come as you are

93 The land that sings

96 Turkey welcomes you

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Table 4.3: (cont’d)

No. Figures of Speech Data Number Examples

13 Simile 99 Kansas, as big as you think

100 Feels like coming home

101 There’s no place like home

102 It’s like a whole other country

14 Synathroesmus 136 Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland.

The way life should be

The first figure of speech frequently used in tourism slogan is alliteration. As we know, alliteration refers to the repetition on initial consonant sound. Alliteration used in advertising slogan has unique characteristic in which it gives a good way of making a line memorable. The following is the list of tourism slogans using alliteration sense.

(78) Beautiful Bangladesh (Bangladesh) (79) Colorful Colorado (Colorado) (80) Definitely Dubai (Dubai) (81) Sunshine state (Florida) (82) Georgia on my mind (Georgia) (83) A love for life (Hungary) (84) Incredible India (India) (85) Italy much more (Italy) (86) My sunny side of life (Maldives) (87) Mystical Myanmar (Myanmar) (88) Where spring spends the summer (Rabun County (Clayton) Georgia)

It can be seen from slogan (78) to slogan (88); most of them repeat the consonant sound twice except slogan (88) which repeats the consonant S three times. Besides

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the initial consonant sound repetition, the parallel pronunciation also occurs on some slogans, namely slogan (79), (82), (84), (86), and (87).

The second figure which is used in tourism slogan is personification.

Personification, by its definition, is giving personal or human attribute to some impersonal or non human objects. Giving personification sense to tourism slogans can promote trust and affection to tourists and as a result they have desire to visit the location. The effectiveness of personification in English advertisements lies in its potency of endowing products with emotion and liveliness. The eight slogans below have personification sense on their line.

(89) One happy island (Aruba) (90) Keys come as you are (Florida) (91) Rhythms of spice (Grenada) (92) Hong Kong will take your breath away (Hong Kong) (93) The land that sings (Latvia) (94) It will never leave you (Panama) (95) Touch your heart (Taiwan) (96) Turkey welcomes you (Turkey)

Slogan (89) until (96) have human attribute which can be seen on forms of adjective, verb, and noun and those forms are connected to the inanimate objects. For example in slogan (89), it uses adjective happy which constantly belongs to human attribute.

The use of adjective happy is to portray the state of the island. Metaphorically, the island which is clearly inanimate object is personified by adding human attribute.

Furthermore, slogan (93) uses verb sing which more literally describes animate action whereas the subject land is obviously non-human. Thus, the subject land is treated as if it has human quality by giving verb sing. Then, slogan (91) applies noun rhythms

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI which illustrates movement or animate behavior. Relating to the word spice, it represents inanimate object which is impossible doing movement such as rhythms. As a result, this slogan can be categorized into personification.

Simile is the third figure used in tourism slogan. The slogans below contain simile sense in which two unlike things are compared by using like or as. The use of simile in slogan is sometime clichéd and willing to creative alterations of clichés that can be pleasantly surprising.

(97) There’s no place like it (New South Wales) (98) The Mediterranean as it once was (Croatia) (99) Kansas, as big as you think (Kansas) (100) Feels like coming home (Mississippi) (101) There’s no place like home (Kansas) (102) It’s like a whole other country (Texas)

From six slogans above, they show the comparison between two things, such as comparing tourist location with others. For instance, in slogan (97), the pronoun it refers to New South Wales or Sydney as the capital city which is compared with other places; it is similar to slogan (101) in which the word home lexically means location for living can be associated to Kansas. Slogan (98) gives comparison between present time and past time while slogan (100) offers similarity between Mississippi and home which also happens in slogan (102) giving parallel between Texas and whole other country. There is also comparative construction used when comparing two things, namely as…as which is shown in slogan (99).

Epithet is also used in tourism slogan. By definition, epithet is an expression added to a name as a characterizing description containing an adjective and a noun.

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This figure of speech characterizes the object by adding a feature which refers to the quality of the object it is attached to.

(103) Land of the midnight sun (Alaska) (104) Great potatoes tasty destination (Idaho) (105) The island of memories (Ireland) (106) Splendid Lebanon (Lebanon) (107) Amazing Thailand (Thailand)

The use of adjective can be found in slogans (104), (106), and (107). Those adjectives characterize the atmosphere of the location. Exceptionally slogan (104) uses adjective great and tasty to characterize Idaho as a city in which potatoes are its special product. Besides adjective, noun is also used to give important characteristic of the location, for example slogan (103) which uses noun phrase midnight sun as the feature of Alaska while slogan (105) applies word memories as the property of

Ireland.

Anaphora is used in tourism slogan as well. Since the focus of anaphora is on the repetition of the same word at the beginning, it emphasizes on logic to gain people’s attention on the key-words of the repetition.

(108) Best place best taste (Hong Kong) (109) Right here. Right now (Illinois) (110) Worth a visit worth a lifetime (Maine) (111) Great lakes, great times; more to see (Michigan) (112) Great faces. Great places (South Dakota)

Slogans (108) - (115) clearly illustrate the repetition of the initial word, e.g. the words best, right, worth, and great. The repetition becomes the key word of the slogan in which most of them use adjective. It is clear that the adjective tries to give status or

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI quality of the place, for example in slogan (108), it attempts to illustrate Hong Kong as the greatest. In slogan (110), the repetition occurs on noun. The keyword of noun worth is to portray that visiting Maine is important and precious.

Unlike alliteration, assonance focuses on the rhyme or repetition of vowel sounds in a phrase or sentence. Related to alliteration, the use of assonance is also to make the slogan recognizable and memorable.

(113) Feeling is believing (Anguilla) (114) A new point of view (Greece) (115) Once you go you know (Jamaica) (116) Live it. Visit Scotland (Scotland) (117) Smiling faces beautiful places (South Carolina)

Each slogan has a rhyme on a phrase, such as feeling – believing, new – view, go – know, and faces – places as well as its two neighboring words have similar sound from the first phrase to the second one, such as the rhyme on the words live it and visit. Assonance is also known as half-rhyme because, whilst the vowel sound is repeated, the final consonant is not.

Isocolon focuses on the repetition as well. It is applied to emphasize the important feature of the object or service and it makes the message more impressive and persuasive.

(118) Admit it you love it (Indonesia) (119) Once you come you will never leave (North Korea) (120) Once you get here, you’ll understand (Prince Edward Island) (121) Small miracle, find your miracle (Sri Lanka) (122) What happens here, stay here (Las Vegas)

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From the slogans above, the repetition can be seen on the words it, you, miracle, and here. Most of the slogans emphasize the place through the repetition. For example, slogan (118) repeats word it twice referring to Indonesia. It is the same as slogan

(122) which uses word here as the place deixis for Las Vegas. Unlike slogan (122) which uses place deixis, slogans (119) and (120) use repetition on person deixis you which definitely refers to the tourists.

The next figure used occasionally in tourism slogan is hyperbole which tries to describe something exaggerated than it really is. The use of exaggerated statements on those tourism slogans above is to put emphasis on the particular features of the object or service and it sometimes achieves entertaining effect.

(123) A world of treasures (Cambodia) (124) A whole world on a single island (Cyprus) (125) Soul of the earth (Guatemala)

The exaggeration comes on the words world and soul which represent a place. The two words become the particular features of the place in which people or tourists will imagine that visiting one place is like around a world.

Litotes has the same position as hyperbole which this figure is not often used in tourism slogan. It formally shows the understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary, while informally, it is answering indirectly for responses, holding back, implying through avoiding direct statements. There are only two slogans used this figure.

(126) We can’t wait to say G’day (Australia) (127) No artificial ingredients (Costa Rica)

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The slogans show affirmative forms which are expressed by negating their opposite.

The sentences can be changed into positive ones, for example: we are really excited to say G’day and natural ingredients. The two negating expressions are shown by using the words can’t and no which present the sense of litotes.

Metonymy is to pre-suppose the context to the reader in order to encode or decode metonymically. It provides mental access to another conceptual entity. There are only three slogans using this figure.

(128) The Grand Canyon State (Arizona) (129) Land of Lincoln (Illinois) (130) The islands of Aloha (Hawaii) (131) Heart of the Mayan world (Guatemala)

It tries to relate one thing to another thing in which the thing chosen for the metaphorical image is closely related to the subject with which it is to be compared.

It can be found out from the use of the words Grand Canyon, Lincoln, Aloha and

Mayan. Those four words represent the symbol of those four places.

Oxymoron sense shows the combination of two contradictory words or phrases for dramatic effect. It can be seen in the following slogans.

(132) Little big country (Slovakia) (133) Come as you are. Leave different (Louisiana)

Slogan (132) uses two opposing adjectives, namely little and big which are used together in one phrase. Those two adjectives give two opposite words in a compact paradoxical phrase. Based on the slogan, it can be said that Slovakia is either little country or big country. Besides using two opposing adjectives, the oxymoron sense in

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI tourism slogan also contains two opposing verbs. It can be seen in slogan (133) which uses two contradictory verbs, namely come and leave. Thus, it can be concluded that the tourists who will come and leave Louisiana will get different experience or feeling like before and after expression.

There is only single slogan using asyndeton. This figure of speech deliberates omission of conjunction between a series of related clauses.

(134) Come see for yourself (New Jersey)

There is omission of conjunction and between the verb come and see. The slogan should be come and see for yourself.

Exclamation shows the expression of strong feeling by making an exclamation in each clause. The following is the slogan used exclamation sense on its line.

(135) Smile! You are in Spain! (Spain)

From slogan (135), it is clearly enough that the sense of exclamation can be obviously seen on the use of two exclamation marks. The first clause is imperative followed by exclamation mark and the second clause is positive affirmative which has assertive sense.

Synathroesmus is not used frequently in tourism slogan. This figure focuses on the piling up of adjectives, for example:

(136) Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. The way life should be (Iceland)

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This slogan has a collection of adjectives, namely pure, natural, and unspoiled which have parallel meaning and modify the word Iceland. The three adjectives which occur continuously show the sense of Synathroesmus.

Overall, alliteration becomes the most frequent use of figure of speech on tourism slogan since the use of repetition, such as repetition on initial consonant sound, gives the image a focus and strengthens the readers’ memory. The repetition like alliteration has a catchy sound which utilizes the advertisement interesting and memorable. The second position is personification which is used regularly on tourism slogan. The process of personification offers advertisers further opportunities to embellish the properties of the product or image they are marketing (Woods 2006).

B. Meanings of Figures of Speech

This analysis goes to the second research problem which tries to recognize the meanings of figures of speech used in tourism slogan texts. It should be kept in mind that the meanings at this point associate with the sense and the purpose of using figures of speech on tourism slogans. The meanings of figures of speech used on tourism slogans can be classified into five categories, namely making the slogan memorable, making the slogan attractive and imaginative, giving characteristic and symbol, offering experience, and giving modest assertion (see appendix 2 for details).

The meanings, the data number, and the examples can be organized into the following table.

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Table 4.4: The Examples of Meanings

No. Meanings Data Number Examples

1 Making the slogan 139 Incredible India

memorable 141 Best place best taste

144 Once you go you know

2 Making the slogan 148 One happy island

attractive and 150 The land that sings

imaginative 159 It’s like a whole other country

3 Giving characteristic 161 Splendid Lebanon

and symbol 164 The Grand Canyon State

166 The islands of Aloha

4 Offering experience 167 Come see for yourself

168 Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland.

The way life should be

169 Smile! You are in Spain!

5 Giving modest 170 We can’t wait to say G’day

assertion 171 No artificial ingredients

The first meaning of figures of speech used on tourism slogans is making them memorable. A slogan becomes memorable because of the way of creating the line or the phrase. Giving repetition and rhyme are the ways of making the slogan catchy and impressive. Repetition and rhyme are applied in some figures of speech, namely alliteration, anaphora, assonance, and isocolon. The meaning of using

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI repetition and rhyme on tourism slogan is to make the slogan catchy and memorable because the use of repetition and rhyme can make slogan easier to say. Since the slogan is easier to say, the use of them automatically can stick in people’s mind. They also can add energy and promise of the speaker or writer to the hearer or reader.

Besides sticking in people’s mind, giving repetition in the slogan texts can also make the lines have attractive sounds, nice pronunciation, and easy-to-copy-rhythms. The following is the list of slogan used repetition and rhyme.

(137) Beautiful Bangladesh (Bangladesh) (138) Colorful Colorado (Colorado) (139) Incredible India (India) (140) Mystical Myanmar (Myanmar) (141) Best place best taste (Hong Kong) (142) Right here. Right now (Illinois) (143) Great faces. Great places (South Dakota) (144) Once you go you know (Jamaica) (145) Smiling faces beautiful places (South Carolina) (146) Admit it you love it (Indonesia) (147) What happens here, stay here (Las Vegas)

Most of the slogans put adjective to illustrate their character, namely beautiful, colorful, incredible, and mystical, becoming the tourist attraction. Connotatively, the use of adjective form on the slogan can be associated with the natural and historical background of the tourist location. By giving alliteration sense in slogans (137) up to

(140), it provides an emphatic effect of the meaning which depicts and highlights the identity of the tourism locations or images. In addition, it can be seen in slogans (141) till (143) which use anaphora sense on their lines. Besides giving a better memorizing and highlighting the quality of the advertised object, the meaning of using anaphora sense in tourism slogan is to gain people’s attention. The repetition of the same vowel

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI sound in different consonant contexts is also used to increase impressiveness; it is shown in slogans (144) and (145) which contain assonance sense. The same vowel sound repetition result a catchy rhyme and it is also applied in slogans (146) and

(147) which make them a catchy sound which is easy to remember.

The second meaning of using figures of speech on tourism slogan is making the slogan more attractive and imaginative. Using personification is one of making something convincing. The following is the example of using personification sense in slogan.

(148) One happy island (Aruba) (149) Hong Kong will take your breath away (Hong Kong) (150) The land that sings (Latvia) (151) It will never leave you (Panama) (152) Turkey welcomes you (Turkey)

In the slogans above, they are treated as human beings by using, for example, the adjective which relate to human attribute. Based on semantic feature, there is no literal correlation between the word happy and island in slogan (148). The adjective refers to the animate feeling while the following word refers to the inanimate.

Pragmatically, the aim of putting animate character is to make the location lively so that the tourist will feel the real atmosphere. It is similar to the use of verbs take, sing, leave, and welcome which has a connection with human attribute. Yet, the representation of human attribute could convey many more meanings than inanimate attribute besides making the slogan more attractive and more imaginative.

Beside personification, the sense of hyperbole also presents attractive meaning. It can be seen from the following slogans.

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(153) A world of treasures (Cambodia) (154) A whole world on a single island (Cyprus) (155) Soul of the earth (Guatemala)

The use of exaggeration in slogan is appealing. The use of word world in slogan

(153) and (154) and word soul in slogan (155) cover a wide range of meaning.

Lexically, the meaning of world is the universe while the word soul refers to energy or intensity. It is too overstated if a single city, whether it is beautiful or not, can be equal to the universe and can represent as energy of the earth. Yet, the using of those two words means the range of human activities.

Besides being attractive, the use of figures of speech in slogan is creating imagination to people who read the line. The use of simile can create something both attractive and imaginative, for example:

(156) There’s no place like it (New South Wales) (157) Kansas, as big as you think (Kansas) (158) Feels like coming home (Mississippi) (159) It’s like a whole other country (Texas)

The sense of simile in those slogans above is to stress the attribute of the location and to give vivid imagination in the mind of the tourists through the use of word as….as, such as slogan (157). Besides stressing the attribute, simile tries to create specific imagination and mood for readers or tourists through the use of word like and it can be seen in slogans (156), (158), and (159). Creating imagination also occurs in oxymoron by giving contradiction one another, for example:

(160) Little big country (Slovakia)

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The expression makes people questioning and thinking about the intended meaning of words little big. Actually the term little is normally intended to mean “the space of the country”. In this sense, the expression acts as an adverb emphasizing the word big. This contradiction can attract people’s attention to think creatively about the location.

Furthermore, giving human attribute, exaggeration, contradiction, and similarity in slogan can stimulate specific imagination for the readers, in this case the tourists, who attempt to explore the leisure place. The imagination can convey the meaning faster and more vividly. Since the function of advertising tourism slogan is to promote and to catch the attention of tourists, creating attractiveness and imagination through slogan is a way to catch people’s attention.

The third meaning is giving characteristic and symbol through the use of figures of speech on tourism slogans. It can be discovered from the use of epithet and metonymy. The following slogans represent the use of those figures.

(161) Great potatoes, tasty destination (Idaho) (162) Splendid Lebanon (Lebanon) (163) Amazing Thailand (Thailand) (164) The Grand Canyon State (Arizona) (165) Land of Lincoln (Illinois) (166) The islands of Aloha (Hawaii)

From the six tourism slogans above, it can be seen that the use of adjective and noun clearly describes the attributed quality of the place. Semantically, the choice of using adjective in slogans (161), (162) and (163) is precisely right because the adjectives great, splendid and amazing can be used to modify noun. Pragmatically, the use of

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the adjectives is to characterize the place by giving expression related to sensation.

The use of noun in slogans (164), (165), and (166) is to give a symbol or a close relationship to the place, for example the word Aloha in slogan (166) is associated with Hawaii. The word Grand Canyon in slogan (164) represents the location of the state in US. Since Grand Canyon is located in Arizona, people who do not know where the Arizona exactly is must be familiar with the word Grand Canyon. So, the

Grand Canyon represents the environment of the city. In slogan (165), the word

Lincoln is well-known as the former president of US. Subsequently, the use of the word corresponds to the location where the former president of US was born.

In general, giving characteristic and symbol to a tourism location applies epithet and metonymy in which both figures have sense of giving character or icon.

The expressiveness of these figures is contextual which deals with generalization of concrete objects. A little difference between epithet and metonymy in characterizing and symbolizing an object is on the use of noun and adjective. Metonymy is expressed by nouns which are mostly used with the definite article or without it at all while epithet is articulated by both nouns and adjectives. The use of adjectives is giving actual quality of the object it is attached to. To sum up, both figures of speech are to characterize an object, to point out the readers, and frequently to impose on them.

The fourth meaning is offering experience to tourists. This meaning can be found on the following slogans example.

(167) Come see for yourself (New Jersey) (168) Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. The way life should be (Iceland)

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(169) Smile! You are in Spain! (Spain)

Slogan (167) uses imperative sentence to invite the tourists visiting the place and finding experience by themselves. Moreover, in slogan (168), it offers the tourists an experience of visiting a perfect place. It could be seen on the three adjectives which refer to the untouchable place. Based on the semantic features, the three adjectives above Pure, Natural, Unspoiled might be represented as a set of features related to cleanliness and freshness. Tourists could find the real genuine atmosphere there in which Iceland should be in the forefront of environment-friendly tourism. Slogan

(169) has strong expression offering some happiness and joyful experience to the tourists. It can be seen clearly through the word smile. As we know, Spain has good weather, nice art and festival. Those can be the attractive ones for tourists.

The fifth meaning is giving modest assertion. It can be seen from the following examples which use litotes sense.

(170) We can’t wait to say G’day (Australia) (171) No artificial ingredients (Costa Rica)

Negatives tend to be used very sparingly because the purpose of all ad slogans is to strengthen the positive side. But when negatives do occur, they are usually placed in an emphatic position to highlight the special positive side.

Conclusively, the meaning of the figures of speech used on international tourist board advertising slogans in internet is dominated by making the slogans memorable, attractive, and imaginative. Contextually, the slogans should be catchy, memorable, and attractive in order to promote a product, an image, or an idea. They

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI should be simple and get straight to the point which consists of clear message. The use of figures of speech in slogans creates them having literary artistic statement and adds value to an advertising campaign by becoming part of the lexicon of daily life, extending their use into a variety of circumstances.

C. Illocutionary Acts in Figures of Speech

Based on the data, there are four categories of illocutionary acts used on tourism slogans. Most of them use assertive act which refers to the proposition covering belief and statement (see appendix 3 for details). Assertive act itself is simply about act of telling. Expressive act becomes the least one used on tourism slogans.

The illocutionary acts, the data number, and the examples can be presented as follows:

Table 4.5: The Examples of Illocutionary Acts

No. Illocutionary Acts Data Number Example

1 Assertive 172 Incredible India

176 Heart of the Mayan world

177 A world of treasures

180 A whole world on a single island

2 Directive 185 Smile! You are in Spain!

187 Small miracle, find your miracle

189 Live it. Visit Scotland

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Table 4.5: (cont’d)

No. Illocutionary Acts Data Number Example

3 Commissive 191 We can’t wait to say G’day

192 Hong Kong will take your breath

away

193 It will never leave you

4 Expressive 195 Turkey welcomes you

The following table is the taxonomy of illocutionary points, direction of fit, and the example of the acts (Holtgraves 2002).

Table 4.6: The Taxonomy of Illocutionary Points and Examples of Acts

No. Illocutionary Point Direction of Fit Examples

1 Assertive Words-to-world Conclude, predict

2 Directive World-to-words (hearer) Request, order

3 Commissive World-to-words (speaker) Promise, warn

4 Expressive Null Thank, apologize

5 Declarative World-to-words and Declare war

Words-to-world Perform marriage

The following slogans show that assertive act is the dominant act on tourism slogans. Assertive, itself, consists of statements that may be judged true or false because they aim to describe a state of affairs in the world (Searle 1969). Then, they can be classified into two categories expressing belief and statement. The word belief has correlation to the speakers or (copy) writers to convince the readers or tourists to

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI come or visit the place. Belief which occurs in slogan refers to opinion of something to be true while statement which appears in slogan relates to verification and report of something. The following is the examples of tourism slogans using assertive acts.

(172) Incredible India (India) (173) Mystical Myanmar (Myanmar) (174) Splendid Lebanon (Lebanon) (175) Amazing Thailand (Thailand) (176) Heart of the Mayan world (Guatemala) (177) A world of treasures (Cambodia) (178) The Grand Canyon State (Arizona) (179) The islands of Aloha (Hawaii) (180) A whole world on a single island (Cyprus) (181) There’s no place like it (New South Wales)

As stated above, the aim of assertive is to describe a state of affairs which means the use of adjective is acceptable to illustrate the condition. The slogans (172) up to (175) can be classified into expression of belief using adjective. For instance, slogan (172) uses the word incredible psychologically to explain their belief in the tremendous culture and tradition. Slogan (173) uses the word mystical which demonstrates the belief of this country in relation to its spiritual traditions and places. Therefore the belief can be associated with the assertive act. Furthermore, slogan (176) has strong statement which is represented by the words heart and Mayan world. It also can be seen through the words world and treasure in slogan (177) which relates to the information about Cambodia to promote its tourism location. Other examples of giving strong statement regarding the location of the country are shown in slogans

(178) and (179) which carry the sense of reporting. Moreover, slogans (180) and

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(181) contain statement or description concerning the tourism location as well but they provide the description indirectly using exaggeration and similarity.

In general, the use of assertive act in tourism slogan texts is characterized by using adjectives and nouns. The adjective forms used in the line mostly relate to the belief whereas the noun forms commonly refer to statement or report. Some slogans use the modal will in their texts which make people assume them as commissive act but they actually contain assertive act, for example:

(182) Once you come you will never leave (North Korea) (183) Once you get here, you’ll understand (Prince Edward Island)

Even though the slogan texts above have a sense of promise but they cannot be categorized as commissive act. As we know, commissive act assigns speakers to a course of action in future. On the contrary, the two slogans above do not assign speakers but readers or tourists through the use of word you.

The second act is directive. In this act, the speakers or the writers try to make the hearers or the readers do something. This act contains statements which attempt to make the other person’s actions fit the propositional content (Searle 1969). For directives, speaker attitudes are having special concern with politeness issues at the front position. For that reason, the use of imperative sentences on tourism slogans below is not as strong as usual because of concerning the politeness. This act has an expression as giving command, request, or order which can be seen as follow.

(184) Come see for yourself (New Jersey) (185) Smile! You are in Spain! (Spain) (186) Admit it you love it (Indonesia)

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(187) Small miracle, find your miracle (Sri Lanka) (188) What happens here, stay here (Las Vegas) (189) Live it. Visit Scotland (Scotland) (190) Come as you are. Leave different (Louisiana)

Using imperative sentence to those slogans above through the use of verbs come, smile, admit, find, stay, live, visit, come, and leave is to make direct way to achieve the ideal effect. Directly, those slogans inquire readers or tourists to do action.

Indirectly, those slogans have intended meaning as request since we know that imperative sentence characterized by verb initially tends to give command sense. As a result, the illocutionary point of the seven slogans is directive act.

Commissive is the third act used on tourism slogans. This act consists of statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as describe by the propositional content (Searle 1969). In simple words, this kind of act is about commitment from the speaker or the writer to himself or herself to a future course of action, for example the expression of promise, guarantee, or vow.

(191) We can’t wait to say G’day (Australia) (192) Hong Kong will take your breath away (Hong Kong) (193) It will never leave you (Panama) (194) Touch your heart (Taiwan)

The four slogans above offer promise to the tourists. It is clearly enough through the use of word will in slogans (192) and (193) which signify future action. In those slogans, the commitment comes from the speaker in this case from the location. For slogan (191), it does not use the word will but it consists of future meaning. It can be traced from the use of phrase can’t wait which means the action not happened yet.

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Similar to slogan (191), slogan (194) does not contain the word will on the text but it comprises future action. This slogan seems to be directive act because of using imperative sentence. The verb touch in the initial position does not mean that the subject of this imperative sentence is you, namely the readers or the tourists but the correct subject is we or the government of Taiwan. As a result, this slogan cannot be classified into directive act because it does not assign the readers or tourists to do action but it commits the speaker to do future action, in this case to touch the tourists’ heart. The intended meaning of those slogans above is offering promise to tourists.

As we know, in promoting a product, the line should contain a promise, and it also happens in promoting image, such as tourism slogan, which offering promise with the purpose of getting people’s attention. The intention of those slogans shows the commitment of the cities to a certain future action. It relates to commissive act.

The expressive act is rarely used on tourism slogan. It expresses an attitude to or about a state of affair. This act is often considered the most incomprehensible and difficult category (Taavitsainen and Jucker 2008). It is also expressing “the psychological state specified in the sincerity condition about a state of affairs specified in the propositional content” (Searle 1979: 15). In general, this act indicates the speaker’s feelings. It relates to the speaker’s psychological attitude by giving expression of apology, greeting, appreciation, or regret. The following slogan is the example of expressive act.

(195) Turkey welcomes you (Turkey)

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Structurally, the word welcome shows that this slogan expresses a manner which conveys a greeting. At a glance, the slogan might be interpreted as a promise but it is considered as a greeting rather than a promise because the sentence form of greeting can become morphonetically reduced or it can be a clipped phrase (Taavitsainen and

Jucker 2008), for instance: welcome, this form shows the implicit greeting. Greeting, itself, is lack sincerity condition (Searle 1969) in which sincerity condition counts with speaker’s intention to carry out a certain act. Greeting is exchanged as well- mannered recognition of the addressee. As a result, intended meaning of this slogan is giving a greeting relating to expressive act.

Commonly, as the language used in advertisement is persuasive, the tourism advertising slogans basically contains indirect directive acts but this research attempts to divide the indirect directive acts into the most specific ones based on the five divisions of illocutionary acts. Moreover, the illocutionary act used in tourism slogan is leaded by the assertive act. This act functions to highlight the state or the character of the location. In terms of promoting a product or an image, it is required to give a short description regarding the tourism location to advertise. Comparing to the other acts, the short and catchy description through factual statement is needed first to attract people’s attention in advertisement. Another reason, the use of assertive act in tourism slogans becomes more dominant than other acts because people principally like being informed than being asked. The slogans consist of assertive act have many kinds of figures of speech on their texts for instance alliteration, personification, simile, epithet, assonance, hyperbole, metonymy, oxymoron, and synathroesmus.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Concerning the three questions stated in introductory section, the analysis has described the answers of the three research questions which then can be concluded into the following paragraph. In answering the three research problems, descriptive qualitative methodology and cyclic system are used to solve the problems. The theory of figurative language and speech acts are applied in process of analysis.

From the data collection in Google pages in internet, 130 slogans were taken to be analyzed based on the figures of speech, meaning of figures of speech, and illocutionary acts. Since cyclic system was used to analyze the 130 slogans, the new findings were only found until the third cycle in which each cycle had 20 slogans. As a result, the total number of data used to answer the three research questions is 60 slogan texts. The 60 slogan texts are from 55 places all over the world. The 55 tourism places in alphabetical order are Alaska, Anguilla, Arizona, Aruba, Australia,

Bangladesh, Cambodia, Colorado, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Dubai, Florida,

Georgia, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Hawaii, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Idaho,

Illinois, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Kansas, Las Vegas, Latvia,

Lebanon, Louisiana, Maine, Maldives, Michigan, Mississippi, Myanmar, New Jersey,

New South Wales, North Korea, Panama, Prince Edward Island, Rabun County

(Clayton) Georgia, Scotland, Slovakia, South Carolina, South Dakota, Spain, Sri

Lanka, Taiwan, Texas, Thailand, Turkey, and Zimbabwe.

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To answer the first research problem, namely what figures of speech do the tourism advertising slogan texts have? the theory of figures of speech are applied to identify the figures used in the slogan texts. As a result, there are 14 figures of speech used in international tourist board advertising slogan texts. In alphabetical order, they are alliteration, anaphora, assonance, asyndeton, epithet, exclamation, hyperbole, isocolon, litotes, metonymy, oxymoron, personification, simile, and synathroesmus,

From the 14 figures of speech above, alliteration and personification become the dominant ones because those figures can make the slogans more impressive and eye- catching. The personification sense is also mostly used in slogan to attract the tourists’ curiosity and to persuade and influence them to believe and to be interested in what is being advertised.

To solve the second research problem, namely what meanings do figures of speech show in tourism advertising slogan texts? the theory of meaning both in semantics and pragmatics are utilized to analyze the meaning of using figures of speech on tourism slogan texts. The meaning, then, can be classified into five categories, namely to make the slogan memorable, to make the slogan attractive and imaginative, to give characteristic and symbol, to offer experience, and to give modest assertion. From the five categories, the dominant ones are to make the slogan memorable and to make the slogan attractive and imaginative. The meanings can fulfill the goal of advertising slogan which tries to promote product, image, or idea through catchy, memorable, attractive, and imaginative lines.

Thus, there are some ways to achieve the meanings of figures of speech used in tourism slogan texts. The use of repetition and rhyme can make the slogan

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI memorable. Then, giving animate character, exaggeration, contradiction, and similarity to slogan texts can create imagination to the readers or tourists besides being attractive. Another way to achieve the meaning is the use of epithet and metonymy. Those two figures of speech can make the slogans have a sense of quality which refers to characteristic and symbol. It can be seen from the use of epithet which gives a descriptive name to the location while metonymy tries to give a substitution of a word to the location. Using imperative sentence can make the slogans mean offering experience. The quality of imperative sentence in tourism slogan is not as strong as usual because of concerning the politeness. As a final point, the use of negative sentence can give a modest assertion which is placed in an emphatic position to highlight the special positive side. Hence, the use of negative sentence shows the exclusivity and contradictory quality of the product or image which is being advertised but it can change the effect to the positive side.

The figures of speech which are mostly used to perform the meanings contain repetition, such as alliteration, anaphora, assonance, isocolon, However, some of the slogan texts represent their socio-cultural environment through the use of figures of speech, such as Incredible India (India), Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. The way life should be (Iceland), or Little Big Country (Slovakia).

To elucidate the third research problem, namely what illocutionary acts do the slogan texts have in tourism advertising slogans? the theory of speech act is employed to discover the illocutionary acts used in tourism slogan texts. As the language use in advertisement is persuasive, the tourism advertising slogans basically contains indirect directive acts but this research attempts to divide the indirect

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI directive acts into the most specific ones based on the five divisions of illocutionary acts. The analysis of illocutionary point shows that most of the tourism advertising slogan texts are dominated by assertive act. From 60 tourism slogans, only 8 slogans use directive act, 3 slogans employ commissive act, and 1 slogan occupy expressive act. It means that 48 slogans dominate assertive act on their texts in which this act functions to highlight the state or the character of the location. The slogans consist of assertive act have many kinds of figures of speech on their texts, namely alliteration, personification, simile, epithet, assonance, hyperbole, metonymy, oxymoron, and synathroesmus. The domination of assertive act in tourism slogans explains that people, particularly the educated ones, prefer being informed through statement to being asked. This preference yield the assertive acts become more prominent than the other acts.

From the analysis of meanings to tourism slogans, the writer believes that the figures of speech are not only limited to the field of literature but also can be used as a main theory in linguistic research relating to semantics and pragmatics. However, semantics theory used in analyzing meaning of the figures of speech has correlation to pragmatics theory used in analyzing intended meaning of illocutionary acts.

Throughout the analysis of figures of speech and their meanings, it can be concluded that figures of speech provide instant ways of mapping the development of the multiple meanings of words. It also shows how words are used in actual texts to make them meaningful. Contextually, the use of figures of speech has shifts in meaning which are more social than poetic. It means that the meaning is different

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI according to the social context in which it is used. This social context, then, is closely related to the application of speech acts theory.

After all, this study of meanings through tourism slogan texts can make people especially teachers and students understand how to analyze texts containing figurative language using theory of figures of speech and how to relate the texts consisting of figurative language with the illocutionary acts theory. The application of those theories can provide some information regarding non-literal meaning and intended meaning in language teaching particularly in linguistics. Besides giving some information used as material for teaching, this study can contribute some approaches how to create persuasive texts through slogans by considering the use of figurative language, how to use language using indirect speech acts, and how to understand the written indirect speech acts.

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APPENDICES

1. List of Figures of Speech in Tourism Slogans

No Figures of Speech Location Tourism Slogan 1 Alliteration (12) Bangladesh Beautiful Bangladesh Colorado Colorful Colorado

Dubai Definitely Dubai

Florida Sunshine state

Georgia Georgia on my mind

Hungary A love for life

India Incredible India

Italy Italy much more

Maldives My sunny side of life

Myanmar Mystical Myanmar

Rabun County Where spring spends the summer (Clayton) Georgia Zimbabwe A world of wonders

2 Anaphora (5) Hong Kong Best place best taste Illinois Right here. Right now

Maine Worth a visit worth a lifetime

Great lakes, great times; more to Michigan see South Dakota Great faces. Great places

3 Assonance (5) Anguilla Feeling is believing Greece A new point of view

Jamaica Once you go you know

Scotland Live it. Visit Scotland

South Carolina Smiling faces beautiful places

4 Asyndeton (1) New Jersey Come see for yourself 5 Epithet (5) Alaska Land of the midnight sun Idaho Great potatoes tasty destination

Ireland The island of memories

Lebanon Splendid Lebanon

Thailand Amazing Thailand

6 Exclamation (1) Spain Smile! You are in Spain! 7 Hyperbole (3) Guatemala Soul of the earth Cambodia A world of treasures

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No Figures of Speech Location Tourism Slogan Cyprus A whole world on a single island

8 Isocolon (5) Indonesia Admit it you love it Once you come you will never North Korea leave Prince Edward Once you get here, you'll Island understand Sri Lanka Small miracle, find your miracle

Las Vegas What happens here, stay here

9 Litotes (2) Australia We can't wait to say G'day Costa Rica No artificial ingredients

10 Metonymy (4) Hawaii The islands of Aloha Arizona The Grand Canyon State

Illinois Land of Lincoln

Guatemala Heart of the Mayan world

11 Oxymoron (2) Slovakia Little big country Louisiana Come as you are. Leave different

12 Personification(8) Aruba One happy island Florida Keys come as you are

Grenada Rhythms of spice

Hong Kong will take your breath Hong Kong away Latvia The land that sings

Panama It will never leave you

Taiwan Touch your heart

Turkey Turkey welcomes you

13 Simile (6) New South Wales There's no place like it Croatia The Mediterranean as it once was

Kansas Kansas, as big as you think

Mississippi Feels like coming home

Kansas There's no place like home

Texas It's like a whole other country

Synathroesmus Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. 14 Iceland (1) The way life should be

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2. List of Meanings of Figures of Speech in Tourism Slogans

No Meanings Location Tourism Slogan 1 Making the slogan Bangladesh Beautiful Bangladesh memorable Colorado Colorful Colorado Dubai Definitely Dubai Florida Sunshine state Georgia Georgia on my mind Hungary A love for life India Incredible India Italy Italy much more Maldives My sunny side of life Myanmar Mystical Myanmar Rabun County Where spring spends the summer (Clayton) Georgia Zimbabwe A world of wonders Hong Kong Best place best taste Illinois Right here. Right now Maine Worth a visit worth a lifetime Great lakes, great times; more to Michigan see South Dakota Great faces. Great places Anguilla Feeling is believing Greece A new point of view Jamaica Once you go you know Scotland Live it. Visit Scotland South Carolina Smiling faces beautiful places Indonesia Admit it you love it Once you come you will never North Korea leave Prince Edward Once you get here, you'll Island understand Sri Lanka Small miracle, find your miracle Las Vegas What happens here, stay here 2 Making the slogan Guatemala Soul of the earth attractive and Cambodia A world of treasures imaginative Cyprus A whole world on a single island

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No Meanings Location Tourism Slogan Louisiana Come as you are. Leave different Slovakia Little big country Aruba One happy island Florida Keys come as you are Grenada Rhythms of spice Hong Kong will take your breath Hong Kong away Latvia The land that sings Panama It will never leave you Taiwan Touch your heart Turkey Turkey welcomes you New South Wales There's no place like it The mediterranean as it once Croatia was Kansas Kansas, as big as you think Mississippi Feels like coming home Kansas There's no place like home Texas It's like a whole other country 3 Giving Alaska Land of the midnight sun characteristic and Idaho Great potatoes tasty destination symbol Ireland The island of memories Lebanon Splendid Lebanon Thailand Amazing Thailand Hawaii The islands of Aloha Arizona The Grand Canyon State Illinois Land of Lincoln Guatemala Heart of the Manyan world 4 Offering experience New Jersey Come see for yourself Spain Smile! You are in Spain! Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland Iceland. The way life should be 5 Giving modest Australia We can't wait to say G'day assertion Costa Rica No artificial ingredients

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3. List of Illocutionary Acts in Tourism Slogans

No Illocutionary Acts Location Tourism Slogan 1 Assertive (48) Alaska Land of the midnight sun Anguilla Feeling is believing Arizona The Grand Canyon State Aruba One happy island Bangladesh Beautiful Bangladesh Cambodia A world of treasures Colorado Colorful Colorado Costa Rica No artificial ingredients Croatia The mediterranean as it once was Cyprus A whole world on a single island Dubai Definitely Dubai Florida Sunshine state Florida Keys come as you are Georgia Georgia on my mind Greece A new point of view Grenada Rhythms of spice Guatemala Soul of the earth Guatemala Heart of the Manyan world Hawaii The islands of Aloha Hong Kong Best place best taste Hungary A love for life Pure. Natural. Unspoiled. Iceland. Iceland The way life should be Idaho Great potatoes tasty destination Illinois Right here. Right now Illinois Land of Lincoln India Incredible India Ireland The island of memories Italy Italy much more Jamaica Once you go you know Kansas Kansas, as big as you think Kansas There's no place like home Latvia The land that sings Lebanon Splendid Lebanon

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No Illocutionary Acts Location Tourism Slogan Maine Worth a visit worth a lifetime Maldives My sunny side of life Great lakes, great times; more to Michigan see Mississippi Feels like coming home Myanmar Mystical Myanmar New South Wales There's no place like it Once you come you will never North Korea leave Once you get here, you'll Prince Edward Island understand Rabun County Where spring spends the summer (Clayton) Georgia Slovakia Little big country South Carolina Smiling faces beautiful places South Dakota Great faces. Great places Texas It's like a whole other country Thailand Amazing Thailand Zimbabwe A world of wonders 2 Commissive (3) Australia We can't wait to say G'day Hong Kong will take your breath Hong Kong away Panama It will never leave you 3 Directive (8) Indonesia Admit it you love it Las Vegas What happens here, stay here Louisiana Come as you are. Leave different New Jersey Come see for yourself Scotland Live it. Visit Scotland Spain Smile! You are in Spain! Sri Lanka Small miracle, find your miracle Taiwan Touch your heart 4 Expressive (1) Turkey Turkey welcomes you

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4. List of Tourism Slogan Text in Picture (Some Examples)

No. Location Slogan Logo 1 Thailand

2 Myanmar

3 Taiwan

4 South Dakota

5 Panama

6 Costa Rica

7 India

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