DOCSLIB.ORG

Ecology Second Edition

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ecology Second Edition Ecology Second Edition N.S. Subrahmanyam A.V.S.S. Sambamurty Alpha Science International Ltd. Oxford, U.K. Contents Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition " ix 1. Ecology and Environment 1.1-1.20 1.1 Introduction 1.1 Branches of Ecology 1.2 Importancy of Ecology 1.2 1.2 History 1.2 1.3 Ecological Principles 1.3 Indian Ecology 1.4 1.4 Structural Concepts (Descriptive Ecology) 1.4 1.5 Functional Concepts 1.5' 1.6 Evolutionary Concepts 1.5 ° 1.7 Environmental Biotechnology 1.6 1.8 Atmosphere 1.12 2. Ecological Factors: Light and Temperature 2.1-2.28 2.1 Light 2.1 Quality of Light 2.1- Ultraviolet Light 2.2 Light in Aquatic Habitat 2.2 Effects of Light on the Plants 2.3 2.2 Transpiration 2.5 Light Absorption by Chlorophyll 2.5 Stomatal Movement 2.6 Photomorphogenesis 2.6 Phytochrome System 2.6 2.3 Phototropism 2.7 2.4 Photoperiodism 2.8 2.5 Vernalization 2.9 2.6 Bunning Hypothesis 2.10 Germination of Seeds 2.10 2.7 Measurement of Light Intensity 2.10 2.8 Light and Animals 2.11 Photoperiodism in Insects 2.11 Diapause 2.12 Seasonal Development 2.12 xii Contents 2.9 Circadian Rhythms 2.13 Behaviour Responses in Animals 2.13 2.10 Diurnation 2.14 2.11 Bioluminiscence 2.15 Types of Bioluminiscence 2.16 2.12 Temperature and Plants 2.17 2.13 Effects of Altitude 2.20 Temperature and Seed Germination 2.21 Temperature and Plant Reproduction 2.23 2.14 Thermal Constant 2.23 Thermal Stratification in Aquatic Ecosystems 2.24 2.15 Chemical Stratification 2.24 Temperature and Animals 2.25 Effect of Higher and Lower Temperatures 2.25 2.16 Temperature and Metabolism 2.25 2.17 Temperature and Reproduction 2.26 2.18 Temperature and Animal Behaviour 2.27 3. Water: Factor of Ecology 3.1-3.8 3.1 Introduction 3.1 Water and Animals 3.2 3.2 Hydrological Cycle 3.3 3.3 Measurement of Rainfalls 3.4 3.4 Humidity in India 3.5 Cloud, Mist and Fog 3.6 3.5 Frost 3.6 Thermal Insulation 3.7 3.6 Dew 3.7 4. Wind and Topographical Factors of Ecology 4.1-4.9 4.1 Wind 4.1 Flag Trees 4.1. Leaf Damage 4.2 Abrasion 4.2 Salt Spray 4.2 Lodging 4.2 Wind Erosion 4.2 Wind Speed 4.3 Windbreak or Shelter-belt 4.3 4.2 Topographic Factors 4.4 Behaviour of the Earth's Surface 4.4 4.3 Timber line or Tree Line 4.7 Exposure of the Slope to Light and Wind 4.9 Contents xiii 5. Fire Factor of Ecology 5.1-5.5 5.1 Introduction 5.1 5.2 Ecological Uses of Fire 5.4 5.3 Volcanoes 5.5 6. Soil (EDAPHIC) Factor of Ecology 6.1-6.31 6.1 Introduction 6.1 6.2 Residual and Transported Soils 6.2 6.3 Weathering 6.2 6.4 Soil Profile 6.4 6.5 Soil Texture 6.6 6.6 Soil Classification 6.7 Soil Moisture 6.10 6.7 Soil Water 6.11 Water Vapour 6.12 6.8 Physically and Physiologically Dry Soils 6.b3 Temporary and Permanent Wilting 6.13 Soil Density and Porosity 6.13 Soil Porocity 6.14 6.9 Chalkland Ecology 6.16 6.10 Soil Organic Matter 6.16 6.11 Soil Atmosphere 6.17 - 6.12 Soil Temperature 6.18 6.13 Soil Microbes 6.20 6.14 Soil Animals 6.20 Fauna and Flora of the Soil 6.20 6.15 Soil Erosion 6.21 Normal Erosion 6.21 Accelerated Soil Erosion 6.21 Agencies causing Soil Erosion 6.21 6.16 Soil Conservation 6.24 7. Biotic Factors of Ecology 7.1-7.21 7.1 Introduction 7.1 7.2 Mutualism 7.1 Mutualism between Plants and Plants 7.1 7.3 Syntrophy in Photosynthetic Bacteria 7.2 7.4 Mycorrhizae 7.2 7.5 Commensalism 7.7 Protocooperation (non-obligatory Mutualism) 7.9 7.6 Competition 7.9 7.7 Amensalism (Antibiosis) 7.10 Amensalism in Microorganisms 7.12 xiv Contents 7.8 Allelopathy 7.12 7.9 Predation 7.13 7.10 Slobodkin's Work 7.15 7.11 Insectivorous Plants 7.16 The Pitcher Plants 7.17 7.12 Myremecophily 7.18 7.13 Saprophytes 7.18 7.14 Ecology of Herbivores 7.19 Plant Defenses 7.20 Grazing and Browsing 7.21 8. Animal Inter Relationships 8.1-8.7 8.1 Introduction 8.1 8.2 Intraspecific Relationships 8.1 8.3 Interspecific Relationships 8.1 The Symbiosis of Dinoflagellates 8.3 8.4 Insect Symbiosis with Microorganisms 8.3 8.5 Mutualism without Continuous Contact 8.4 Commensalism with Continuous Contact 8.5 Commensalism without Continuous Contact 8.5 8.6 Antagonism 8.5 8.7 Parasitic Adaptations 8.6 9. Animal Adaptations 9.1-9.10 9.1 Introduction 9.1 9.2 Pread'aptations 9.1 * . Desert Adaptations 9.1 9.3 Cursorial Adaptations 9.3 Change in Foot Posture and Loss of Digits 9.3 Fossorial Adaptations 9.4 9.4 Arboreal Adaptations 9.5 Volant Adaptations 9.5 9.5 Aquatic Adaptations 9.6 9.6 Adaptive Radiation 9.8 10. Ecological Concepts of the Species 10.1-10.20 10.1 Taxonomic Species 10.1 Ecological Species 10.1 10.2 Ecocline 10.2 10.3 Gregor's Work 10.3 10.4 Types of Ecotypes 10.4 10.5 Acclimation 10.5 Ecological Amplitude 10.6 10.6 The law of Tolerance 10.8 Contents XV 10.7 Ecological Equivalents 10.8 10.8 Dame Concept 10.9 10.9 Niche 10.10 Multidimensional or Hypervolume 10.13 10.10 Flora of Delhi 10.15 10.11 Flora of Vishakhapatnam 10.17 10.12 Flora of Osmanabad (Andhra Pradesh) 10.19 11. Population Ecology ' 11.1-11.17 11.1 Introduction 11.1 11.2 Influences on Populations 11.2 Population Growth and Density 11.2 Natality (Birth Rate) 11.2 11.3 Population Density 11.2 » 11.4 Mortality (Death Rate) 11.3 Population Growth Form 11.7 Age Distribution 11.7 11.5 Population Fluctuations 11.8 11.6 Population Dispersal 11.10 Home Range and Territoriality 11.11 11.7 Home Range and Territoriality in Animals 1*1.12 11.8 Autecology 11.14 ' Environmental Complex 11.14 11.9 Seed Germination and-Reproductive Capacity 11.14 11.10 Seed Dormancy 11.16 12. Nature and Structure of Plant Communities 12.1-12.10 12.1 Introduction 12.1 12.2 Organismic Concept 12.2 12.3 Individualistic Concept 12.3 12.4 Characteristics of Communities 12.3 12.5 Fidelity 12.8 12.6 Growth Form and Structure 12.8 12.7 Stratification 12.9 12.8 Ecotone 12.10 13. Analysis of Plant Communities: Community Classification 13.1-13.19 13.1 Introduction 13.1 13.2 Structure of Plant Community 13.1 13.3 Qualitative Characteristics 13.3 13.4 Physiognomy and Pattern 13.3 13.5 Biological Spectrum 13.6 Raunkiaer's Leaf Size Classification 13.8 xvi Contents 13.6 Quantitative Characteristics 13.8 Density 13.11 Basal Area 13.12 13.7 Phytosociological Methods 13.14 13.8 Line Intercept, Strip Transect and Bisect Methods 13.15 13.9 The Point Method 13.17 Distance (Plotless) Methods 13.17 Nearest Individual Method 13.17 14. Methods of Studying Animal Communities 14.1-14.9 14.1 Density 14.1 14.2 Estimation of Phytoplankton and Zooplankton in water bodies 14.2 14.3 Determination of Frequency of Phytoplankton 14.3 14.4 Zooplankton 14.4 14.5 Benthic Macro-invertebrates 14.6 14.6 Estimation of Secondary Production in Animals 14.6 Nearest Neighbour Techniques 14.6 Spatial Pattern 14.7 15. Plant Succession 15.1-15.13 15.1 Introduction 15.1 15.2 Trends in Succession 15.1 15.3 Process of Succession 15.4 . ' 15.4 Chronosequence Versus Toposequence 15.6 15.5 Cyclical Changes in vegetation 15.6 15.6 Xerarch 15.8 15.7 Succession on Sand Dunes (Psammosere) 15.9 15.8 Heterotrophic Succesion 15.10 15.9 Succession on Dung 15.11 15.10 Climax Community 15.12 16. Ecosystem Ecology 16.1-16.27 16.1 Introduction 16.1 16.2 Types of Ecosystems 16.2 16.3 Structure of Ecosystem 16.2 Producer Organisms (Autotrophic Component) 16.3 16.4 Decomposers and Transformers 16.3 Flow of Energy 16.4 16.5 The Ecosystem as a Cybernetic System 16.5 Homeostasis 16.5 16.6 Aquatic Ecosystems 16.6 Fresh Water Environments 16.6 Streams and Rivers 16.7 Lakes and Ponds 16.7 Contents xvii 16.7 The Lake Ecosystem 16.7 The Pond as an Ecosystem 16.9 16.8 Categories of Pond Flora and Fauna 16.10 Food Chains and Energy Flow 16.10 16.9 Types of Food Chains 16.13 Food Web 16.14 Detritus Food Web 16.16 16.10 Ecological Pyramids 16.16 16.11 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem 16.18 Lindeman's Work 16.21 Golley's Work 16.22 16.12 Ecological Efficiency 16.22 16.13 Biogeochemical Cycles 16.23 Hydrologic Cycle 16.24 Carbon Cycle 16.24 Nitrogen Cycle 16.24 ° Oxygen Cycle 16.25 Phosphorus Cycle 16.26 Sulphur Cycle 16.27 17.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • About the Book the Format Acknowledgments
    About the Book For more than ten years I have been working on a book on bryophyte ecology and was joined by Heinjo During, who has been very helpful in critiquing multiple versions of the chapters. But as the book progressed, the field of bryophyte ecology progressed faster. No chapter ever seemed to stay finished, hence the decision to publish online. Furthermore, rather than being a textbook, it is evolving into an encyclopedia that would be at least three volumes. Having reached the age when I could retire whenever I wanted to, I no longer needed be so concerned with the publish or perish paradigm. In keeping with the sharing nature of bryologists, and the need to educate the non-bryologists about the nature and role of bryophytes in the ecosystem, it seemed my personal goals could best be accomplished by publishing online. This has several advantages for me. I can choose the format I want, I can include lots of color images, and I can post chapters or parts of chapters as I complete them and update later if I find it important. Throughout the book I have posed questions. I have even attempt to offer hypotheses for many of these. It is my hope that these questions and hypotheses will inspire students of all ages to attempt to answer these. Some are simple and could even be done by elementary school children. Others are suitable for undergraduate projects. And some will take lifelong work or a large team of researchers around the world. Have fun with them! The Format The decision to publish Bryophyte Ecology as an ebook occurred after I had a publisher, and I am sure I have not thought of all the complexities of publishing as I complete things, rather than in the order of the planned organization.
    [Show full text]
  • Slime Molds: Biology and Diversity
    Glime, J. M. 2019. Slime Molds: Biology and Diversity. Chapt. 3-1. In: Glime, J. M. Bryophyte Ecology. Volume 2. Bryological 3-1-1 Interaction. Ebook sponsored by Michigan Technological University and the International Association of Bryologists. Last updated 18 July 2020 and available at <https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/bryophyte-ecology/>. CHAPTER 3-1 SLIME MOLDS: BIOLOGY AND DIVERSITY TABLE OF CONTENTS What are Slime Molds? ....................................................................................................................................... 3-1-2 Identification Difficulties ...................................................................................................................................... 3-1- Reproduction and Colonization ........................................................................................................................... 3-1-5 General Life Cycle ....................................................................................................................................... 3-1-6 Seasonal Changes ......................................................................................................................................... 3-1-7 Environmental Stimuli ............................................................................................................................... 3-1-13 Light .................................................................................................................................................... 3-1-13 pH and Volatile Substances
    [Show full text]
  • The Ecology of Mutualism
    Annual Reviews www.annualreviews.org/aronline AngRev. Ecol. Syst. 1982.13:315--47 Copyright©1982 by Annual Reviews lnc. All rightsreserved THE ECOLOGY OF MUTUALISM Douglas 1t. Boucher Departementdes sciences biologiques, Universit~ du Quebec~ Montreal, C. P. 8888, Suet. A, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3C 3P8 Sam James Departmentof Ecologyand Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA48109 Kathleen H. Keeler School of Life Sciences, University of Nebraska,Lincoln, Nebraska,USA 68588 INTRODUCTION Elementaryecology texts tell us that organismsinteract in three fundamen- tal ways, generally given the namescompetition, predation, and mutualism. The third memberhas gotten short shrift (264), and even its nameis not generally agreed on. Terms that may be considered synonyms,in whole or part, are symbiosis, commensalism,cooperation, protocooperation, mutual aid, facilitation, reciprocal altruism, and entraide. Weuse the term mutual- by University of Kanas-Lawrence & Edwards on 09/26/05. For personal use only. ism, defined as "an interaction betweenspecies that is beneficial to both," Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1982.13:315-347. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org since it has both historical priority (311) and general currency. Symbiosis is "the living together of two organismsin close association," and modifiers are used to specify dependenceon the interaction (facultative or obligate) and the range of species that can take part (oligophilic or polyphilic). We make the normal apologies concerning forcing continuous variation and diverse interactions into simple dichotomousclassifications, for these and all subsequentdefinitions. Thus mutualism can be defined, in brief, as a -b/q- interaction, while competition, predation, and eommensalismare respectively -/-, -/q-, and -t-/0. There remains, however,the question of howto define "benefit to the 315 0066-4162/82/1120-0315 $02.00 Annual Reviews www.annualreviews.org/aronline 316 BOUCHER, JAMES & KEELER species" without evoking group selection.
    [Show full text]
  • Microbial Interactions Lecture 2
    Environmental Microbiology CLS 416 Lecture 2 Microbial interactions Sarah Alharbi Clinical laboratory department Collage of applied medical sciences King Saud University Outline • Important terms (Symbiosis,ectosymbiont.Endosymbiont, ecto/endosymbiosis • Positive interactions (mutualism, protocooperation, commensalism) • Negative interactions(predation, parasitism, amensalism,and competition) • Nutrient Cycling Interactions • The importance of understanding the principle of microbial interactions (Examples from the literature) Microbial interactions Symbiosis An association of two or more different species Ectosymbisis One organism can be located on the surface of another, as an ectosymbiont. In this case, the ectosymbiont usually is a smaller organism located on the surface of a larger organism. Endosymbiosis one organism can be located within another organism as an endosymbiont Ecto/ endosymbiosis. microorganisms live on both the inside and the outside of another organism - Examples (Ecto/ endosymbiosis) 1- Thiothrix species, a sulfur-using bacterium, which is at- ached to the surface of a mayfly larva and which itself contains a parasitic bacterium. 2- Fungi associated with plant roots (mycorrhizal fungi) often contain endosymbiotic bacteria, as well as having bacteria living on their surfaces • Symbiotic relationships can be intermittent and cyclic or permanent • Symbiotic interactions do not occur independently. Each time a microorganism interacts with other organisms and their environments, a series of feedback responses occurs in the larger biotic community that will impact other parts of ecosystems. Microbial interactions Positive interactions •Mutualism •Protocooperation •Commensalism Negative interactions • Predation • Parasitism • Amensalism • Competition Mutualism Mutualism [Latin mutuus, borrowed or reciprocal] defines the relationship in which some reciprocal benefit accrues to both partners. • Relationship with some degree of obligation • partners cannot live separately • Mutualist and host are dependent on each other 6 Examples of Mutalism 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Plant Ecology and Biostatistics
    BSCBO- 203 B.Sc. II YEAR Plant Ecology and Biostatistics DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY SCHOOL OF SCIENCES UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY PLANT ECOLOGY AND BIOSTATISTICS BSCBO-203 BSCBO-203 PLANT ECOLOGY AND BIOSTATISTICS SCHOOL OF SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Phone No. 05946-261122, 261123 Toll free No. 18001804025 Fax No. 05946-264232, E. mail [email protected] htpp://uou.ac.in UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1 PLANT ECOLOGY AND BIOSTATISTICS BSCBO-203 Expert Committee Prof. J. C. Ghildiyal Prof. G.S. Rajwar Retired Principal Principal Government PG College Government PG College Karnprayag Augustmuni Prof. Lalit Tewari Dr. Hemant Kandpal Department of Botany School of Health Science DSB Campus, Uttarakhand Open University Kumaun University, Nainital Haldwani Dr. Pooja Juyal Department of Botany School of Sciences Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Board of Studies Late Prof. S. C. Tewari Prof. Uma Palni Department of Botany Department of Botany HNB Garhwal University, Retired, DSB Campus, Srinagar Kumoun University, Nainital Dr. R.S. Rawal Dr. H.C. Joshi Scientist, GB Pant National Institute of Department of Environmental Science Himalayan Environment & Sustainable School of Sciences Development, Almora Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Dr. Pooja Juyal Department of Botany School of Sciences Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani Programme Coordinator Dr. Pooja Juyal Department of Botany School of Sciences Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 2 PLANT ECOLOGY AND BIOSTATISTICS BSCBO-203 Unit Written By: Unit No. 1-Dr. Pooja Juyal 1, 4 & 5 Department of Botany School of Sciences Uttarakhand Open University Haldwani, Nainital 2-Dr. Harsh Bodh Paliwal 2 & 3 Asst Prof. (Senior Grade) School of Forestry & Environment SHIATS Deemed University, Naini, Allahabad 3-Dr.
    [Show full text]
  • A Textbook of Ecology
    A Textbook Of Ecology Dr. Md. Abdul Ahad Professor, Dept. Of Entomology Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science & Technology University,Dinajpur A.S.M Anas Ferdous Student, Department Of Biomedical Engineering Bangladesh Univeristy Of Engineering & Technology Edition- First Edition-November 2019 Copyright- All Rights Reserved By Writer Publisher- Himachal Publication Bishal Book Complex Banglabazar, Dhaka Price-180 Tk Dedicated To Father Of The Nation Sheikh Mujibur Rahman CONTENTS Page no. 4-9 Introduction To Ecology 9-27 Causes of success of insect Ecosystem and agro-ecosystem 6-8 Differences between agro-ecosystems and natural ecosystems 8-9 Environmental factors influencing living organisms 10-27 Effect of Temperature on insect 11 Effect of Humidity on insect 13 Effect of Light on insect 15 Effect of air or wind on insect 16 Effect of water on insect 17 Effect of air pollutants 17 Influence of biotic factors on living organisms 17-27 Interspecific interaction 19-27 Growth form 28-33 S-growth form 28-30 Differences between population oscillation and population 30 fluctuation J-shaped growth form 30-32 Differences between J-shaped and S. Shaped (sigmoid) growth 33 form. Factor affecting on populations fluctuations 35 Population change 35 Variable affecting population size 35-36 Limits on population growth Forecasting insect pests Forecasting of insect population 36 Observations on the field population 36-37 Economic threshold (ET) 38-39 Threshold levels of cotton pests 38 Threshold levels of rice pests 39 Differences between economic threshold
    [Show full text]
  • Abstracts Book C
    ABSTRACTS BOOK C IN PARTNERSHIP WITH MAIN SPONSOR Italian Anthropological Association OPENING LECTURE Opening Lecture Selectable units of evolution: the importance of developmental symbioses Scott F. Gilbert Swarthmore College, University of Helsinki Evolution involves the selection of heritable variation, and such variations are caused by changes in organismal development. Evolutionary developmental biology, which studies the origins of this variation, has focused on the formation of new structures through changes in gene expression. However, whereas the human genome contains some 22,000 genes, it receives over eight million different genes from its microbial symbionts. Since the expression of microbial genes is critical in producing anatomical, physiological, and behavioral phenotypes, changes in these bacterial genes may be important in generating new phenotypes. Both vertically and horizontally transmitted microbes have been shown to alter development to produce in selectable adaptations. Moreover, recent research has shown that microbial symbionts are necessary for the development of particular organs of several species, for the variation of certain selectable traits within a population, and for the emergence of particular social behaviors. This research also suggests that some major evolutionary transitions have been facilitated by symbiotic microbes. Herbivory, the complex of anatomical, physiological, and behavioral traits allowing animals to eat plants, is one of those transitions. Herbivory will be discussed from the point of view of holobiont evolutionary developmental biology, wherein specific adaptations (such as the rumen), are seen as being induced by interactions between the host and its microbes, and the behavioral and physiological manifestations of herbivorous phenotypes need to be preceded by the successful establishment of communities of symbiotic microbes that can digest plant cell walls and detoxify plant poisons.
    [Show full text]
  • Prescott's Microbiology 5E
    Prescott−Harley−Klein: VIII. Ecology and 28. Microorganism © The McGraw−Hill Microbiology, Fifth Edition Symbiosis Interactions and Microbial Companies, 2002 Ecology 28.2 Microbial Interactions 601 Gill Gill plume plume O O 2 2 HSHbO2 CO2 CO2 H2S H2S Circulatory Vestimentum system Bacteria Sulfide Sulfide O2 Trophosome oxidation ATP Coelom Trophosome cell NAD(P)H Bacteria Calvin CO2 Capillary cycle Reduced Tube carbon compounds Capillary Nutrients Translocation Endosymbiotic products bacteria Opisthosome O2 CO 2 Animal tissues H2S (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 28.6 The Tube Worm—Bacterial Relationship. (a) A community of tube worms (Riftia pachyptila) at the Galápagos Rift hydrothermal vent site (depth 2,550 m). Each worm is more than a meter in length and has a 20 cm gill plume. (b, c) Schematic illustration of the anatomical and physiological organization of the tube worm. The animal is anchored inside its protective tube by the vestimentum. At its anterior end is a respiratory gill plume. Inside the trunk of the worm is a trophosome consisting primarily of endosymbiotic bacteria, associated cells, and blood vessels. At the posterior end of the animal is the opisthosome, which anchors the worm in its tube. (d) Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are absorbed through the gill plume and transported to the blood cells of the trophosome. Hydrogen sulfide is bound to the worm’s hemoglobin (HSHbO2) and carried to the endosymbiont bacteria. The bacteria oxidize the hydrogen sulfide and use some of the released energy to fix CO2 in the Calvin cycle. Some fraction of the reduced carbon compounds synthesized by the endosymbiont is translocated to the animal’s tissues.
    [Show full text]
  • Biological Interactions
    Unit 2: Biological Interactions With the development of microbial communities, the demand for nutrients and space also increases. As a result, there has been a development of different strategies to enable microorganisms to persist in an environment. Cell–cell interactions may produce cooperative effects where one or more individuals benefit, or competition between the cells may occur with an adverse effect on one or more species in the environment. The nature and magnitude of interaction will depend on the types of microorganism present as well as the abundance of the microorganisms and types of sensory systems of the individual organisms. Classification of microbial interactions In addressing microbe–microbe interactions, it is important to determine whether the interaction is between cells of different genera or within the same species. Various types of interaction of a microorganism with another microorganism and specific examples of the processes associated with microbe–microbe interaction are presented in table 1 and 2. Table 1: Types of Interaction between Microorganisms and Hosts Microorganisms can be physically associated with other organisms in a number of ways • Ectosymbiosis-microorganism remains outside the other organism • Endosymbiosis-microorganism is found within the other organism • Ecto/endosymbiosis-microorganism lives both on the inside and the outside of the other organism • Physical associations can be intermittent and cyclic or permanent Table 2: Examples of Microbial Interactions a – plant microbe interaction; b - animal microbe interaction Neutralism Neutralism occurs when microorganisms have no effect on each other despite their growth in fairly close contact. It is perhaps possible for neutralism to occur in natural communities if the culture density is low, the nutrient level is high, and each culture has distinct requirements for growth.
    [Show full text]
  • Biology Botany Higher Secondary - First Year
    BIOLOGY BOTANY HIGHER SECONDARY - FIRST YEAR REVISED BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE TEXT BOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE A Publication Under Government of Tamilnadu Distribution of Free Textbook Programme (NOT FOR SALE) Untouchability is a sin Untouchability is a crime Untouchability is inhuman TAMILNADU TEXTBOOK CORPORATION College Road, Chennai - 600 006. © Government of Tamilnadu First Edition - 2005 Revised Edition - 2007 Chairperson Dr. A. JAFFAR HUSSAIN Head of the Department of Botany (Rtd.) Presidency College (Autonomous) Chennai - 600 005. Authors Reviewers Dr. MUJEERA FATHIMA T. R. A. DEVAKUMAR Senior Scale Lecturer in Botany Selection Grade Lecturer in Botany Government Arts College (Men) Government Arts College (Men) Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035. Nandanam, Chennai - 600 035. NALINI P. RAJAGOVINDAN Dr. V. MURGANANDAM Assistant Head Mistress Reader in Botany Corporation Boys' R.M. Vivekananda College, Higher Secondary School Chennai - 600 004. Saidapet, Chennai - 600 015. N. SHANTHA P.G. Teacher Government Higher Secondary School Kodambakkam, Chennai - 600 024. Price : Rs. 33-00 This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School Education on behalf of the Government of Tamil Nadu. This Book has been printed on 60 GSM Paper PREFACE We are passing through an "Era of Biology". Words like "Biotechnology', 'Bioremediation", "Biochips", "Biomineralization", "Bioinformatics" etc. have become familiar even with "common man". Certainly there is a new unusual never-before- tried approach to address and solve many problems associated with modern life and to enhance the quality and standard of living by application of modern tools of Biology; particularly the Genetically Modified Foods (GM Foods) and other GM Products have revolutionized our Life.
    [Show full text]
  • Higher-Order Predators and the Regulation of Insect Herbivore Populations
    P1: SKH October 28, 1997 11:56 Annual Reviews AR048-19 Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1998. 43:421–47 Copyright c 1998 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved HIGHER-ORDER PREDATORS AND THE REGULATION OF INSECT HERBIVORE POPULATIONS Jay A. Rosenheim Department of Entomology, University of California, Davis, California 95616 KEY WORDS: population regulation, biological control, hyperparasitoid, top-down control, intraguild predation ABSTRACT Empirical research has not supported the prediction that populations of terrestrial herbivorous arthropods are regulated solely by their natural enemies. Instead, both natural enemies (top-down effects) and resources (bottom-up effects) may play important regulatory roles. This review evaluates the hypothesis that higher-order predators may constrain the top-down control of herbivore populations. Natural enemies of herbivorous arthropods generally are not top predators within terres- trial food webs. Insect pathogens and entomopathogenic nematodes inhabiting the soil may be attacked by diverse micro- and mesofauna. Predatory and parasitic insects are attacked by their own suite of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. The view of natural enemy ecology that has emerged from laboratory studies, where natural enemies are often isolated from all elements of the biotic commu- nity except for their hosts or prey, may be an unreliable guide to field dynamics. Experimental work suggests that interactions of biological control agents with by University of California - Davis on 09/21/14. For personal use only. their own natural enemies can disrupt the effective control of herbivore popu- lations. Disruption has been observed experimentally in interactions of bacte- Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1998.43:421-447. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org ria with bacteriophages, nematodes with nematophagous fungi, parasitoids with predators, parasitoids with hyperparasitoids, and predators with other predators.
    [Show full text]
  • Bsc Chemistry
    Input Template for Content Writers (e-Text and Learn More) 1. Details of Module and its Structure Module Detail Subject Name <Botany> Paper Name <Ecology> Module Name/Title <Species Interactions I> Module Id Pre-requisites <Basic knowledge about Interactions in living world> <To make students aware about different kinds of interaction prevailing Objectives among organisms> <Commensalism>,<>,<Protocooperation>,<>; <Mutualism>; < Keywords Coevolution> Structure of Module / Syllabus of a module (Define Topic / Sub-topic of module ) <Introduction>, <Direct and Indirect Interactions>, <Types of Direct <Species Interaction> interactions>, <Positive Interactions>; <.Models of Mutualism> 2. Development Team Role Name Affiliation Savitribai Phule Pune Subject Coordinator <Prof. Sujata Bhargava> University Paper Coordinator <Prof. NSR Krishnayya> MS University Baroda Content Writer/Author (CW) < Prof. Neeta Pandya> MS University Baroda Content Reviewer (CR) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya > Language Editor (LE) < Prof. NSR Krishnayya > Species Interaction I Ecology Interaction prevailing among different species TABLE OF CONTENTS(for textual content) 1. Introduction 2. Direct and Indirect Interactions: 2.1Direct Interactions: i. Positive interactions ii.Neutral interactions iii. Negativeinteractions 2.2Indirect Interactions: 3. Types of Direct interactions: 4. Positive Interactions: 4.1 Scavenging: 4.2 Commensalism: 4.3 Facultative Mutualism: 4.4 Obligate Mutualism: i. Mutualism and Co evolution: 5. Models of Mutualism: 6. Importance of Positive Species interactions: 7. Summary 1. Introduction Organisms do not live alone, all the time they are influenced by their neighbors and show a response to this influence. In ecology this is known as species interaction and is defined as the relation between species that live together in a community. Interactive species have a tremendous influence on the size of each other' populations.
    [Show full text]