Ecology Second Edition

N.S. Subrahmanyam A.V.S.S. Sambamurty

Alpha Science International Ltd. Oxford, U.K. Contents

Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition " ix 1. Ecology and Environment 1.1-1.20 1.1 Introduction 1.1 Branches of Ecology 1.2 Importancy of Ecology 1.2 1.2 History 1.2 1.3 Ecological Principles 1.3 Indian Ecology 1.4 1.4 Structural Concepts (Descriptive Ecology) 1.4 1.5 Functional Concepts 1.5' 1.6 Evolutionary Concepts 1.5 ° 1.7 Environmental Biotechnology 1.6 1.8 Atmosphere 1.12 2. Ecological Factors: Light and Temperature 2.1-2.28 2.1 Light 2.1 Quality of Light 2.1- Ultraviolet Light 2.2 Light in Aquatic Habitat 2.2 Effects of Light on the Plants 2.3 2.2 Transpiration 2.5 Light Absorption by Chlorophyll 2.5 Stomatal Movement 2.6 Photomorphogenesis 2.6 Phytochrome System 2.6 2.3 Phototropism 2.7 2.4 Photoperiodism 2.8 2.5 Vernalization 2.9 2.6 Bunning Hypothesis 2.10 Germination of Seeds 2.10 2.7 Measurement of Light Intensity 2.10 2.8 Light and Animals 2.11 Photoperiodism in Insects 2.11 Diapause 2.12 Seasonal Development 2.12 xii Contents

2.9 Circadian Rhythms 2.13 Behaviour Responses in Animals 2.13 2.10 Diurnation 2.14 2.11 Bioluminiscence 2.15 Types of Bioluminiscence 2.16 2.12 Temperature and Plants 2.17 2.13 Effects of Altitude 2.20 Temperature and Seed Germination 2.21 Temperature and Plant Reproduction 2.23 2.14 Thermal Constant 2.23 Thermal Stratification in Aquatic Ecosystems 2.24 2.15 Chemical Stratification 2.24 Temperature and Animals 2.25 Effect of Higher and Lower Temperatures 2.25 2.16 Temperature and Metabolism 2.25 2.17 Temperature and Reproduction 2.26 2.18 Temperature and Animal Behaviour 2.27 3. Water: Factor of Ecology 3.1-3.8 3.1 Introduction 3.1 Water and Animals 3.2 3.2 Hydrological Cycle 3.3 3.3 Measurement of Rainfalls 3.4 3.4 Humidity in India 3.5 Cloud, Mist and Fog 3.6 3.5 Frost 3.6 Thermal Insulation 3.7 3.6 Dew 3.7 4. Wind and Topographical Factors of Ecology 4.1-4.9 4.1 Wind 4.1 Flag Trees 4.1. Leaf Damage 4.2 Abrasion 4.2 Salt Spray 4.2 Lodging 4.2 Wind Erosion 4.2 Wind Speed 4.3 Windbreak or Shelter-belt 4.3 4.2 Topographic Factors 4.4 Behaviour of the Earth's Surface 4.4 4.3 Timber line or Tree Line 4.7 Exposure of the Slope to Light and Wind 4.9 Contents xiii

5. Fire Factor of Ecology 5.1-5.5 5.1 Introduction 5.1 5.2 Ecological Uses of Fire 5.4 5.3 Volcanoes 5.5 6. Soil (EDAPHIC) Factor of Ecology 6.1-6.31 6.1 Introduction 6.1 6.2 Residual and Transported Soils 6.2 6.3 Weathering 6.2 6.4 Soil Profile 6.4 6.5 Soil Texture 6.6 6.6 Soil Classification 6.7 Soil Moisture 6.10 6.7 Soil Water 6.11 Water Vapour 6.12 6.8 Physically and Physiologically Dry Soils 6.b3 Temporary and Permanent Wilting 6.13 Soil Density and Porosity 6.13 Soil Porocity 6.14 6.9 Chalkland Ecology 6.16 6.10 Soil Organic Matter 6.16 6.11 Soil Atmosphere 6.17 - 6.12 Soil Temperature 6.18 6.13 Soil Microbes 6.20 6.14 Soil Animals 6.20 Fauna and Flora of the Soil 6.20 6.15 Soil Erosion 6.21 Normal Erosion 6.21 Accelerated Soil Erosion 6.21 Agencies causing Soil Erosion 6.21 6.16 Soil Conservation 6.24 7. Biotic Factors of Ecology 7.1-7.21 7.1 Introduction 7.1 7.2 Mutualism 7.1 Mutualism between Plants and Plants 7.1 7.3 Syntrophy in Photosynthetic Bacteria 7.2 7.4 Mycorrhizae 7.2 7.5 Commensalism 7.7 Protocooperation (non-obligatory Mutualism) 7.9 7.6 Competition 7.9 7.7 Amensalism (Antibiosis) 7.10 Amensalism in Microorganisms 7.12 xiv Contents

7.8 Allelopathy 7.12 7.9 Predation 7.13 7.10 Slobodkin's Work 7.15 7.11 Insectivorous Plants 7.16 The Pitcher Plants 7.17 7.12 Myremecophily 7.18 7.13 Saprophytes 7.18 7.14 Ecology of Herbivores 7.19 Plant Defenses 7.20 Grazing and Browsing 7.21 8. Animal Inter Relationships 8.1-8.7 8.1 Introduction 8.1 8.2 Intraspecific Relationships 8.1 8.3 Interspecific Relationships 8.1 The Symbiosis of Dinoflagellates 8.3 8.4 Insect Symbiosis with Microorganisms 8.3 8.5 Mutualism without Continuous Contact 8.4 Commensalism with Continuous Contact 8.5 Commensalism without Continuous Contact 8.5 8.6 Antagonism 8.5 8.7 Parasitic Adaptations 8.6 9. Animal Adaptations 9.1-9.10 9.1 Introduction 9.1 9.2 Pread'aptations 9.1 * . Desert Adaptations 9.1 9.3 Cursorial Adaptations 9.3 Change in Foot Posture and Loss of Digits 9.3 Fossorial Adaptations 9.4 9.4 Arboreal Adaptations 9.5 Volant Adaptations 9.5 9.5 Aquatic Adaptations 9.6 9.6 Adaptive Radiation 9.8 10. Ecological Concepts of the Species 10.1-10.20 10.1 Taxonomic Species 10.1 Ecological Species 10.1 10.2 Ecocline 10.2 10.3 Gregor's Work 10.3 10.4 Types of Ecotypes 10.4 10.5 Acclimation 10.5 Ecological Amplitude 10.6 10.6 The law of Tolerance 10.8 Contents XV

10.7 Ecological Equivalents 10.8 10.8 Dame Concept 10.9 10.9 Niche 10.10 Multidimensional or Hypervolume 10.13 10.10 Flora of Delhi 10.15 10.11 Flora of Vishakhapatnam 10.17 10.12 Flora of Osmanabad (Andhra Pradesh) 10.19 11. Population Ecology ' 11.1-11.17 11.1 Introduction 11.1 11.2 Influences on Populations 11.2 Population Growth and Density 11.2 Natality (Birth Rate) 11.2 11.3 Population Density 11.2 » 11.4 Mortality (Death Rate) 11.3 Population Growth Form 11.7 Age Distribution 11.7 11.5 Population Fluctuations 11.8 11.6 Population Dispersal 11.10 Home Range and Territoriality 11.11 11.7 Home Range and Territoriality in Animals 1*1.12 11.8 Autecology 11.14 ' Environmental Complex 11.14 11.9 Seed Germination and-Reproductive Capacity 11.14 11.10 Seed Dormancy 11.16 12. Nature and Structure of Plant Communities 12.1-12.10 12.1 Introduction 12.1 12.2 Organismic Concept 12.2 12.3 Individualistic Concept 12.3 12.4 Characteristics of Communities 12.3 12.5 Fidelity 12.8 12.6 Growth Form and Structure 12.8 12.7 Stratification 12.9 12.8 Ecotone 12.10 13. Analysis of Plant Communities: Community Classification 13.1-13.19 13.1 Introduction 13.1 13.2 Structure of Plant Community 13.1 13.3 Qualitative Characteristics 13.3 13.4 Physiognomy and Pattern 13.3 13.5 Biological Spectrum 13.6 Raunkiaer's Leaf Size Classification 13.8 xvi Contents

13.6 Quantitative Characteristics 13.8 Density 13.11 Basal Area 13.12 13.7 Phytosociological Methods 13.14 13.8 Line Intercept, Strip Transect and Bisect Methods 13.15 13.9 The Point Method 13.17 Distance (Plotless) Methods 13.17 Nearest Individual Method 13.17 14. Methods of Studying Animal Communities 14.1-14.9 14.1 Density 14.1 14.2 Estimation of Phytoplankton and Zooplankton in water bodies 14.2 14.3 Determination of Frequency of Phytoplankton 14.3 14.4 Zooplankton 14.4 14.5 Benthic Macro-invertebrates 14.6 14.6 Estimation of Secondary Production in Animals 14.6 Nearest Neighbour Techniques 14.6 Spatial Pattern 14.7 15. Plant Succession 15.1-15.13 15.1 Introduction 15.1 15.2 Trends in Succession 15.1 15.3 Process of Succession 15.4 . ' 15.4 Chronosequence Versus Toposequence 15.6 15.5 Cyclical Changes in vegetation 15.6 15.6 Xerarch 15.8 15.7 Succession on Sand Dunes (Psammosere) 15.9 15.8 Heterotrophic Succesion 15.10 15.9 Succession on Dung 15.11 15.10 Climax Community 15.12 16. Ecosystem Ecology 16.1-16.27 16.1 Introduction 16.1 16.2 Types of Ecosystems 16.2 16.3 Structure of Ecosystem 16.2 Producer Organisms (Autotrophic Component) 16.3 16.4 Decomposers and Transformers 16.3 Flow of Energy 16.4 16.5 The Ecosystem as a Cybernetic System 16.5 Homeostasis 16.5 16.6 Aquatic Ecosystems 16.6 Fresh Water Environments 16.6 Streams and Rivers 16.7 Lakes and Ponds 16.7 Contents xvii

16.7 The Lake Ecosystem 16.7 The Pond as an Ecosystem 16.9 16.8 Categories of Pond Flora and Fauna 16.10 Food Chains and Energy Flow 16.10 16.9 Types of Food Chains 16.13 Food Web 16.14 Detritus Food Web 16.16 16.10 Ecological Pyramids 16.16 16.11 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 16.18 Lindeman's Work 16.21 Golley's Work 16.22 16.12 Ecological Efficiency 16.22 16.13 Biogeochemical Cycles 16.23 Hydrologic Cycle 16.24 Carbon Cycle 16.24 Nitrogen Cycle 16.24 ° Oxygen Cycle 16.25 Phosphorus Cycle 16.26 Sulphur Cycle 16.27 17. Marine Ecology 17.1-17.10 17.1 Marine Ecosystems 17.1 17.2 Classification of Oceans 17.2 17.3 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Marine Environment 17.3 17.4 Marine Producers 17.5 17.5 Coral Reefs 17.8 17.6 Estuaries Ecology 17.9 18. Ecology of Halophytes and Other Types of Plants 18.1-18.20 18.1 Introduction 18.1 18.2 Classification of Halophytes 18.2 18.3 Mangrove Forests of India 18.4 18.4 Sunderbans 18.5 18.5 Economic Uses of Halophytes 18.6 18.6 Ecological Adaptations of plants 18.6 18.7 Mesophytes 18.14 18.8 Xerophytes 18.14 18.9 Halophytes 18.18 19. Production Ecology 19.1-19.6 19.1 Introduction 19.1 19.2 Primary Production Processes 19.2 xviii Contents

19.3 Chlorophyll Estimation 19.4 19.4 Levels of Productivity 19.4 19.5 Primary Productivity of Different Ecosystems 19.4 20. Weed Ecology 20.1-20.2 20.1 Introduction 20.1 21. Plant Introduction 21.1-21.5 21.1 Introduction 21.1 Primary Introduction 21.1 Secondary Introduction 21.1 21.2 Sources of Germplasm 21.2 21.3 Plant Introduction Work in India 21.3 Recent Primary Introduction 21.3 Secondary Introductions 21.3 22. Indicator Organisms 22.1-22.4 22.1 Introduction 22.1 22.2 Indicators of Minerals 22.1 23. Environmental Pollution 23.1-23.63 23.1 Introduction 23.1 23.2 Water Pollution 23.1 Pollution of Fresh Water Bodies 23.2 23.3 Eutrophication 23.4 23.4 Toxic Pollution 23.4 Heavy metals 23.6 Lead 23.7 Cadmium 23.7 Microorganisms and Pollution 23.8 Oil 23.8 23.5 Air Pollution 23.8 Sulphur Dioxide 23.9 Ozone 23.12 Flourides 23.14 Carbon Monoxide 23.14 Nitrogen Oxides 23.15 Asbestos 23.16 23.6 Green House Effect 23.17 23.7 Photochemical Smog 23.20 23.8 Chlorofluoro Carbons 23.21 Effects of Chlorofluoro Carbons 23.26 23.9 Ozone Layer: The Earth's Protective Umbrella 23.29 Formation of Ozone 23.30 Contents xix

Mechanism of Ozone Depletion 23.31 Effects of Ozone Depletion 23.34 23.10 Smog 23.39 Sulphurous or London Smog 23.39 Chemical Reactions involved in Photochemical Smog 23.42 23.11 Acid Rain 23.47 Theory of Acid Rain 23.49 Adverse Effects of Acid Rains 23.51 23.12 Air Pollution and Public Health 23.54 23.13 Thermal Pollution 23.55 23.14 Noise Pollution 23.57 23.15 Radio-Active Pollution 23.59 23.16 Pollution Control 23.61 23.17 Control of Oil Pollution 23.62 o 23.18 Treatment of Sewage and Polluted Water 23.62 24. Conservation of Flora and Fauna: 24.1-24.37 The Endangered Species 24.1 Introduction 24.1 24.2 Endangered Species 24.2 24.3 Forest Resources 24.4 24.4 Uses of Green Belts 24.6 24.5 India's Biodiversity 24.6 National Parks and Biosphere Reserves 24.9 24.6 Project Tiger 24.12 24.7 Conservation of Forests 24.12 Introduction 24.12 Importance of Forests 24.13 Therapeutic plants 24.15 Forest Cover 24.16 Forests: World Scene 24.17 India's Forests: State-wise Data 24.19 24.8 Deforestation 24.20 24.9 Conservation 24.21 24.10 National Forest Policy 24.23 Forest Conservation through Law 24.23 24.11 Irrigation and Dams: Long term Destruction 24.25 24.12 Quarrying: A Hazard to Hill Forestation 24.30 24.13 Forest Research in India 24.30 Forest Education and Training 24.32 Forest: Green Lungs or Dumps for West's Pollution 24.32 24.14 Conservation of Wild Life 24.34 24.15 Rare and Endangered Species of India 24.35 XX Contents

25. Resources and Energy 25.1-25.20 25.1 Introduction 25.1 25.2 Coal 25.2 Properties of Coal 25.2 Coal Classification 25.2 Energy Sources 25.2 25.3 Solar Energy 25.3 Solar Ponds 25.3 Geothermal Energy 25.4 25.4 Wave Power 25.5 25.5 Wind Power 25.6 25.6 Fusion Power 25.6 25.7 Liquid Hydrogen 25.7 25.8 Tar Sands 25.8 25.9 Biomass 25.8 25.10 Alcohol from Biomass 25.9 Methanol 25.10 Ethanol 25.10 25.11 Alcohol as Motor Fuel 25.11 25.12 Electricity from Cattle Dung 25.11 25.13 Liquid Fuels from Waste 25.13 25.14 Biogas Technology 25.14 25.15 Peat 25.15. 25.16 Energy Plantations 25.17 25.17 Petro-Crops 25.18 26. Soil and Water Conservation 26.1-26.12 26.1 Soil Erosion 26.1 26.2 Wind Erosion 26.3 Effects of Soil Erosion 26.4 26.3 Mulching 26.6 26.4 Regeneration 26.6 26.5 Terraced Cultivation 26.7 26.6 Crop Rotation 26.7 26.7 Contour Ploughing 26.7 26.8 Control of Floods 26.9 26.9 Soil Conservation—Important Methods 26.10 Soil Conservation in India 26.10 27. Phytogeography 27.1-27.28 27.1 Introduction 27.1 27.2 Plant Distribution 27.1 27.3 Some Theories on Plant Distribution 27.2 Contents XXi

27.4 Divisions of Phytogeography 27.3 27.5 Dynamic or Interpretive Phytogeography 27.3 27.6 Endemism 27.10 27.7 Types of Endemics 27.10 27.8 Endemic Flora 27.11 27.9 Major Biomes of the World 27.12 Temperate Forest Biome 27.14 27.10 Desert Biome 27.14 27.11 Grasslands 27.15 27.12 The Minor Biomes 27.17 27.13 Forests of India 27.19 28. Zoogeography 28.1-28.16 28.1 Introduction 28.1 28.2 Zoogeographers Still Use Wallace's Divisions 28.2 28.3 The Origin and evolution of Mammals 28.8 28.4 Comouflage 28.11 28.5 Migration of Birds 28.14 29. Applications of Ecology 29.1-29.6 29.1 Introduction 29.1 29.2 Agriculture 29.1 29.3 Farm Ponds and Food Fish 29.2 29.4 Biological Control 29.3 29.5 Range Lands Management 29.5 30. Ecological Issues of India 30.1-30.10 30.1 Introduction 30.1 30.2 Forests 30.2 30.3 Agricultural Pollution 30.4 30.4 Industrial Pollution 30.5 30.5 Jhum Cultivation or Shifting Cultivation in N.E. Region 30.7 30.6 Chipko Movements 30.9 31. Ecology of Microorganisms 31.1-31.10 31.1 Introduction 31.1 31.2 The Ecosystem 31.1 31.3 Habitat 31.2 31.4 The Ecological Niche 31.2 31.5 Number and Diversity of Microorganisms in an Ecosystem 31.3 31.6 Nutrient Limitation is the Normal State in the Natural Ecosystem 31.3 xxii Contents

31.7 Aquatic Ecosystems 31.4 31.8 Lakes 31.5 31.9 Running Waters (Streams, Brooks, Rivers) 31.7 31.10 Microorganisms as Symbiotic Partners 31.8 Mutualistic Symbiosis 31.9 32. Environmental Management 32.1-32.16 32.1 Environmental Impact-Assessment 32.1 32.2 Environmental Planning 32.2 32.3 Conservation of Biological Resources 32.3 32.4 Wild Life Management 32.4 32.5 Conservation of Wetlands 32.7 32.6 Conservation of Mangroves 32.9 32.7 Conservation of Minerals 32.11 32.8 Conservation of Wastelands 32.11 32.9 Air-Water-Soil Management 32.12 32.10 Recycling of Resources and Waste 32.15 32.11 Management of Fisheries and Marine Resources 32.15 32.12 Prevention of Natural Hazards 32.16 32.13 Prevention of Health Hazards 32.16 Suggested Readings 1.1-1.1 Questions Q.1-Q.7 Glossary of Ecological Terms G.1-G.30 Appendix 1. Practical Ecology A-l.l-A-1.40 Appendix 2. The Earth Summit A-2.l-A-2.14 Appendix 3. Environmental Agencies, Abbreviations, Journals of Ecology, and Institutes of Ecology A-3.1-A-3.4 Index 1.1-1.25