IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Ancient India · They cultivated land and grew fruits and corn. History is a record of the achievements of man. They also domesticated animals like the ox and · To begin with, these records consist almost the goat. solely of the rude implements which the people · They knew the art of producing fire by the used in their daily lives. friction of bamboos or pieces of wood, and made (a)Palaeolithic Men – Old Stone pottery, at first by hand, and then with the potter’s · These are small pieces of rough undressed wheel. stones, chipped into various forms, which were · They live in caves and decorated their walls by originally fitted with handles made of sticks or painting scenes of hunting and dancing. A few bones. They served as weapons for hunting wild of these can be seen today both in Northern and animals, and could also be used as hammers or Southern India. for purposes of cutting and boring. · They constructed boats and went out to sea. They · They lived in constant dread of wild animals like could spin cotton and wool and weave cloth. tigers, lions, elephants and the rhinoceros. They They used to bury their dead, and Neolithic had no idea of agriculture, but lived on the flesh tombs have been discovered in some parts of of animals and such fruits and vegetables as grew India. wild in jungles. They could not make pottery, (c) Mesolithic and probably did not even know how to make a · Scholars also distinguish a culture midway fire. between Palaeolithic and Neolithic, and call it · The Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito Mesolithic (from Greek “meso” = middle). Its race, like the modern people of the Andaman two chief characteristics were, first, that the Islands, and was characterized by short stature, stone implements used were extremely small, dark skin, woolly hair and flat noses. only about an inch in length. (b)Neolithic Men – New Stone · Secondly, that instead of quartzite they were · The significance of this name lies in the fact that made of chalcedony and other silicate varieties in this age also men had to depend solely on by a technical process differing from that stone implements, and were ignorant of any employed in the Palaeolithic Age. metals, except gold. The Age of Metals -Chalcolithic 1800 BC – 1000 · They used stones other than quartzite, and these BC were not merely chipped, but in most cases · Neolithic men were the ancestors of the people “ground, grooved and polished”. who ushered in the next stage of civilization · The civilization of the Neolithic men shows which is distinguished by the knowledge and use distinct traces of advance. of metals.

1 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

· Culture extended from Chotanagpur plateau to nature urban civilization was already in upper Gangetic basin existence. · Other sites – Brahmgiri (Near Mysore) – Indus · Some of the most interesting and important Valley Harappan sotes are A,ro. Cjamji-daro (80 miles THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION south of Mohenjo-daro on the left plains of the · The earliest remains of a settled culture in the Indus), kot Diji (25 miles east of Mohenjo-daro), Indian subcontinent are of little agricultural Kalibangan (Rajasthan) and Lothal (Gujarat). villages in central and southern Baluchistan and But the civilization of the Indus valley is still best Sind (both areas now in Pakistan. The oldest of known by the two sites, Mohenjo-daro (City of the these goes back to about 3500 BC. Dead) and Harappa on account of their size and of · Around the beginning of the third millennium the diversity of finds that have come to light. Both BC, a culture complex named after the type-site these places are now in Pakistan. of Amri (100 miles south of Mohenjo-daro and General Layout a mile away from the right bank of the Indus) to · To the west of each was a citadel, fortified by the south-east of Baluchistan appeared. crencilated walls. · It developed into a distinctive settlement, and · On this were erected the public buildings. The after a series of evolving stages gave way to what enclosed citadel area may have been used for is known as the Indus valley or the Harappan religious and governmental purposes. civilization named after Harappa in the · Below the citadel mound, there was the town Montgomery district (western Punjab), athough proper extending, at both the sites, no less than Mohenjo-daro situated in the Larkana district a square mile. (Sind) was no less an important centre. · The main street, some as much as 30 feet wide, Origin of Harappan Civilization were laid out on a grid plan. 1.It was a colonial offshoot of the Mesopotamia · The streets and buildings were provided with civilization which was brought to the Indus drains made of burnt bricks at Mohenjo-daro and region by the Sumerians, the early inhabitants Harappa as well as at several other Indus sites. of south Mesopotamia. · The houses were equipped with rubbish-bins and 2.From the excavations of number of sites in bathrooms, and occasionally with a privy on the Baluchistan, Sind and the Punjab, it is clear that ground or the upper floor. The bathrooms were the emergence of civilized life in the Indus valley connected by drains with sewers under the main were indigenous in origin. streets. 3.It is not unlikely that the situmulus for urban · The drainage system is one of the most development in the Indus region came from impressive achievements of the Harappa and outside most likely from Mesopotamia where

2 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

presupposes the existence of some kind of · Other than Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, several municipal organization. sites have been excavated: Kalibangan, Chanhu- · Some buildings are conspicuous by their absence daro, Lothal, Sutkagen-daro, Sotka Koh, and in the Harappan sites, and burnt brick of good Balakot. quality seems to have been the only building Script material. · The recovery of about 2500 Harappan · The houses of varying sizes, often of two or more inscriptions engraved on seals proves that the storeys, consisted of rooms constructed round a Indus people had a script. Several bold attempts rectangular courtyard. have been made to decipher it. According to some · The structural remains indicate that the big scholars the language belonged to the Indo- houses were meant for the rich. The parallel rows European or Indo-Iranian family, while of two room cottages unearthed at Mohenjo-daro according to others it belonged to the Dravidian and Harappa were perhaps used by the poorer group. sections of society and anticipates the ‘coolie’ Agriculture lines of modern Indian towns. From this may be · Wheat and barley were the main food-crops. Two inferred class differences in Harappan society. varieties of wheat, the club wheat and the Indian · Of the few large buildings so far discovered, the dwarf wheat were known. Great Bath in the citadel at Mohenjo-daro is the · Barley of a small-seeded six-rowed variety has most striking. This was a rectangular tank 39 23 been found both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. and 8 deep, constructed of brick; the tank well · Dates and field peas were also grown and formed was jacketed with bitumen. At the north and items of Harappan diet. south ends of the Great Bath brick steps led to · Sesamom and mustard were used for oil. the bottom of the tank, which could be emptied · At Lothal and Rangpur (near Ahmedabad), rice by a drain. The Great Bath was meant for some husks and spikelets embedded in clay and pottery elaborate ritual of vital importance of the people. have been discovered. · Wet of the Great Bath, there lay a large granary, · The Harappan cultural zone fell in the low originally 150 feet from east to west and 75 feed rainfall area, and it is likely that irrigation was wide. Also at Harappa, a remarkable group of necessary for cultivation. But there is no granaries, each 50 20 feet, has been found ranged evidence to show that the Harappans practiced in two rows of six, with a central passage 23 canal irrigation, which was known in as feet wide. In an age when money was not in use, Mesopotamia. A likely conjecture is that fields the granaries must have reflected the solvency were irrigated by irregular floods. of the administrative organization.

3 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Food Habits · A large variety of copper tools such as flat axes, Harappan Region (Style Food) chisels, knives, spear and arrow heads, small 1. Sind Wheat and Barley saws, etc. has been found. 2. Punjab Wheat and Barley · Various techniques of working in copper were 3. Rajasthan Barley only known, namely hammering, lapping, casting, etc. 4. Gujarat Rice and Millet · Brick kilns, associated with copper working, (Rangpur, Lothal and Surkotada) have been discovered at various places. Sesame seeds, Mustard, and Ghee were their · The authors of Harappan culture possessed the sources of fat and oil; Seeds of Jujube and dates, knowledge of gold. Beads, pendants, armlets, discovered in the Harappan sites indicate that brooches, needles and other personal ornaments Harappans were consuming these fruits; bones of of gold seem to have been reasonably common deer, sheep goat and bear confirm that they ate all though by no means prolific. these animals; fish, milk and curd, too, were · Silver seems to have been first used by the Indus available to them and they might have been aware people: it was relatively more common than gold. of bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs Arts and Crafts and mangoes. · Among them seal-cutting occupied a place of Stock breeding importance. The Harappan seal-intaglios form a · Three-quarters of the Harappan terracotta class by themselves and seem to have been linked represent cattle; the cow was not represented. with trading activities. · Besides sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle, · Bead-maker’s craft – Beads were made of gold, buffalo and elephant were certainly silver, copper, faience, steatite, semiprecious domesticated. stones, shells and pottery – they have been found · The camel was still rare. in abundance. · A number of wild animals was hunted perhaps · Indus stone sculptures are recorded. for food. · Terracottas have been found in great numbers · Several varieties of deer for example, seem to indicating their universal popularity either as toys have been the game of the Harappans. or cult objects. · From Amri, a single example of the Indian · The potter’s craft was fairly well developed. rhinoceros has survived. Most of the Harappan pottery was wheel-turned. · Bronze Age Commodity Production · Copper was in plentiful supply during the mature · Gold may have imported from south India, phase of Harappan civilization. especially Mysore, where it was in good supply in antiquity and is still mined.

4 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

· Silver was imported probably from Afghanistan · On one of these seals, he is shown as surrounded and Iran. by four wild animals, an elephant, a tiger, a · Copper may have been brought from south India rhinoceros and a buffalo and beneath his stool ad from Baluchistan and Arabia. are to deer. · Lapis lazuli is rare in Harappan archaeological Duration material and came from Badakshan (in north- · The total time span of the Harappan civilization east Afghanistan); Turquoise from Iran; amethyst is now fixed between 2300 BC and 1750 BC. from Maharashtra; agate, chalcedonies and Mohen-jo-Daro and Harappa were the main carnelian from Saurashtra and Western India. centres of this civilization. Mohen-Jo-Daro is · Alabaster may have been brought from a number situated in the Larkana District of Sind. Mohen- of places both the east and the west. jo-Daro literally means the ‘Mound of the Dead’. · Jade came from central Asia. Mohen-jo-Daro is struck by the remarkable skill Harappan Trade Link in town-planning. Streets run straight, sometimes · Trade links extended to the cities of as far as half a mile and they intersect at right Mesopotamia where two dozen Harappan seals angles. Nowhere was a building allowed to have been found. encroach on a public highway. Secondly, one is · From the Indus region, only three cylinder seals struck by the remarkable skill of the people of and a few metal objects of Mesopotamian origin Mohen-jo-Daro in sanitation. The city had an have been found. elaborate drainage system consisting of street and · The archaeological evidence of trade with west house drains and soak-pits. The great public Bath Asia is thus scant. is a significant part of infrastructure. · Mesopotamian literature speaks of merchants of · Harappa lies on the bank of the river Ravi It Ur (in Mesopotamia) as cayying on trade with was the capital of the northern region Wells at foreign countries. Harappa are rare as compared to Mohen-jo-Daro. · Among these, the most frequently mentioned are The most remarkable building at Harappa is the Tilmun or Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha. Great Granary if Mohen-jo-Daro can boast of the Religion Great public bath Grid planning row of six · Numerous nude female figurines in terracotta granaries evidences of coffin burial, evidence of are believed to represent a Mother Goddess fractional burial are significant.. connected with fertility. · The most striking divinity was the horned god · Kalibangan Situated on the left bank of the now depicted on the seals, nude but for many bangles, drived river Ghaggar in district in Rajasthan necklaces and a peculiar head-dress consisting ploughed field with grid of furrows, city of a pair of horns. (rectangular in shape) a citadel with fire altars,

5 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

· Lothal Indus rivers site with an artificial brick mainly upon the meaning of the frame of dockyard , evidence of paddy cultivation( rice references, historians have tended to convey. To husk has been discovered) evidence of joint be more simple, Aryans appeared on Indian scene burial of a male and a female, found terra- cotta as seminomadic people with mixed pastoral and ( model of a horse) agricultural economy in which pastoralism dominated the sedentary life, at least in the Rg Vedic · Chanhudaro Discovered of a small pot which phase. Predomination of cattle-rearing over was probably an ink-pot. agriculture was the most basic factor for the social · Banawali is an important major settlement, organization and economic activities in Rg Vedic surrounded by massive brick defenses. One of phase. the most surprising discoveries, far outside the Harappan Material Culture Vs Rg Vedic central area of the Indus Civilization Culture Two important Harappan Sites in Deccan I. The respective material culture of Harappan and Vedic culture provides a striking contrast not (a) At Daimabad, about 50 miles away from only in the realm of the metals used by them but Bombay, archeologists have excavated a site which also in almost complete absence of to3wns in produced from a level carbon-dated about 1200 the Rg Vedic period. Indra appeared only as BC, a heavy bronze image of an ithyphallic male destroyer of puras (towns) not as their builder. In figure driving an ox-chariot, together with fine this sense Rg Vedic economy marked a complete bronze figures of a bull, an elephant, and a rhino. break with the Harappan economy. Stylistically, these images show clear influences II. The most striking thing about Rg Vedic of the Indus Valley Civilization. The people of economy is the absence of iron. Although the term Daimabad decorated with pottery with friezes of ayas is used in the Rg Veda but only in the sense of canines, either of wolves or of dogs. copper or bronze and even these primate metals (b) At Piklihal, about 300 miles (400 kilometers) were used only in poor quantity. away from Bombay in the same time-period III. Again, so far no cereals have been discovered comes the evidence of a community of cattle at Rg Vedic sites, although the existence of many herdsmen who kept their huge herds in large potteries in varying shapes and size (and also of communal pens and who decorated the rocks in some pestles and querns) would suggest that Rg the vicinity of the settlement with innumerable Vedic people were using agricultural commodities. paintings and scratching of cattle. Rg Vedic Aryans are known to have familiarity with yaya, which may be taken either as a generic Rg Vedic Society and Economy: Pastoral Phase name for various kinds of grain or for only Vedic society has often been described as ‘tribal’, barley, its literal meaning. ‘pastoral’, ‘nomadic or semi-pastoral’, depending 6 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

IV. Although the root ar, from which the term arya ** Gods in the Rg Vedic text were divided into has been derived, means to cultivate, the Family four categories: (i) Divya (heavenly); (ii) Books (Book II to Book VII) do not present Parthiva (earthly); (iii) Gojala (cow born)and agriculture as a dominant economic activity at this (iv) Apya (watery). stage and Rg Vedic people seem to be Note: Guests in this period were known as predominantly pastoral. As opposed to the wild Goghana as cattle were slaughtered to feed them animals (mriga), they domesticated pashu, mainly VI. In comparison of very substantial linguistic cattle which were evidently valued for non- evidence for cattle-rearing in the Rg Veda, vegetarian food (beef) and dairy products, although agricultural activities find very few references. the term also indicates horses and sometimes Apart from yava (barley), no other grains are human beings. mentioned. The term krishi occurs only rarely in V. Hymns of Rg-Veda yield extensive evidence of the Family Books. The word Krishi occurs 33 times the importance of cattle in the Rg Vedic society. in them but only in the sense of people. The well Many linguistic expressions in the Rg Veda are known term hala does not appear, but two other associated with cow, and cow (gau) in different terms for plough, langala and Sira occur in the declensions occurs 176 times in the Family Books. earliest books; the varatra or a leather strap of Cattle were considered synonymous with plough is also mentioned. We hear of phala or wealth (rayi) in the Rg Vedic phase. ploughshare and furrows (Sita and Sunu) in Book IV. In a later portion of Rg Vedia, Pushan is Terms starting from ‘gau’ Meaning described as marking furrows. The limited 1. Gomat Wealthy men references of agricultural activities signifies the 2.Gavisti, Goshu, Gauyat, Terms used for fact that cattle rearing predominates over Gauyu, Gaveshna battle agricultural activities. 3.Gauyuti Measure of Terms related to Meaning distance agricultural activities 4.Gopa, Gopati Tribal King 1. Krishti People 2. Hala, Langala, Sira Plough 5.Duhitri* Daughter 3. Phala Ploughshare 6.Gojata** Cow-born gods 4. Varatra Leather strap of 7.Gauri Gauala Buffalo plough 8.Godhuli Measure of time 5. Sita, Sunu Furrows 9.Gotra Kinship 6. Khanitra Hoe 7. Datra/Srini Sickle * Though not derived from ‘gau’ but nonetheless 8. Parasu/Kulisha/Tejas/ Axe related to it. Swadhiti, Vrikna 9. Vasi Hand-axe 7 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

VII. The pastoral life of the Rg Vedic people is across Krinati (buying) but none for purchasing. also indicated by the use of the term Vraja; Vraja However, the term vikrita is found in the Rg means cow-pen, and Vraja is obviously an Veda. extension from it. It is mentioned 45 times in the · The Rigveda is an important source of history Rg Veda in its different forms. about the Rigvedic period. Except the rigveda, Pana in the Rg Veda all other texts of the vedic literature are important Pana, which later came to mean coin, and dhana, sources of the history of the Later Vedic Period. appear in the earliest portion of the Rg Veda as The Vedic literature can be classified under the prizes, wages, or stakes won as a result of either following heads :- war or competition. I The Vedas : The Vedas are the earliest of the VIII. In Rg Vedic phase, movable property was Aryan books. Most of the Indians regard them as synonymous with cows and was far more important the ‘Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the than immovable property, i.e. land. Even in the Atharvaveda. later Books of the Rg Veda, we have no evidence a.The Rigveda : It is the oldest Veda and the of the sale, transfer, mortgage or gift of land or its historians, like Dr. Mookerji, places its period disposal by an individual in any way. Rayi of composition as early as 2,500 B.C. It has about became synonymous with cattle wealth and prayers 1028 mantras or hymns written in praise of were offered for acquisition of rayi which various gods and goddesses representing the included horses, sons, sheeps, chariots, plants and various aspects of Nature. possibly food-grains. Gold (hiranya at swarna) and Copper (ayas) are mentioned in the Rg Veda, b.The Samaveda : Its hymns are meant for priests but they do not fall under rayi. However hiranya who used to Sing them while performing Yajnas. or desire for gold is expressed in the Rg Veda. c.The Yajurveda : It contains chiefly hymns that IX. The whole social fabric was possibly based describe the rituals to be observed while on some kind of gift economy. The term bali occurs performing Yajnas or sacrifices. several times in the sense of offering or tribute. It d.Atharvaveda : It has hymns dealing with charms seems that tribal kinsmen gave voluntary presents and spells for subduing evil spirits and to control to the tribal chief who, in turn, led them from diseases. victory to victory and allotted them a shrare, amsha or bhaga in the spoils of war. II.The Brahmanas : The Brahmanas are treatises Distribution seems to have been an important on the Vedas. They are in prose and explain the function of vidatha. hymns of the Vedas to the common people who · The term rina occurs in the early portion of the could not otherwise understand them. They deal Rig Veda; but it has no term for interest. We come with rituals connected with sacrifice.

8 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Aitereya and Kaushitaki Brahmana, Samaveda : and not by varna system; even the tribal chief Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmana, Yajurveda : (king), warriors, purohitas and artisans were only Tattiriya and Satpatha Brahmana, Atharvaveda : the parts of the clan networks. We hear of a family opatha BrahmanaUpvedas were appended to these in which a member says: “I am a poet, my father is four Samhitas. a physician, and my mother is a grinder. Earning

The Ayurveda to Rig Veda, Gandharva Veda to livelihood from different means, we live the Samaveda Dhaturveda to the Yajur Veda and together…..” Shilpa Veda was appended to the Atharvaveda (ii) Varna, in this period, was a term used for colour and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the III.The Aranyakas : The Aranyakas are the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. Colour concluding parts of the Brahmanas. They were might have provided some sort of social distinction specially written for the hermits living in the but not to the extent the western scholarship has forests. They deal with mysticism and philosophy tried to project. The factor which contributed most rather than elaborate rituals and sacrifices. in the social differentiation was the conquest of IV. The Upanishads : The Upanishads deal with indigenous inhabitants by Aryans who were treated philosophical questions such as the true nature of as dasas or dasyus. They were treated as slaves God and the soul and the exact relation between and sudras. the two. They explain in detail the doctrines of (iii) Gradually, the tribal society was divided into Karma, Moksha and Maya. They are opposed to three classes: the warriors, the priests and the ritualism and sacrifices. According to the common people. Evidences of the assimilation of Upanishads, the knowledge of the self and the non-Aryans into the Aryans fold are available. practice of virture are the means of salvation. Vasistha, Agastya, Kanva, Angeras etc. non- aryans priests were assimilated and even some V. The Puranas : They are the old books of the conquered chiefs were given higher status in Aryan Aryans.They are 18 in number and each has five social structure. Dasa cfhiefs such as Balbhuta sections.The Bhagwat Purana and the Vishnu and Turuksha are said to have made generous gifts Purana are the most important. Though they are to purohitas and they they earned praise and status not historical in the strict sense of the term yet in Aryan society. they contain the history of various dynasties of Important terms Its meaning kings. They help us to reconstructs the early history 1. Jana Triba of the Aryans in India. 2. Vis Smaller unit Social Formation in the Rg Vedic phase 3. Grama Village (i) Rg Vedic society has a pastoral society where 4. Kula Family social relations were determined by kinship ties 5. Kulapa Head of the Family

9 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(iv) We have evidences of slaves who were given Satapatha Brahmana states how Videgha as gifts to the priests. But they were mainly female Madhav went on burning the forests till he reached slaves employed for domestic purposes. In any Sadanira in North Bihar, an event which probably case, slaves were not used directly in agricultural took place towards the end of the Rg Vedic phase. and other productive activities in Rg Vedic society. PGW CULTURE (v) Society was patriarchal, and therefore, birth PGW culture coincided with the area represented of son was a common desire. The people seem to in the later Vedic texts. Although, PGW sites have have been most keen on having brave sons (Suvira) been noticed in eastern U.P. and even in Bihar, its which could win the battles. Women, nevertheless, epicenter seems to be Upper Ganga and Sutlej enjoyed a respectable position in this patriarchal basin. So far about 700 PGW sites have been society. They were educated and had access to the located in this region; all of them are undoubtedly assemblies. We have instances where they representatives of an agrarian economy, composed hymns. They had Right to choose their (i) We should always remember in this context that partners and they married mostly after puberty. She there is nothing like an exclusive PGW culture zone could take part in sacrifice with her husband. A as other wares such as black-and-red ware, black- childless widow could cohabit with her brother- slipped ware, red ware and plain grey ware are in-law until the birth of a son, a practice known as always associated with them. And also, PGW myoga. shreds are not numerically predominant at any (vi) Various occupational groups such as those of place. In other words, the PGW layer represents a weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather works, chariot- composite culture. makes etc. are also mentioned in Rg Veda. The (ii) Red ware pottery was the most popular in later Chariot-makers occupied a special social status. Vedic phase and has been found almost everywhere There are no references to beggards, wage-earners in western U.P. or wages in Rg Veda. The Rg Vedic term for potter, (iii) PGW culture covers the time period from 1000 Kulala has no parallel in other indo-European B.C to 500 B.C. Keith placed Brahmanas between languages. 800 and 600 B.C. which may be extended to 500 B.C. (Louis Renou). LATER VEDIC PERIOD Excavated sites C-14 dating Later Vedic Economy and Society 1. Atranjikhera 940 B.C. During the later Vedic phase, Aryans extended their 2. Jodhapura 800 B.C. area of activity to the region from Yamuna to the 3. Noh 725 B.C. western borders of Bengal. To be more simple, they 4. Jodhpura 720 B.C. occupied Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Western (iv)The PGW mud-brick walls have been found at Bihar and adjoining area of Rajasthan. The Hastinapur. Seven brick names are mentioned in

10 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Taittiriya Samhita; nine in Kathak Samhita; and (iv) Agni and iron played an important role in the 11 in Maitrayani Samhita; the building of clearing of forests and we have description of Uttravedi involves five layers of bricks, making burning of the Khandavavana in the Mahabharata 10,800 bricks in all. Even after that, later Vedic to build the city of Indraprastha. phase did not yield fire-baked bricks; though (v) Iron tipped weapons and horse chariots helped Bhagwanpura along with few other places, military activities which have been extensively presents exception to the rule from where burnt documented in Mahabharta. bricks have been reported. (vi) But iron technology had practically no role in (v) A potter’s kiln of the PGW level has been subsistence related activities in this stage of social discovered in Atranjikhera (which is known as formation. apaka in the Vedic texts) but no term for brick- Iron in Vedic Texts kiln is found in vedic sources. (a) The term Shyama occurs in the Vajasaneyi (vi) In total, picture of PGW settlement does not Samhita, the youngest of the Yajus collection present an idea of urbanized settlement as Wheeler (800 B.C.) believe, but, at best, of a proto-urbanized (b) The term Shyamena occurs in Atharva Veda settlement. The term nagara occurs in an (1800 B.C.). Aranayaka and nagarin in two Brahmanas but (c) The term Shyam ayas is also found in the they are the texts of not earlier than 600 B.C. Atharva Veda (800 B.C.). Technology in the Later Vedic Phase (d) The term Krishna-ayas occur in Jamini (i) Technologically, the later Vedic part of PGW Upanisad Brahmana around 600 B.C. period is distinguished by the use of iron; the Rg Economy in Later Vedic Phase Vedic part of PGW did not have iron as is evident (i) Pastoralism no longer remained the main from the excavations of Bhagwanpura in Haryana subsistence activity; mixed farming, which and few other sites in Punjab. included cultivation and herding, became the (ii) Archeological sites in the Indo-Gangetic divide occupational norm of this period. Later Vedic texts and upper Gangetic plain reveal PGW in reflect continued importance of pastoralism. association with iron artifacts such as spearheads, (ii) Animal ritualistic decorational remains from arrow heads, hooks, etc. Two furnaces for iron Atranjihera include bones of cattle and other smelting have been discovered in Suneri village animals bearing cut-marks and it proves that they in Jhunjhunu district in Rajasthan. were used for food. Sacrificial altars have not been (iii) One ploughshare has been reported from discovered so far, although such a claim is made Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of this for Kaushambi in connection with period Purusaamedha. Although remains of horse have been found at Hastinapur, it is not clear whether

11 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. this animal was used for food. So far the remains (vi) While rice was a commodity used in rituals, of horse have not been found from any other same cannot be claimed about wheat. Various kinds PGW sites. Horse-goods belonging to 900 B.C. of lentil were also produced in this age. have been reported from Gandhara grave. (vii) According to ancient legend, Janaka, the king (iii) Although Atharva Veda contains innumerable of Videha and father of Sita, lent his hand to prayers for increase of cattle, agriculture became plough and Balarama, the brother of Krishna, is more important economic activity. The later Vedic said to be the wielder of plough (Haladhara). These texts speak of four, six, eight, twelve and even instances show increasing significance of twenty-four oxen being yoked to plough. agriculture. Satapatha Brahmana devotes one whole (viii) They were advanced in the knowledge of Brahmana to the ploughing rites. Besides barley, metals. In addition to gold and ayas found in rice, wheat, bean-pulse, sesamum, millet and Rigveda, there is mention of tin, lead, silver and sugarcane were the important crops. Sugarcane iron. mentioned in Atharva Veda might have been References to corporation (ganas) and aldermen valued as wild produce. (Sresthins) indicate the organization of merchants Later Vedic Crops Term used ion Vedic texts into guilds. 1 Barley Yava Nisk, Satamans and Krisnala were used as 2. Rice Vrihi, Tandula,. Sali,Shasatika convenient units of value. 3. Wheat Godhuma 4. Bean-pulse Masha Ancient name Metal/Stone Machine 5. Sesamum Tila Chandra Gold 6. Millet Syamaka Jatarupa Gold Hiranya Gold (iv) Rice became staple diet of the people as Suvama Gold archeological and literary sources documented. Harita Gold The twelve sacrifices prescribed in Artharva Veda Rajata Silver Krisnayas Copper for material benefits recommend the gifts of cows, Shyamayas Iron calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses, Lohitayasa Copper and well cultivated field. Loha Iron Note: A Multiple hearth with baked brick walls Sisa Lead has been discovered from the Mauryan level in Trapu Tin Purana Qila which can retain four pots at a time. Muktika Pearl (v) Remains of rice, ascribable to about 800 B.C. Mani Jewel have been discovered at Hastinapur but it seems Vajra Diamond to be of an untransplanted variety. Pravala Coral 12 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(a) The Atharva Veda gives an instance of a ritual (a) Atharva Veda in all twelve sacrifices (sava), where water from leading rivers was channelised mentioned peasants as important participants and to canals; it also speaks of spells to avoid drought these sacrifices meant mostly for acquiring material and excess of rains. benefits and some for obtaining heaven. (b) The importance of horse and chariot is attested (b) Cow, horses, ‘property (dhana or gold) and by Rg Veda and subsequent Vedic texts which sometimes wives (Atharva Veda) were placed as prescribe a place for the horse in the asvamedha, stakes in game of dice. rajasuya, manavrata, vajapeya ceremonies. (xi) Land was still not an item of property and the (c) The importance of cereals (anna) has been practice of making land gifts to the peasants did emphasized in the Chhandogya Upanisad where not prevail on any scale. (In the later Vedic period, we have been told how the rains contributed to land could ‘theoretically’ be granted by king or the origin of anna and the sun to its ripening. tribal chief only with the consent of vis of clan.) (d) The largest deposit of iron weapons discovered (a) Several texts belonging to this age ban the grant so far belongs to Atranjikhera, meaning that of land and human beings as sacrificial fees. Panchala people enjoyed military edge over other (b) The idea of land tax found in Panini and the people. It also signifies that Kuru-Panchala kings Jatakas, is alien to the Vedic texts. were militarily superior to the Rg-Vedic kings. Weaponry in Later Vedic Age (ix) The PGW/later Vedic people seem to have 1.Most iron artifacts from the PGW levels practiced field agriculture, but iron did not play comprise arrow heads and spear heads any significant role in agricultural production; the supplemented by nails. PGW-Iron phase was, therefore, primarily an age 2.Asi is the Vedic reference of an iron knife used of iron weapons and not of iron tools. for cutting pieces of animal flesh. In other words, later Vedic Aryans were no longer 3.Although we have no reference to iron arrow- nomads, they enjoyed a settled life in their wattle- heads, bow was the main weapon of Vedic and-doab houses with agriculture as primary people. productive activity and cattle as the most important 4.Asi also signified an iron shield. form of movable property. Transition from pastoral 5.Lance/spear was the second important Vedic to agricultural economy led to the differentiation weapon. of economic functions, though this did not bring (xii) Later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts any fundamental change in economy. and crafts. Copper objects have been found from (x) Settled and sedentary life of the later Vedic PGW sites. Leather work, pottery and carpentry period led to the beginning of property in land and work made great progress. Glass hoards and houses; these were in addition to the Rg Vedic bangles found in the PGW layer may have been notion of property in women slaves, animals, used as prestige objects used by very few persons. weapons and ornaments. 13 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Jewel workers are also mentioned in the later Vedic this four-fold varna division should not be texts. confused as “actual’” mechanism of caste at this (xiii) Though later Vedic texts were familiar with stage as the first three varnas/castes were only a the term nagara, we can trace only the faint theoretical division into which they systematically beginning of towns towards the end of this phase. arranged various professions. Combinations The later Vedic towns such as Hastinapur and permutations within this system was inevitable in Kaushambi can at best be defined as proto-urban this stage resulting in inter-mixing. centres. (i) The four-fold division was given religious LATER VEDIC SOCIETY sanction in later Vedic society resulting in the The rise growth of occupational divisions due to decline of vis (clan) and ascendancy of the sedentary life of later Vedic period as a result of Ksatriyas and Brahminis as in evident from Purusa the emergence of agrarian economy (though not Sukta of Rg Veda (from the latest tenth mandala) very developed or complex) resulted into the where origin of varnas has been traced from the beginning of social differentiation. Society in the body of universal creator, Prajapati. later Vedic phase tended to become more complex. (ii) The symbolism which is hidden in Purusa We no longerhear the references such as a “a bard Sukta is that in social life Brahmins were am I, my father is a leech and my mother grinds considered the highest varna because society could corn”. Later Vedic society transcended the limit communicate with gods only with the help of of Rg Vedic social division between Aryans and Brahmins. Sudras, on the other hand, held the non-Aryans and the varna which previously meant lowest position in social hierarchy. The hierarchical only ‘colour’ now acquired the meansing of ‘caste’ order of later Vedic society was as: (jati), though not in strict sense. In other words, Brahmanas > Ksatriyas > Vaisyas > Sudras the transition from pastoralism to settled life, the (iii) Again, it should be remembered that the above Ancient Indian society experienced the process of mentioned four social statuses are only social differentiation and class division. “occupational” and “ritualist”, and therefore, Varna and Caste in Later Vedic Period cannot be regarded as four separate social classes In later Vedic phase, Aryans became dwija or twice in the sense that some of them owned land, cattle born castes (the first being physical birth and the and pastures and implements and others were second the initiation into caste status after thread deprived of these privileges. ceremony) consisting of the Ksatriyas (warriors (iv) However, we have clear indication of such and aristocracy; in Rg Veda they were called beginning. Supported by the Brahmins, the Rajanya), the Brahmins (priests) and the vaisyas Rajanyas claimed the grain taxes from Vaisyas but (cultivators); the forth caste, Sudras were the there was still no mechanism for the assessment Dasas and those of mixed Aryan-Dasa origin. But and its collection. By evolving adequate rituals,

14 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. Brahmins tended to perpetuate this social Echoes of conflict over the question of extraction inequality, resulting in a fitting belief – “Nobility of surplus can be found in the later Vedic texts. is the feeder and the people are the food; When 1.The conflict between Sudas and his priest there is abundant food for feeder, that realm is Vaisisthas can be shows as an example. indeed prosperous and thrives (Satapatha 2.Another example is that of Srinjay Vaitanavyas Brahmana). and Bhrigus. (v) The explanatory part of the later Vedic rituals, 3.We have still other examples of such conflict as especially towards the end of this phase, states that between Visvantara Saushadmana and the Brahmins and Rajanyas should cooperate to Syaparnas or between Janamejaya and rule over the Vaisyas or peasantry. All the available Asitmrigas. evidences makes it clear that only the peasants (vii) The family tended to become more and were meant for paying taxes (taxes were more patriarchal; the birth of a son was more necessarily not regular), and therefore, kind was welcome than that of a daughter. Princes could called Vismatta, the devourer of peasants. take several wives, though polyandry also existed That Brahmins were conciliated in this process of side by side. Women became the commodity of exploitation from Vaisyas is evident from the term gift and were presented to the priests by the of payment as gift to the priests by Rajanya. Atraya Rajanya. Brahmana of about 6th century BC, on the Womanhood and Sati L.V.S. occasion of Rajasuya ceremony, Anga is said to The position of women, on the whole, was better have given to his priest Udamaya Atreya 10,000 than post-Maurya and post-Gupta phase, but it is rich maidservants wearing gold necklaces, millions curious to note that, unlike the Greeks, the Indo- of cows and 88,000 white horses. Thus, through Aryans did not attribute much power to their the rituals the authority of Brahmins and rajanyas goddesses. Parallel to this, dowry and bride-price was strengthened over vaisyas. were recognized in an Aryan family where a widow (vi) The Sudras, at this stage, were only a small was to perform a “symbolic” self-immolation at serving class who could be oppressed and beaten the death of her husband. It is not clear whether at will by the king but they still were not serfs as such rites were restricted to the aristocracy alone. ‘Keith’ has tried to project. Sati was merely symbolic during the Vedic period Brahmins Vs. Rajanyas seems to be obvious from the fact that later Vedic There happened to a ‘conflict’ between Brahmins literatures refer to the remarriage of widows, and rajanyas over the extraction of surplus from generally to the husband’s brother. vaisyas. The vaishyas were considered ‘fit to be The period c.600 to 322 B.C. constituted an eaten’ not only by rajanya but also by Brahmins. important phase in Ancient Indian history not only because it experienced the widespread use of iron-

15 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. technology, extensive cultivation of rice, sugar and by the absence of burnt brick structures and ring cotton and the production of relatively huge vests and comparatively lesser use of NBP shreds, ‘surplus’ in agrarian economy but also because it coins, terra cottas and iron-tools, glass and witnessed the rise and growth of cities, further sometimes ivory objects are also found in this diversification of crafts and their organization into phase. guilds and most importantly brisk inland and Iron-ploughshare in Archeology foreign trade. In other words, in this phase of 1.At ropar of Ganga-Sutlej basin, an iron- historical development, there emerged an urban ploughshare has been discovered. economy with a strong and powerful base in 2.Another ploughshare belonging to the PGW agrarian sector. phase of period aroud 500 BC has been Literary texts belonging to c.500-300 B.C. reported from Jakhera in Itah district of U.P. 1. Jatakas 3.An iron-share of mid NBP phase has been found 2. All Nikayas except Khuddaka Nikaya at Kaushambi from where two socketed 3. Suttanipata except Atthakavagga and iron-axes of early NBP phase have also been Parayanavagga reported. 4. Prose portion of Digha Nikaya. 4.It has also been reported in association with the Note: NBP phase at Raghuasoi in Vaishali 1.Three Suttas from Suttanipata and several others district. from Digha, Nikaya and Vinaya Pilaka are (ii) We have, for the first time, references of iron quoted in Bhabru Edict. Also the prose portion in other context that war and weapon. of Brahmanas. (iii) The difficulty, however, emerges due to fact 2.Pali texts mainly describe the state of arrairs in that the literary references of iron tools are not eastern U.P. and Bihar. matched by archeological discoveries. Material Culture/Technology (iv) The spread of plough-cultivation is indicated (i) It is significant that the 6th century B.C. by the term nangala in Pali texts; Suttanipata experienced the emergence of North Black mentions a village known as Icchanangal. For this, Polished Ware (NBPW) which can be roughly panini uses the term hala and provides us the divided into two phases: detailed knowledge of agricultural operations. In (a) First Phase: c.600 t0 300 B.C. Grihyasutra, various types of sacrifices for (b) Second Phase: c. 300 to 100 B.C. promoting agriculture and animal husbandry have While the Second Phase is characterized by a been mentioned. relatively profused use of NBPW, coins, terra cotta figures, iron tools, burnt brick structures, occasional tiles, and ring wells; the first is marked

16 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Important terms Meaning (b) Iron tools helped in the extension of agriculture 1. Ropana/Ropeti Plant sapling of paddy and cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were 2. Vrihi Paddy cultivated in rainy produced over the wide space of land. season (c) Literary texts of the period show a knowledge 3. Sali Paddy cultivated in of irrigation and also the practice of keeping the winter land fallow along the familiarity of an agricultural 4. Kedara Land for transplanted calendar based on six seasons and 27 nakshatras. paddy crop (d) This period is also marked by the utilization of 5. Patitthapeti Planning new plants and fruit trees. Mango groves, sala 6. Mariyad Dike groves, Jambu, Madhuka, Palasa and others are 7. Bijagara Paddy seed bed mentioned in the contemporary texts. 8. Mori/Moriyar Paddy seeding/seed bed (e) An attempt to ban the slaughter of cattle wealth 9. Godhuma Wheat helped in agrarian production. Economy (f) The beginning of rice-transplantation helped (v) The extensive details, we have already gone in the generation of greater ‘surplus’. through, of NBPW clearly that the people of Upper (vii) A distinctive feature of post-Vedic phase is Gangetic basin maintained their material the emergence of second urbanization in Ancient development of the first half of the first millennium India history, after a lapse of not less than 1000 B.C. in the second half as well years. The Pali texts speak of 20 towns, six of them (vi) The excavation of more than 450 sites in the being associated with the death of Buddha. area comprising eastern U.P. and Bihar clearly Archaeology attests many urban settlements in this suggests that there existed in this phase relatively phase. Cities like Champa, Vaishali, Varanasi, huge agricultural settlements and emerged a good Kaushambi, Kushinagara, and Sravasti are many new villages. They also suggest close links witnessed not only by the Pali texts but also by between the town and country as the same kinds Archaeology. The Buddhist literature refers to six of pottery have been found both at urban sites as Mahanagaras including Champa, Rajagriha, Kasi, well as their adjacent countryside. Sravasti, Kaushambi and Saketa. Chirand, Factors responsible for Expansion in Agrarian Sringaverpur, Piprahwa, Tilaurakot and Economy Lauriyanandangarh were other urban settlements (a) Clearance of thick vegetation cover of the of this age. Gangetic basin with combined use of iron tools (viii) Pura, Drga, Nigama, Nagar etc. were the and fire. terms denoting urban settlement in Ancient Indian’s literature. It appears that Pura and Durga are among the earliest terms used for twon/city in earlier

17 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. literature and both these terms meant fortified SOCIETY IN POST VEDIC PHASE towns. Pura is mentioned even in the early Vedic The changing features of economic organization literature, others, such as Nigama or Nagara came such as extension of agricultural production, into existence in subsequent phases. While Nigama growth of towns, emergence of monetary exchange, was the term for cities in the Pali texts; Nagara expansion of crafts and rapid development of trade was the most common word used for cities in other and commerce were closely related to the transition literary sources. It should be remembered that Jain in social relations. canonical texts mention different kinds of urban (i) The new forces of production in the Post-Vedic settlements such as scot-free town, a town with an age caused the generation of ‘enough’ surplus for earthern wall, a town with a small wall, an isolated the rise of a class-based and state-oriented society town, a large town, a sea town and a capital. It is in which ruling class and its beneficiary, i.e. princes also worth mention that Aristobulus saw the and warriors and priests and monks, were able to remains of over a thousand towns. extract taxes, tributes and tithes. (ix) Whatever may be the origin of town, it (ii) Brahmanical ideologues gave it legal eventually became a market. Groups of merchants expression and devised an elaborate social specializing in the procurement and selling of mechanism for surplus extraction, which was commodities could be seen in the contemporary defined by them as Varna-System. For the first texts. Obviously artisans and traders (setthis) time in this phase, the functions of all four varnas accounted for a large proportion of the city were defined. population and they were engaged in trade and (iii) The Ksatriya appears to be the most powerful industry. There were various kinds of traders: the and visible section of society; though in shopkeepers (apanika), retailers (kraya- brahmanical texts, they were placed below the vikrayika), and money –investors (Setthi- Brahmins in social hierarchy. In Buddhist Ganapati). literature, Kshatriyas were characterized as the supreme social class. In one of the discourses, Lord (x) Trade was facilitated by the use of punch- Buddha claimed, “even when a kshatriya has fallen marked coins, ascribed stratigraphically to fifth into the lowest depths, he is still the best and the century BC, whose more than 300 hoards are so Brahmins are lower in status to him”. far known to us. The coin of the highest value at (iv) In this phase brahmins seem to be a case group. this stage was Satamana of silver. The copper A Brahmin was one who was born as Brahmin. He masas and Kakani were of the lowest might change his profession but he remained a denomination. The Karsapana can be evaluated Brahmin. In brahmanical texts, they were given in between. In other words, metal money made its privilege of mediation between man and god. There advent in 5th century B.C. and with it began the were seventeen kinds of Brahmins, but the Brahmin practice of usury. category among them remained at top.

18 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Ksatriyas in Ganasamghas (c) Vanaprastha: Well advanced in middle age, he Unlike the Brahmanical texts, Kshatriyas in the entered Vanaprastha and after its completion he Buddhist texts are described differently. They are was supposed to leave his home. mentioned as the ruling class of the Ganasamghas (d) Samnyasa: It was the last stage of life where such as those of Vaishali and Kapilvastu, and were he was expected to lead the life of a homeless referred to as the Shakyas, Licchavis, Mallas, etc. wanderer. they were groups who owned land collectively and (v) In Vedic times the Vaisya was a poor third in their communal land was cultivated by Dasas and social hierarchy, though he was entitled to the Karmakaras. They do not seem to abide by services of priesthood and sacred thread of brahmanical rituals and they did not have initation. According to the Manu, the duty of Vaisya compactness and strict rules of marriage was cattle herding, agriculture and trade. But, in characteristic f caste system. In these areas, there the post-Vedic phase, they became richer and, was only two-fold social division into high and therefore, socially and politically a significant low caste which was contrary to the four-fold varna social class. The power of Ganapati in rural area division of Brahmanical order. Brahmanical notion and Setthi and Jetthaka in urban centres increased of Kshatriya as warrior class was acceptable only considerably. to ruling classes; otherwise they might be a learned (vi) Land was worked by Sudra cultivators, except man, a preacher, a thinker, a teacher and even in the case of privately owned land where hired traders as well as peasants. labour was used. But private ownership was not Asramas in Ancient Indian Society widespread. The fact that many of the Sudras were The concept of Asrama succeeded that of varna landless labourers weakened their social status. The was therefore, more artificial. While the varna Pali literature frequently mentions them as dasas, typified fourfold division of Aryan society, the Karmakaras and dalidda. Asramas divided the life of the individual into four (vii) Dasasuddas are frequently mentioned in the stages as follows: contemporary literature. They were slaves who did (a) Brahmacarya: After investiture with sacred not have any legal status. thread, a child became brahmacarin and was (viii) A category lower than the sudras came to be expected to lead a celibate and austere life as a recognized during this period. They were the student at the home of his guru. untouchables. (b) Grhastha: Having completed his education, he (ix) The position of women experienced a decline. returned to his parental home and was married to They were not granted the right to sit in public become a householder (Grhastha). meetings. They became permanently subordinate to men – father, husband, brother or son. Even if they joined samgha, they were treated inferior.

19 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

JAINISM AND BUDDHISM human beings with the cycle of birth-death-rebirth, 6th century BC did not mark a breakthrough only was the Karman which led them to the acts of in the material basis of Ganga valley culture but it violence, and, thus ascetics were expected to avoid also witnessed a rapid advance in the philosophical even accidental killing, necessary to avoid the evil, aspect of life. Religiously the Ganga basin became Karman. These commonalities among the various a ‘melting pot’ which gave birth to numerous sects drive us to search for common origin of these heterodox sects including Ajivakavadins, movements (it is not required to deal more on this Buddhists and Jainas. Historians are of the matter at the Prelims stage of the examination). opinion that this philosophical metamorphosis had Thus, numerous heterodox sects arose in the its definite roots in the prevailing socio-economic middle Gangetic plain around sizty century BC, and political conditions though the ‘exact numbering not less than 62 religious sects, having evidence’ of such relationship is wanting. regional specificities and philosophical diversities. Notwithstanding these technicalities (obviously Buddhism, Jainism, Uchchhedavada, Lokayata, because our requirement do not demand it), the Ajivaka were important among them. relationship between the cultural growth and (i) Uchchhedavada: The propagator of this sect appearance of small cities, a fine new type of was Ajita Keshakambalin who rejected the pottery with a lustrous black polish NBPW, punch- immaterial and supernatural altogether, and marked coins and probably script and languages, preached thorough going materialism. can more or less be accepted. That emergence of From this school, Lokayat or Charvaka School new heterodox sects was the result of similar socio- of philosophy is believed to have derived economic base, is clear from the fact that all of a great deal. them had many things similar to one another. All (ii)Lokayat or Charvaka School: Brihaspati these movements clearly and completely rejected Sutra or Lokyatsutra is the text where the Vedas, the sacrificial cult and the brahmanical philosophy of Lokayata is believed to be explained, domination; all however, except the materialists as we are told by patanjali. The only existing who followed Ajita Keshakambalin, accepted the materialist text is Tattvopaplavasimha of truth of transmigration and advisability of escaping Jayarashi, complied in the 8th century A D . from the cyle of rebirth. All of them, however, Charvaka was the chief exponder of this rejected the idea of creation, whether by a personal materialistic philosophy of Lokayata which means God or by an impersonal absolute; for them, the ideas derived from common people. This universe was the product of natural law. All the philosophy underlined the importance of intimate new sects aimed at releasing their followers from contact with the world Loka, and showed lack of the bonds of birth, death and rebirth by the quickest belief in the other world(Parloka). Here the method. For all of them, the greatest evil that tied existence or reality of only those things, which

20 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. could be sensed by human beings, is accepted. For 5.Its rejection of Varna system made it popular hi, all the rituals are meant only for Dakshina of among the lower classes. Brahmins. 6.Emphasis on Ahimsa made them popular among (iii) Ajivakas: Makkhali Gosala was the founder the peasants as it served the purpose of protecting of Ajivaka sect about which both Panini and animal-power, so necessary to the agrarian Patanjali were referring in their texts. The economy in that period. followers of this sect disciplined themselves as 7.Admission of women to Samgha also contributed rigorously as those of Jains. They seemed to have in its popularity among women. combined with those of other teachers such as 8.Considerable support from Vaishyas, the Purana Kasyapa (the antinomian) and Pakuda business community. Katyayana (the atomists). Though no scriptures 9.Use of pali (or prakrit), the language of the of this sect have survived, still we are sure that the people. sect was certainly atheistic, and its chief feature 10.Patronage from the existing monarchies. was strict determinism and denial of Karman Few Informations about Buddha doctrine. For them, the whole universe was (i) Birth of Siddhartha or Gautam Buddha – 563 conditioned and determined to the minutest detail, BC. by an impersonal cosmic principle, Niyati, or (ii) Birth Place – Lumbini (a grove of sal trees). destiny. It was impossible to influence the course (iii) Lumbini was very near to Shakya capita, of transmigration in any way. The Dravidian Kapilvastu. Ajivikas developed their doctrine following the (iv) Gotra – Gautama. line dictated by Mahayanism and Goshala acquired (v) Father – Suddoodhana, the Shakya king. divinity like that of Buddha. (vi) Mother - Mahamaya. (iv) Buddhism (vii) Wife – Yashodhara. (a) Factors that contributed in the rise and growth (viii) Cousin – Davadatta. of Buddhism (and to some extent Jainism): (ix) Son – Rahul. 1.Rigidityof Varnasarma dharma. (x) Horse – Kanthaka 2.Excessive cost of sacrificial rituals in (xi) Charioteer – Channa. Brahmanical order. (xii) Great Going Forth – Mahabhinishkramana 3.Theoretical superiority of Kshatriyas over to become a wandering ascetic (at the age of 29). Brahmins. (xiii) Teacher of Meditation – Alara Kama 4.Emergence of new material culture as the result (xiv)The daughter of peasant who gave him of new agricultural economy combined with the milked rice – Sujata. process of urbanization demanding a (xv) Place of enlightenment nirvana (at the age permutation and combination in societal and of 35) – Gaya in Magadha. religious adjustments. 21 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(xvi) Tree under which he attained enlightenment (1) Four Noble Truths – Pipal (a)The Noble Truth of Sorrow: Birth is sorrow, age (xvii) Bodhi Tree – Pipal is sorrow, death is sorrow…. In short all (xviii) Mara – the king of spirits and demons. the five components of Individuality are sorrow. (xix) Witness of Buddha’s goodness and (b) Desire (thrust or tanha) is the cause of sorrow benevolence – Earth. which leads to rebirth. (xx) The famous words – “Iam his witness” – by (c) The suffering could be removed by destroying Earth. the desire. It is complete stopping of that ‘ (xxi) Tree of Wisdom – Bodhi Tree. thirst so that no passion remains. (xxii) First nun and his foster mother – Gautami. (d) ‘Thirst’ can be completely controlled through Dhammachakkaparavattan – Deer Park, Sarnath the Noble Eight Fold Path (Arya Astangika (Varanasi) Marg). (xxiii) Died at – Pava, after consumption of Pork. (2) The Noble Eight Fold Path: (a) Right view (b) Buddhist Philosophy: The basic propositions (b) Right Resolve of Buddhism are not metaphysical but (c) Right Speech psychological. Sorrow, suffering, dissatisfaction (d) Right Conduct and all manifold unpleasantness which are referred (e) Right Livelihood to by the world dukkha are more psychological (f) Right Effort than metaphysical.The fundamental teaching of (g) Right Recollection Buddhism that is contained in the (h) Right Meditation “Dhammachakkapavattan Sutta” (Sermon of the This noble eight fold path was the Middle way of Turning of the Wheel of Law) is centred around Tathagata (Buddha). Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eight Fold Path (3) Patichcha Sammupad (The Chain of to deal effectively with these psychological Dependent Organistion): This very simple doctrine problems of humanity. of Buddhism is in rather pedantil forms most Symbols in Buddhism important of which was the patichchasammupada, (i) Birth – Lotus and Bull a series of twelve terms. It goes as: Out of (ii)Great Renunciation (Mahabhi-nishkramana) ignorance arises imagination; from imagination, – Horse. Self-consciousness; from self-consciousness Name (iii) Nirvana (enlightenment) – Bodhi tree. and Form; thence Six senses (the sixth being (iv)Dhammachakkapavattan (enlightenment) – thought); thence Contact; thence Feeling; thence Dharma Chakra, or wheet. Craving; thence attachment; thence Becoming; (v) Mahaparinirvana (death) – Stupa. thence Rebirth, and finally the manifold ills.

22 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(4) Dukka Anichcha and Anatta: The 8.Refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, mechanisms of this doctrine are indeed obscure unguents and jewellery. but at the bottom of human misery is ultimately 9.Refrain from the use of high or broad bed. ignorance, a cosmic ignorance which lead to the 10. Refrain from receiving gold and silver. delusion of self-hood. The ignorance primarily concerns the fundamental nature of universe with Three Pitakas three salient characteristics: (i) Pali canon of Sthavarradins consists of three (a) Dukkha (Sorrow) Pitakas or baskets. (b) Anichcha (Transient) (a) Vinay Pitaka: Rules and conduct of the order. (c) Anatta (Soulless). (b) Sutta Pitaka: Sermons of Buddha. (5) Nibbana (State of bliss); Buddhism says that (c) Abhidhamma Pitaka: Metaphysics of the world is full of sorrows and people suffer due Buddhism. to desires. If desires are conquered, nibbana will (ii) The largest and the most important of the three be attained, that man will be free from the cycle pitakas is the Sutta Pitaka which was of birth and earth. Parinibbana in Buddhism is, divided into five nikayas (‘groups’) however, the term used for death. (a) Diggha Nikaya: Collection of long sermons. (c) Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha have been (b) Manjjhima Nikaya: Collection of shorter regarded as the ‘three’ jewels of Buddhism. sermons. Amongst these ‘three jewels’, Samgha means the Buddhist order, the entry into which was not (c) Samyukta Nikaya being pronouncement on restricted for any caste, but slaves, soldiers, kindred topics. debtors, and other persons under any obligation (d) Anguttara Nikaya a collection of over 2,000 or in tutelage except the permission of its superior brief statements artificially arranged in eleven could not enter it. The rites of admission were section.s simple, involving putting on the three yellow robes (e) Khuddaka Nikaya: Collection of miscellaneous (it may also be orange) of the order by pronouncing works including Dhammapada, Theragatha Three Jewels and ‘Ten Precepts’ Terigatha and Jataka. 1.Refrain from harming living beings. (v) Jainism: Jainism, the religion of ‘Jina’ (the 2.Refrain from taking what is not given. conquerors), was founded by first tirthankara, 3.Refrain from evil behaviour in passion. Vardhamana Mahavira, a contemporary of Lord 4.Refrain from false speech. Buddha,was twenty fourth tirthankara. 5.Refrain from Sura, meraya, and majja. 6.Refrain from eating at forbidden time. 7.Refrain from dancing, singing, music and drama.

23 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Buddhist Councils at a Glance (c) Unlike the cosmology of Buddhists and Hindus, 1.First Council – Rajagriha – Under that of the Jainas involves no cataclysms of Mahakassapa. universal destruction. 2.Second Council – Vaishali–Under (d) The universe functions through the interaction Mahakassapa. of living souls (jives) and five categogies of non- 3.Third Council – Patliputra – Under living entities (ajiva), i.e. akasha, dharma, adharma, Moggaliputra Tissa. kala, pudgala (matter). 4.Fourth Council – Kashmir – Under (e) Mahavira believed that soul (Jiva) and Matter Vasumitra. (ajiva) are two basic existing elements. According to him, the soul is in a state of bondage created by Important informations about the Councils desire accumulated through previous birth. Bye (i) First Council (483 BC) resulted in the writing means of continued efforts, the soul can be made of Sutta Pitaka and Vinay Pitaka by Ananda and free of bondage. This is called Moksa, the final Upali respectively. liberation. (ii) Second Council (383 BC) resulted in the (f) The annihilation (nirjara) of karma comes about division of Buddhist order into Sthavarvadins through penance and the prevention (samvara) of or Thervadins and Mahasamghika. the influx (asrava) and fixation9bandha) of karma (iii) Third Council (250 BC) made Sthavarvadins can be ensured by carefully disciplined conduct. as the legitimate Buddhist order and resulted in (g) Doctrine of Saptabhangi is believed to be the the final compilation of tripitakas. cornerstone of the Jainism. (iv) Fourth Council (1st century AD) was (h) Full salvation is not possible to layman in convened for the settlement of disputes among Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism, however, 18 Buddhist sects. permitted it in exceptional condition. (v) Buddhist got divided into three vehicles: Few Facts about Mahavira and Jainism (i) Hinyana (lesser vehicle) (i)Number of Tirthankaras in Jainism – 24 (First (ii) Mahayana (Greater vehicle) 22 not confirmed till date). (iii) Vajrayana (Vehicle of Thundervolt) (ii)23rd Tirthankara – Parswanath. Philosophy of Jainism (iii)24th Tirthankara – Mahavira. (a) Parswanath advocated the four principles: (i) (iv)Date of birth of Mahavira – 540 BC. Truth, (ii) non-violence, (iii) non-possession and (v)Place of Birth – Kundangrama (Basukunda) in (iv) brahmacharya. Vaishali. (b) For Mahavira, the universe is eternal which (vi)Name of Father – Siddhartha, head of Jnatrika can be divided into infinite number of cycles, each tribe. Trishala, Lichchhavi Princess and Sister of consisting of a period of improvement (utsarpini). Chetaka, Lichchhavi Chief.

24 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(vii) Marriage at the age of 30. 14. Gandhara (Afghanistan) Capital Taxila (viii) Nigrantha – Those who were free from every 15. Sursena (U.P.) Capital Mathura bond. (ix) Period of asceticism – 12 years of Mahavira. 16. Kamboja (N.W.Frontier Province) Capital (x) Attainment of Nirvana – at 43 years of age. Rajpur (xi)Arhant – one who attained the Nirvana Kashi : was famous for its cotton textiles and (worthy). marker for horses. Buddhist monks were called (xii) Died – at 72 due to self-starvation. Kashaya in Sanskrit which was made in Kashi. (xiii) Place of Death – Pava near Rajagriha. The Buddha calls himself a Kosalan in the (xiv) Date of his death – 468 BC. Majjhima Nikaya. Champa has been considered (xv) Digambaras –Space-clad, naked. one of the six great cities in the sixth century B.C. (xvi) Svetambaras – White clad. The Walls of Rajagriha represent the earliest MAHAJANAPADAS evidence of fortification in the history of India. Sixteen Mahajanapadas. Vajjis had a different kind of political organisation. 1.Anga (East Bihar) Capital Champa, The contemporary texts refer to them as a Ganasamgha, Malla : A Republican State. Mallas 2 Magadha (South Bihar) Capital Rajgriha, were great admirers of the Buddha. This republic 3 Kasi (Benares) Capital Banaras, had two parts. Kusinara and Pava were two capitals of the two parts. The Buddha fell ill at Pava and 4 Kosala (Oudh) Capital Shravasti died at Kusinara. Mahavira died at Pava. Buddhist 5 Videha (North Bihar) Capital Vaishali, and Jain books have many references about Mallas 6. Malla (Gorakhpur) Capital Kushinara, Pawa and these two places. Magadha : Patna and Gaya areas roughly. Capital city Rajagriha and later 7. Chedi (Bundelkhand) Capital Shuktimati Pataliputra. Chedi : Chedi territory corresponded 8. Vatsa (Allahabad Region) Capital Kaushambi to present Bundelkhand.

9. Kuru (Thaneswar, Delhi, Meerut) Capital Vatsa : Capital at Kausambi, 38 miles from Hastinapur/Indraprastha Allahabad. A very prosperous city of millionaire merchants. Udayana was its most effective ruler 10. Panchala (Bareilly) Capital Ahichhatra (W. in 6th B.C. who had to face aggression from Panchala) Kampilya (Southern . Panchala) Magadha and Avanti. He saved Kausambi through 11. Matsya (Jaipur) Capital Virat nagari matrimonial alliances and by fortifications. He 12. Asmaka (Godavari Valley) Capital Pratishthan embraced Buddhism and made it a state religion. Kuru : Their area corresponded to Delhi and 13. Avanti (Malwa) Capital Ujjain 25 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Meerut regions. Kuru country was not a shadow trade grew rapidly.) A Symbol of Power ( When of its past glory. Panchala : Roughly identified Alexander invaded India, Magadha had became so with modern Rohilkhand but no more prominent. powerful that the Greeks could not dare to advance Important cities was Kampilla Matsya : Identified further. Thus undoubtedly added to the prestige of with former state areas of Jaipur. Saurasena : the Magadhan kingdom.) Capital Mathura; area South of Matsyas. Bimbisara (547 to 495 B.C.) Assaka : Area in adjoining Avanti. Its capital was The first well-known and important king of Paithan and its settled areas on Godavari. Magadha was Bimbisara who ruled from 547 B.C. Avanti : Mostly identical with Malwa. Capital city to 495 B.C. Ujjayni ruler in Buddha’s time was Pradyota. Avanti became a know centre of Buddhism. Ajatassatru (495 to 462 B.C.) Gandhara : Roughly identified with Kashmir and After Bimbisara’s death, his son Ajatasatru, also taxila. Taxila, the centre of trade, and the seat of known as Kunika, became the king of learning as a University, was its capital. Kamboja Magadha.Devadatta, lived 6th century bc, Buddhist : Located in modern NWFP with capital named monk, cousin and notoriously disloyal follower of Dwarka. the founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha. Rise and Growth of Magadha Devadatta joined the sangha (community of Buddhist monks) 20 years after the Buddha began The growth of the kingdom of Magadha has got teaching. About eight years before the Buddha's an importance of its own in the history of India. It death, Devadatta suggested that his master should heralded the foundation of the first great empire retire and pass leadership of the sangha to him. in India. Magadhan empire gave strength and unity Rebuked by the Buddha, who did not want a leader to the country and saved the people from internal for the community, Devadatta began plotting with conflicts and foreign invasions. The growth of the Ajatasatru, prince of the kingdom of Magadha Magadhan empire provided comparative freedom (modern Bihar, India). Ajatasatru arranged three from orthodoxy and consequent commingling of unsuccessful attempts on the Buddha's life through diverse cultures. Some other factor also Ambitious assassins, a falling boulder, and a runaway Ruler , Natural Resources , Strategic Situation elephant. Devadatta then proposed a more rigorous of its Capital city( Rajgriha the earliest capital of regime for the sangha. He later led about 500 Magadha was surrounded by five hills. Pataliputra monks into a new, separate community. His the new capital was situated on the confluence of followers soon returned to the Buddha, and the Ganga.) Military Power , Fertile Area , Devadatta fell ill and died.After the death of Growth in Trade (The road were safe .There Ajatasatru and a series of ineffectual rulers, isunaga being no fear of being plundered or robbed the 26 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. founded a new dynasty, which lasted for about half caste-system became hereditary, Separate laws a century until ousted by Mahajanapadas Nanda. were made for these castes. Position of women The Nandas are universally described as being of seemed to have deteriorated in religious and social low origin, perhaps .Despite these rapid dynastic spheres. They could not take part in politics and changes, Magadha retained its position of strength. sit in the meetings of the assembly Evils like dowry, The Nandas continued the earlier policy of polygamy and slavery had crept into the society. expansion. They are proverbially connected with Their daughters in the open market. The law- wealth, probably because they realized the makers had divided life into four Ashramas, i.e. importance of regular collections of land revenue. the Brahmacharya, the Grihastha, the Vanaprastha and the Sanyasa. The Nanda Dynasty (345 to 322 B.C.) Economic Life Mahapadma Nanda was a great conqueror, a strong and powerful ruler. He extended the boundaries The arable land was divided among the heads of of the Magadha Empire. He and his eight sons the families who managed their own holdings, ruled in succession. Jointly, they are known as Nav Large holding were rare. Nandas or the Nine Nandas. When Alexander Crafts invaded India in 326 B.C. Ghan Nanda was the ruler of Magadha. Various crafts and industries developed during this period and handicraftsmen formed a large part of Social and Economic Life During the the population both in rural and urban areas. There Magadhan Empire Social Life were about 64 kinds of crafts. The carpenters, Roads, pathways and waterways along the rivers ivory-workers , weavers, jewellers, workers in connected these villages with one another. Each metals, etc.were considered superior to hunters, village had a headman or Gramini. He worked for fishermen, butchers, actors shoe-makers and the village had a the king. He was appointed by potters, etc. Eighteen of the more important crafts the king; so, he served as a link between the were organished into guilds or ‘Srenis’. The heads villagers and the king. The kings, educational of the guilds were called Sresthins as also centres, trade centres, pilgrimage centres, and sea- Pramukhas and above them stood the Bhandagarika ports, developed into big cities, Rajagriha, who was the State Treasurer. Pataliputra, Champa (in Bihar), Kashi, Ayodhya, Trade : Trade, both inland and external, had made Kaushambi, Haridwar, (all in U.P.), Ujjain (in much progress. Before coins were used, goods were Malwa), Tamralipti (in the Ganges Delta) were the bartered or exchanged. The coins of this period important and the most famous centres of this were not very beautiful. The merchants carried period. The caste-system had taken deep roots. The goods to Burma and countries of South East Asia,

27 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. across the Bay of Bengal. Trade with Arabia and Rudradamans Junagarh inscription. Prufadarshi western countries of the Roman Empire was inscription, Nagarguna Cave etc.In Ashoka Period carried through the persian Gulf and the Red Sea. 40 inscriptions have being found. Four scripts have been used Brahmi , Karosthti , Greek & Aramaic MAURYAS was used in Ashoka’s inscriptions . Text sources The Mauryas includes Kautilyas’s Arthashastra (Political After Alexander’s retreat, a powerful empire was information) Indica (Administration, Social established in India. It was known as the Mauryan believes information) Cyrne Mudrarakshash by empire. The rise of the Maurya was a great Vishakhadutt, Chandragupta Katha by Chanakya. landmark. It ushered in the most glorious period Among the religious sources Puranas. Buddishts of the Indian history. India was united politically scriptures and Jainism epics are important. for the first time. During the Mauryan period, India ‘Parishistparva’ is the Jain epic that provides tried to build a new world, based on peace, information about Chandragupta . brotherhood and cultural unity. Some scholars date 324-300 BC Chandragupta Maurya his accession to 324 B.C. while now it is generally 300-273 BC Bindusara Amitraghata accepted as 321 B.C. 273-232 BC Asoka (vardhana) Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya 232-185 BC later Mauryas dynasty, succeeded Ghan Nanda to the Nanda The Society and Economy in Mauryan State throne about 321 BC at the age of 25, Tradition We have already seen that in pre-Mauryan has been said that the brahmana Kautilya, also phase, the early pastoral economy transformed into known as Chanakya (According to the traditions) an agrarian economy with greater surplus- was the prime minister of Chandragupta .He wrote generation which became instrumental in the the Asthashastra or Vishnugupta, about Mauryan emergence of ‘second urbanization’ in the post rulers we have epigraphically sources, literary Vedic phase. Obviously, relative permanence of sources, foreign accounts and materials obtained settlements enhanced social stratification and from archaeological excavations. The Arthashastra occupational activities giving rise to urban gives us detailed information about the economy and trading activities which finally led administrative system of the Mauryan empire. The to the establishment of mercantile community work was written by Kautilya who is also known arranged in the system of guilds. as Chanakya.

The evidences of the Maurya Age : The Adhayakshas Function inscriptions ; the oldest written evidence about 1.Sitadhayksa Superintendent of Chandragupta Maurya is available in Agriculture

28 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

2.Panayadhayaksa Superintendent of (iii)The most important technological Commerce development of this period was the structure of 3.Pautuadhayksa Superintendent of ringwells probably used to supply water for Weights and Measures domestic purposes. The technological 4.Shulkadhayksa Superintendent of Tolls breakthrough of this phase was thus the use of burnt 5.Sutradhayksa Superintendent of Thread bricks and ring wells. 6.Akaradhayaksa Superintendent of Mines (iv) Archaeology provided the evidences of 7.Lohadhayksa Superintendent of Iron- ‘furnaces’ establishing the fact that iron in this working phase was used diversely and even Arthasastra 8.Khanyadhayksa Superintendent of throws light over sophisticated techniques of Digging making different kinds of iron tools. 9.Lakshanadhayaksa Superintendent who (v) With Mauryan phase, this subcontinent, distinguished between entered the second phase of NBP culture. different objects Economy in Mauryan Empire 10.Lavanadhayksa Superintendent of Salt (A) Agrarian Economy 11.KosthagrahadhayksaSuperintendent of Store- (i) By the third century B.C. the economy of house northern India was predominantly agrarian, though 12.Samsthadhayksa Superintendentof Market economic activities other than agrarian were not 13.Navadhayksa Superintendent of Ships unknown or discouraged. 14.Ganikadhayksa Superintendent of (ii) Mauryans made an important contribution to Prostitutes the growth of urban economy by founding new settlements and rehabilitating the decaying ones Technology in Mauryan Phase by drafting surplus settlers from populated areas. (i) Megasthenes gives us an impression about Not only ordinary peasants but also sudras, who planned urban settlements in this period which, were earlier meant for rendering services to three however, Archaeology has failed to support. But higher varnas, were also encouraged to take the we can not deny the fact that Mauryans used ‘burnt profession of agriculture in these newly bricks’ in their buildings for the first time after a rehabilitated areas and cultivators of these areas gap of 1500 years. were encouraged by remission of taxes and (ii) According to Megasthenes, houses were also provision of cattle, seeds and money. built with substantial use of timber and (iii)Although extent of these new settlements archeological evidence, especially from founded as a result of Janapadanivesha or Kumrahar near modern Patna, supports this point. Sunyanivesha is not known exactly, it would be

29 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. reasonable to assume that entire Ganga basin was (ii) Towns were important for Mauryan state not brought under cultivation. only because it helped in the maintenance of state (iv) Though these newly settled agricultural farms control over crafts and commerce but also because were generally granted to the Brahmins and retired they were important source of state revenue. In this village officials, but such land could not be sold, context, it may be pointed out that towns (durga) mortgaged or inherited. State, therefore, maintain and countryside (rastra) were the two chief sources control over it. of state revenue. (v) Though Megasthenes refers to the absence of (C) Industry slavery in Mauryan state; considerable number of (i) One of the oldest Indian industries is that of slaves and hired labourers were employed in these textile manufacture. Rg Veda mentions the term firms during the reign of Chandragupta. tantu (warp) and otu (wool) and Yajus Samhita, (vi) The state-owned farms (Sitaland) working along with other texts, speak of tasara (shuttle) under Sitadhaksa (usually of 500 or 1000 karisas and veman (loom), all related to the textile industry. unit) constituted a major part of the income of the The early Buddhist texts have praised Benares state. cloth (Kasikuttama or Kasi-Vattha) as well as the (vii) The classical sources inform us that the cloth of Sivi country (Siveyyaka). We have a full cultivators were without arms. Megasthenes also list in Arthasastra where Madura, Aparantaka, mentions that the peasants were left untouched Kasi, Vanga, Vatsa and Mahish are said to produce during the war. the best cotton fabrics (Karpasika). In this context, (viii) The most important reason for success of it also mentions specifically three varieties of state-owned agriculture was the facility of dukula. irrigation provided by the state. There were rules (ii) Another important industry was that of wool. for the regulation of water supply for the benefits (iii)Wood-work was also an old Indian industry. of agriculturists. According to Arthasastras, Rg Veda mentions carpenters (takshan or tashtri) peasants had to pay irrigation tax amounting one and his tools. We find the references of Vaddhaki fourth to the third of the produce. who were engaged in all kind of woodwork (B) Urban Settlements including ship-building, making of carts and (i) Kautilya’s instructions regarding durganivesa chariots and house building. or durgavidhana and archeological evidences (iv) The use of ivory ear-rings is noted by Arrian clearly shows that Mauryan state could be credited as a characteristic of wealthy people of India. with the erection of walled towns peopled not only (v) The art of polishing hard stone was carried to by priests, nobles and soldiers but also by artisans, such perfection that it is said to become a lost art merchants, and others. beyond modern powers. The Mauryan polish is

30 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. seen at its best on the walls of the Barabar caves metal in varying shapes, sizes and weights which which are brushed like glass mirrors. have one or more symbol punched on it. The most (vi) The literary evidence suggests that gold, silver, common symbols on these coins were those of copper, lead, tin, iron and bitumen were worked. elephants, tree-in-railing symbols and mountains. (D) Trade Coins Related Metal Period (i) If agrarian economy helped to build a political 1.Niska Gold Vedic empire, the latter, in turn, furthered another form 2.Satamaha Gold - Silver Vedic of economic activity, i.e. trade. Efficiency in 3.Suvarna Gold Vedic administration rendered the organization of trade 4.Niska (Kautilya) Gold Vedic easier, and crafts were gradually converted into 5.Suvarna (Kautilya) Gold Mauryan small scale industries. Jataka stories contain many 6.Karshapana Silver Mauryan references to caravan traders carrying large 7.Dharna Silver Mauryan quantities of goods to different part of the 8.Pana Silver Mauryan countries. 9.Purana Silver Mauryan (ii) The main trade routes in northern India were 10.Masika Copper Mauryan along the river Ganges and Himalayan foot-hills. 11.Kakini Copper Mauryan The northern route going to such sites connected Rajgriha, Kaushambi, Kapilvastu, Shravasti, MAURYAN SOCIETY Vaishali, Kalsi, Hazra and Peshawar. Patliputra, (i) Megasthenes, in his Indika, informs us that the capital of Mauryas, having strategic location, Mauryan society was divided into seven castes was well connected to this route through road and including – philosophers, farmers, soldiers, waterways. herdsmen artisans, magistrates and councilors, with (iii)In south, this route was connected to Central an important instruction saying, “No one is allowed India and in South-east to Kalinga. The eastern to marry outside his own caste or exercise any route turned southward to finally reach Andhra and calling or art except his own”. Karnataka. Other part of eastern route continues (ii) According to him, the philosophers were down to Tamralipti. exempt from taxation which is also corroborated (iv) From Kaushambi moving westwards, there by other sources. was another route which led to Ujjain and further (iii)In those areas where settled agricultural life south constituting dakshinapatha. came in existence, social organization was based (E) Coins (Punch-marked coins) on varna division which became sufficiently rigid (i) By the term punch-marked coins we mean in this phase resulting in ‘frictions’ in brahmanical early Indian coins, largely of silver and with a few order. The first three class known as dvija were copper coins as well, which were in fact pieces of more privileged than sudras and outcastes resulting

31 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. in social upheavals. Even among dvijas, the vaisyas the child was entitled to the legal status of master’s were not adequately platched in social hierarchy son”. Still, technically, there was no large scale according to their economic power and wealth. slavery for production. Conflict between them and socially superior Asokan inscriptions have been divided into: classes was inevitable. Asoka’s emphatic appear (a) Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts and two for social harmony proves the existence of social separate Edicts at Kalinga. tension. (b) Minor rock Edicts: Can be divided into two (iv) Increasing power of king was accompanied by subgroups. a similar increase in the power of purohitas who, (i) The first group includes Minor Rock Edicts, by now, begun to assume the function of chief Queen’s Edict, Barbar Cave Inscription and minister. Kandahar Bilingual Inscription. (v) For the first time during Mauryan phase a (ii) The second group is entirely concerned with section of Shudras was provided with land in the Buddhist community and includes Bhabra newly settled or rehabilitated areas. Forced labour Insription, the Rummindei Pillar Inscription, (visti was imposed on them on a much larger scale Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription and Schiem Edict. than the earlier period.) (c) The Pillar Edicts are seven in number. (vi) In addition to four varnas, Kautilya also speaks Major Rock Edicts of not less than 15 mixed castes as antyavasin. (i) 1st Major Rock Edict: prohibited animal Members of such mixed casts such as chandala sacrifice, especially during festive gatherings, but and suapaka were treated as untouchables. at the same time killing of three animals in royal (vii) Though Megasthenes emphatically claimed kitchen (i.e. two peacocks and a deer) have been that there were no slaves in India, Kautilya gives approved by him. us detailed laws about slavery and manumission. (ii) 2nd Major Rock Edict: They were mostly shudras but in specific cases, (a) The land of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and even the higher varna individuals could also Keralaputra along with Ceylon is mentioned. mortgaged himself and Kautilya calls them (b) Two medical services, one for human beings “ahitakas”. and other for animals, were provided by the state. (viii) Arthasastra states that a man could be a slave (c) Emphasis on plantation of trees and digging either by birth or by selling himself voluntarily, or at road for wells have been recorded. by capture in a war, or even as a result of (iii)3rd Major Rock Edict: punishment. Slavery in this phase, if we believe (a) It mentioned about his order to yuktas, rajukas Kautilya, became a recognized institution with and pradesikas about their traveling across the defined legal relationship. “If a female slave bore empire at every five years interval. her master a son, not only was she legally free but

32 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(b) Cordial relationship between son and parent, (ix) 9th Major Rock Edict: Instruction against friends and relatives and generosity toward trivial and useless ceremonies and emphasis on Brahmins and shramanas has been emphasized. ceremony of dhamma. (c) Prohibition of killing and spending. (x) 10th Major Rock Edict: (iv) 4th Major Rock Edict: His firm convictions (a) Desirability of Asoka not for worldly fame and of dhamma and harmonious social relationships glory but the glory in sphere of dhamma. have been claimed. (b) Criticism of evil inclination. (v) 5th Major Rock Edict: Emphasis of good (xi) 11th Major Rock Edict: Glorification of the doing by him and his family; appointment of office gift of dhamma, the praise of dhamma, sharing and of Dhamma; welfare of people including Greeks, fellowship of dhamma. Kambojas, Gandharas, Risthikas, Pitinikas, (xii)12th Major Rock Edict: welfare of prisoners, nobles, old, poor and servants, (a) Speaks of the similar attitude of Asoka towards and thus spread of dhamma have been claimed and different sects. emphasized. (b) Contains the famous statement: “Whosoever (vi) 6th Major Rock Edict: honours his own sect or disparages that of another (a) Emphasizes on efficient administrative order. man, wholly out of devotion to his own, with a (b) Contains famous instruction: “At all times, view to showing it in a favourabled light, harms whether I am eating, or am in the women’s his own sect even more seriously”. aprartments or in my inner apartments, or at the (xiii) 13th Major Rock Edict: cattle-shed, or in my carriage, or in my gardens – (a) Tells about conquest of Kalinga where “a where ever I may be, my informants should keep hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, me in touch with public business”. a hundred thousand were killed” and therefore (c) Also contains another famous instruction “And Ashoka felt remorse and felt that conquest by whatever I may order by word of mouth, whether dhamma was the foremost victory. it concerns a donation or a proclamation, or (b) Was the longest Asokan edict. whatever urgent matter is entrusted to my officers, (xiv) 14th Major Rock Edict: Speaks about the if there is any dispute or deliberation in the council, texture of other edicts. it is to be reported to me immediately, at all places, Few Important Informations about Edicts: at all times”. (i) The 6th Major edict contains the famous claim (vii) 7th Major Rock Edict: Co-ordination, self of Asoka, “All men are my children”. control and purity of mind among all sects has been (ii) Longest pillar edict “The Bhabra Edict”. urged. (iii)Seven major pillar edicts – Appendix to rock (viii) 8th Major Rock Edict: Talks about edicts. Dhammayatras.

33 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(iv) Four Minor pillar edicts: Sign’s of Ashoka’s improvement or deterioration. It is also worth feneticism to ‘Dhamma’. questioning, especially after the recent work of (v) The minor rock edict of Yerragudi is written Romila Thapar, whether the notion of a well in “boustrophedon style”. centralized and bureaucratic Mauryan state is still (vi) Nigalisagar Inscription confirms the existence an acceptable position or it has been of Buddha Konakamma. misrepresented in our history text books? We have (vii) Bhabra rock edict informs us about Asoka’s also to consider the possibility of almost a linear conversion to Buddhism. historical development from Indus valley (viii) Asokan pillar of Nandangarh bears the civilization to Gupta period and afterwards figure of a peacock, pointing to the association especially in the context of recent works and of Mauryan kings with it. projected correctiveness on Indus valley (ix) Barabar cave inscription talks about grant of civilization to Gupta period and afterwards Banyan cave to Ajivkas by Asoka. especially in the context of recent works and (x) Kandhar Rock inscription exists in bilingual projected correctives on Indus Valley Civilization, form, one in Greek and another in Aramaic Vedic period, post-Vedic period, Mauryan period, version. post-Mauryan period, Gupta period and post-Gupta period. But here, only accepted facts about socio- THE POST MAURYAN PHASE economic change have been outlined. The period between c. 200 BC and 300 AD has Economy in Post-Mauryan Phase often been described as ‘dark age’ in the Ancient (i) On the economic front, we witness a gradual Indian history, especially in the background of development and increase in the generation of Gupta phase which is characterized by the same ‘agrarian surplus’ which provided relatively a group of historians as ‘golden age’. Both these wider base for urbanization and trading activities meanings and interpretations of Indian society are along with industrial and handicraft production. It clearly the product of over emphasis on the was not accidental that proto-urbanized phase political aspects of those existing societies at the which we have witnessed in the post-Vedic cost of existing pattern of societal and economic developed considerably under so-called Mauryan behaviour which are clearly elite-oriented and centralized and over-bureaucratized state and ‘feudalized’. It is, however, an altogether a became mature enough in this phase, a fact that is different question whether the transition from clearly borne out from archeological excavations. egalitarian and pastoral society to more complex Archaeology clearly establishes the fact that the stratified society with a sense of work- pace of urbanization took an accelerated path differentiation (though in a rigid Varna system) of during this phase and the number of urban post-Mauryan phase was a case of socio-economic settlements increased considerably. We have

34 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM. evidence of greater uses of burnt bricks, both for (iv)Again, though, state-owned big farms like residential and fortification purposes, wider use those of Mauryans did not exist in this period, it of money as exchange material, larger trading however does not mean that the idea of state- networks, bigger production engagements, more ownership was completely absent. The Milind frequent international communication and Panho clearly recognizes state-ownership over all therefore better socio-economic stability, resulting the towns, seaports, mines, etc., which existed on in more producers and larger consumers making this earth. But it, in all its probability, symbolized the system dynamic and self-perpetuating. general territorial sovereignty only. (a) Agrarian Sector (v) In India, earliest inscriptional evidence of land (ii) With the decline of a centralized and strong grants belongs to the first century B.C. whereby a Mauryan state, the tradition of state-controlled village was granted by Satavahanas in huge farms also vanished, agriculture became Maharashtra to the priests on the occasion of small household activity and, therefore, big farms asvamedha sacrifice. This land was supposed to were replaced by small, run by individual farmers, be immune from governmental interference, who became the real owners of land. Milind government officials and troops and also supposed Panho and Manu Smriti testify this to be free from all taxes. Land grants made in this transformation. According to Manu, sages phase were qualitatively different from Mauryan declared that land belongs to him who cleared phase as it was to serve religious purposes but away the timber and a deer to him wounded it. grants for extension of agrarian economy were also Divyavadan refers to individual farmers in large made. numbers who were engaged in cultivation and (vi)It seems that land grant on the aksayanivi worked hard. system of land-tenure (which implied perpetual (iii)According to Manu, the acceptance of endowment of land-revenues) were first made uncultivated land by a Brahmin is less blamable during Kusanas which became very popular in than those of cultivated one and thus makes it Gupta and post-Gupta phase. perfectly clear that landgrants were meant for (vii) As far as size of land is concerned, some agrarian extension, an idea that had its root in the inscriptions refer to the field to two to twenty six Mauryan phase. Existence of Bhogagamas in nivartanas; one nivartana was roughly equal to 1 South and references of land donation to the ½ acre. We have. However, an evidence of land Buddhist monks by Satavahana rulers suggest that grant of 100 nivartanas which signifies that the land the tradition of land grant was in vogue but it is was still not very much fragmented. doubtful whether it was sold in the market for secular purposes as we do not have such evidences.

35 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Scientific and Technological Development in (iii)The evidence of ivory, working from Rajghat this Phase in Varanasi, clay seals and sealings from Vaishali, (i) In Indian astronomy and astrology found a great a mudrampart in Chandraketgarh and encouragement as a result of Greek contacts. fortification from Ujjain should be remembered From the Greek term horoscope, the Sanskrit term in this context. horasastra came into existence and another (iv)In Kushana phase, we notice an improvement term dramma was derived from another Greek in building technology. term drachma. Even Greek rulers were influenced The use of Surkhi (bricks concrete mixed with by the Brahmi script and some Indian motifs and lime) and that of baked tile for roofing were the represented these on their coins. most distinguished traits of this period. (ii) The technology of coinage was transformed (c) Trade: Internal and External in this phase due to Greek interaction whose coins (i) Evidences were properly shaped and stamped than the punch- (a) Literary sources such as Milind Panho and marked coins. Gold coins were struck by Kusanas Jatakas speak about trading organization in in this phase. this phase. (iii) Charaka and Susruta were famous chemists (b) Periplus tell us about imports and exports in and medicine experts of this phase and gave this phase. these disciplines a clear direction. (c) The Ayodhya-shred of rouletted ware (typical (iv) The technology of leather shoe production was Roman pottery) gives a substantial focus on probably the contribution of this phase. trade. (v) Working in glass became more sophisticated (d) A couple of shreds of red polished ware (typical due to foreign influenced and emerged as a of western India and Kusana territory) with profitable craft. Kharosthi inscription incised on it have been (b) Urban Centres witnessed in archeological excavation around (i) Archeaology clearly shows that though the city Satanikot in Kurnool district and it clearly of Taxila came into existence earlier, it acquired a proves the trading relationship between Andhra planned form of development only under the and northern India. post-Mauryan phase. We also witness here, burnt (e) The Mathura image of a goddess which is made bricks along with wedge-shaped bricks for circular up of blue schist of Gandhara establishes a structures. close connection between Mathura and (ii) Purana Qila, Mathura, Kaushambi, Gandhara. Ahichhatra, Vaishali, Tamluk, Chandraketugarh, (f) Arikmedu was known to Periplus as Padouke, Ujjain etc. were other urban settlements as is Barbaricum and Barygaza (modern Broach) evidenced by archeological excavations. were other trading centres of this phase.

36 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

(ii) (a) Commodities of export: Spices, turguoise, (c) Milind Panho enumerates as many as 75 lapislazuli, muslin, silk-yarn, indigo, copper, teak, occupations, existy of them associated with abody spikehard, malabathrum (used in preparing various kinds of crafts and eight with working of ointments), diamonds, sapphires and precious mineral products including gold, silver, lead, stones. Also exported were the commodities such copper, tin, brass, iron and precious stones and as rice, wheat, textiles, female slaves, etc. jewels. (b) Commodities of Import: Tortoise shell, (d) Indian iron and steel are mentioned by pearls, purple dye, textiles, wine, dates, gold, Periplus. slaves, linen, topaz, coral, storax frankincense, (e) A brick-built dying vat has been unearthed glass, silver, goldplate, copper, tin, lead, gauze, from Uraiyur and another from Arikamedu. sweet clover, realgar, antimony, medicinal (f) The Tailikachakra wheel is mentioned in ointments and gold and silver coins. Divyavadan. (iii)Important trade routes (g) We are told that Gautami, the aunt of Buddha (a) Bacteria (in Oxus valley) ’- Kapisa and Kabul used five processes of cloth manufacture. core region of the Kusana empire. (h) Mathura, in this period, was known for Sataka, (b) Uttarapatha: Pushkalvati (origin) ’- Taxila ’- a special kind of cloth. Mathura ’- Kaushambi ’- Varanasi ’- Pataliputra - (iii)We have epigraphic evidences of guilds of Champa ’- Chndraketugarh. artisans in the post-Mauryan phase who were (c) Mathura to Sindh (horse-route). organized under their headmen (gamasamika). (d) Mathura ’- Ujjain ’- Bharuch (a) Literary evidence informs us about increase in (e) Dakshinapatha the number of guilds. Besides traditional 18 guilds, (f) Sea-route dealt by Periplus of the Eruthraean Mahavastu informs us about eleven more kinds sea of artisans working under their respective heads. Note: From the excavation of Arikamedu, a (e) Coinage in Post-Mauryan Phase sizeable Roman settlement with trading station and (i) The coinage system in the post-Mauryan phase a port is witnessed. experienced a qualitative transformation. While in (d) Industry and Craft the Mauryan state, silver punch-marked coins along (i) Unlike Mauryans, the state hardly exercised with uninscribed copper coins were in circulation; any control over arts and crafts. in the post-mauryan phase, the variety, number and (ii) Evidences of industry and craft in this phase. types of coins being minted increased rapidly. (a) Digha Nikaya mentions two dozen existing arts (ii) Inscriptions were introduced on coins and and crafts techniques of minting coins showed a great (b) From Mahavastu, we obtain a list of 36 kinds improvement. Several thousand moulds for casting of workers living in the town of Rajagriha. coins of this phase have been discovered from

37 IAS ANCIENT Ultimate Learning Experience (P) LTD GS TSP 2014 DIRECTION STUDENTS ONLY INDIA INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAM.

Khokrakot in Rohtak, Sunet in Ludhiana, Taxila (vi)The economic distinction between Shudras and and Sanchi. Vaisyas tended to be blurred. (iii)Thew Indo-Greek kings of North-West (vii) The overall conditions of women introduced a splendid series of portrait coinage deteriorated. Patanjali informs us that dasi and in both silver and copper in which they inscribed vrishali (shudra women) were meant for satisfying bilingual inscriptions. the pleasures of the people of upper classes. (iv)In addition to those of copper, the Kusanas (viii) In short, the social conditions in this phase minted a large number of goild coins having a became more complex and more differentiated. variety of Indiann, Greek, and Iranian deities. (v) In this phase, a large variety of coins were in vogue: these were nishka, suvarna and pala (gold Refer : Ancient India ( NCERT ) Or coins), Satamana (silver coins), Kakani (copper Medeival India ( NCERT) Old Ncert coin) and that of lead. The most commonly used coins was the Karsapana in all four metals. Note: The credit for discovery of monsoon goes to Hippalus, who discovered it in 46 A.D. Societal Changes in this Phase (iii)Emergence of strangers in India in a big way in this phase created a problem for their assimilation in Varna-based, caste-oriented Indian society. The status of fallen Ksatriya was confereed on Greek and Saka rulers and others were treated as sub-case of Sudras. (iv)Expansion in crafts and producing activities meant an increase in guilds of artisans through which they improved their caste status with specific local variations. (v) Education in this phase was treated as prerogative of upper castes; the Brahmins had the monopoly of knowledge and kshatriyas and Vaisyas were expected to reconcile themselves with limited knowledge. The possibility of education for the Shudras exited, but references to it are extremely infrequent.

38