Some Aspects of Soviet Education

Home , Education in Russia, Merle Fainsod

Leslie W. Ross

SINCE the launching of Sputnik I and the as general education in this country. The reader should bear in mind that Russian subsequent Russian space adventures which followed that momentous event, American education is historically patterned more models interest in Soviet education has been re- nearly after continental European than after American, and that in the Euro- flected in the public utterances of a number scheme education as we know of journalists, educators, statesmen, scientists, pean general it is centered almost in the politicians, reporters, and scholars. Several entirely pre- of the student. of our national leaders in these professions university experience base their comments on trips made to the Soviet Union within the last two or three The Soviet Educational Structure years. They have uniformly come away tre- In looking at the structure of Soviet edu- mendously impressed with the educational cation, we must first recognize that a pro- activities they have observed there. gram of school reform, to be implemented It is significant that Soviet interest in over a five-year period and designed to lay American education is nearly equal to our more emphasis on practical training, was interest in theirs. President Hatcher of the initiated in the fall of 1959. In terms of University of Michigan, upon his return structure, the major effect of the reform from a recent trip to Russia, said of the legislation (enacted on December 24, 1958) Soviets: will be to add one year to the seven- and The country whose dedication to education has ten-year schools described below. At the been their inspiration is the United States of present time, because of the recency of the America.’ new policy, we can only describe the system The progressive ideas of the followers of which has most recently obtained, and use this as a basis for the John Dewey apparently were rather widely evaluating projected as in- in Russia in the twenties and changes they develop. Early reports practiced early dicate that full realization of these thirties.2 changes will take some time. Further discussion of We in America for the last two decades the reform legislation appears later in this have witnessed a considerable focusing of paper under &dquo;Current Reform.&dquo; on education move- emphasis the general Education in the USSR is centered around ment. this movement has been Although a ten-year program it is that elementary-secondary variously defined, usually agreed which is on a 4-3-3 basis. There education consists of that organized general knowledge are schools of three types: four-, seven-, and which &dquo;all men should have.&dquo; In this paper ten-year schools. There is a standard pro- I shall to examine, other try among things, gram of studies for all students in the entire the to which Soviet education is pro- degree Soviet Union (with a few minor concessions those which are referred to viding concepts in terms of regional languages and litera- 1 Harlan Hatcher, "Our Soviet Neighbors," ture), so that every student is studying the Speech delivered at the University of Michigan, same subjects in every grade of the ten-year Ann Arbor, May 21, 1959. 2 George S. Counts, The Challenge of Soviet Mr. Ross is a graduate fellow in higher Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957) p. education at the University of Michigan, 60-68. Ann Arbor. 539 540 system. This is true regardless of whether dent which is not easily perceived from a the school is a four-, seven-, or ten-year separate examination of each of these in- school; there is complete compatibility be- fluences. tween schools for any grade-level and for Thus, all the aspects of Soviet education of the Soviet Union. any region which are discussed in this paper may be The Soviets maintain that they have considered to be facets of the system of achieved universal, compulsory, seven-year general education. The goal is to mold the education, and in recent years they appeared ideal Soviet citizen, and considerable effort confident of raising this to the ten-year level is expended by the state to do this system- by 1960. Interpretation of the new school- atically and efficiently. reform program for 1959-1963 indicates, that the however, latter goal has been aban- of Soviet Education doned in favor of compulsory eight-year Objectives education, with secondary schooling to be Much can be learned and much can be understood in completed on a voluntary basis.3 Certain about Soviet education the curricular changes will also be made in the process of a careful examination of its ob- elementary and secondary schools. jectives. Just as we in the United States have certain which we Students who complete the ten-year cur- hoped-for learnings believe all should attain, so the riculum are eligible to take the university pupils matriculation examinations certain Soviets have developed purposes for general (except education. high-honors students who are excused). Stu- dents who complete the ten-year or seven-year The difference between American and curriculum may go into a tekhnikum, from Soviet purposes centers on three factors. which the outstanding students may after First, in the Soviet Union there is a quite four years apply for admission to an engineer- different concept of the knowledge essential ing institute. to every human being and the kind of individual the educational is to There are various other kinds of schools- system trying there is a marked differ- labor reserve schools and agricultural schools produce; secondly, ence in the of individual freedom -which will not be discussed here since they degree in the choice of matter; are essentially vocational in nature. permitted subject and there is a vast difference in the The consists of 33 thirdly, higher-education system which underlies each structure. universities, 732 ideology plus specialized higher- The of the individual and the educational institutions, variously known as place institutes, academies, higher schools, and knowledge that he should have are viewed in terms of state needs in the Soviet conservatories. There are also an undeter- entirely Union. The state is all that counts mined number of military, security police, in Soviet life, and education is considered the and Communist party schools.4 prime agency for accomplishing the state’s goals in In the Soviet Union, the general educa- the planned Soviet economy. The following tion of takes on forms which are much youth citation reveals the determination behind different from those in the United States. this concept: It should be constantly remembered, in any The of Soviet education is &dquo;the train- study of Soviet education, that there is a purpose totality of effect of the various curricular ing of educated, thoroughly developed, active builders of a communist and extra-curricular influences on the stu- society.&dquo;5 The reaction of one American observer 3 William K. Medlin, B—Soviet "Appendix to this is as follows: Educational Reorganizations for 1959-1963," in objective United States Department of Health, Education, It is not the individual around whom the edu- and Welfare; Office of Education, Soviet Com- cational system is built, but the state, which, mitment to Education (Washington, D.C.: Gov- by identifying itself with pursuits of the com- ernment Printing Office, 1959) p. 132. mon good, attempts the ruthless subordination 4 United States Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare; Office of Education, Educa- 6 "How Russia Does It," (London) Times tion in the USSR (Washington, D.C.: Govern- Educational Supplement, November 29, 1957. p. ment Printing Office, 1958) p. 185. 1520. 541 of the individual-his rights, tastes, choices, is an avowed belief in the economic superi- privileges, and his training-to its own needs.&dquo; ority of Russian communism. We must also realize that an It is difficult for Americans to understand important of the Soviet educational scheme the total which the Soviet state has on objective grip is to for women the same the individual, and it is this basic provide essentially problem which are available to men. that accounts for much of our misunder- opportunities The U.S. Office of Education reports that standing of this system. In education all de- women constitute about 80 per cent of educa- tails of the educational system are predicated tion students, 60 cent of medical students, on this cornerstone of Soviet life. All ob- per and 30 to 40 cent of technical and unless have some reason for per engi- servers, they students, in and bias, have and admitted the neering semi-professional recognized education Women of this facet of Soviet education. higher programs.7 engage primacy in almost of Soviet life, When this influence is actively every phase fully appreciated, road and other observations of the educational including barbering, repairing, system various trades. the orientation is take on a different cast. heavy Again from the viewpoint of the needs of the state- A second feature of the distinguishing a worker is a worker regardless of whether Soviet is the determinism of the state system male or female. The Russians feel compelled in forth the curriculum which the setting to bend every possible effort toward tangible must is little or no student follow. There achievement in the area of industrial and individual freedom of choice of subject agricultural production. matter. The Russian rulers believe that any There are, finally, tremendous ideological kind of waste motion or inefficient activity differences between the United States and is, in effect, an act of treason against the the Soviet Union. Russia is ruled by the state. Thus the state has determined in Communist party according to principles of great detail what its needs will be in various Marxist materialism. The influence of ide- and it looks to the educational occupations ology on the Soviet youth will be examined to the individuals system produce requisite later in some detail under the heading of in the numbers and with the proper proper &dquo;Indoctrination.&dquo; Something of its scope can training. be grasped from this statement which ap- While this concept is quite incomprehen- peared in the (London) Times Educational sible in the United States, it is, nevertheless, Supplement: one of the features of Russian dominating The whole of Soviet education from education, and from it, stem a process obviously, to is based on Marxist whole chain of effects on institutions and kindergarten university materialism and dominated by the conception students. The Soviet successes in impressive of producing a young Communist-submissive, science and technology can be almost en- disciplined, and unquestioning.&dquo; tirely attributed to this planning of the kind and degree of training which students will The Curriculum receive. The effect of this kind of thinking The of educational can on the curriculum will be examined later. goals any system only be achieved through the curriculum Two more observations should be made and the dominant interests of the groups at this point. First, the Russians are not which control education will be reflected in for only training scientists and technologists the kinds of curricula which they produce their own needs, but they are admittedly for their schools. them for to aid under- ,.raining export In the Soviet Union there is no exception countries of courses, to even- developed and, to this rule. We have seen how the draw such countries into the Soviet already tually needs of the state are the all-important fac- bloc. The machine aspects of the system 7 are thus all the more apparent, since there United States Department of Health, Educa- tion, and Welfare, Education in the USSR, op. 6 Nicholas DeWitt (National Science Founda- cit. p. 16. tion) , Soviet Professional Manpower (Washing- 8 "Soviet Educational Structure," (London) ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1955) Times Educational Supplement, November 20, p. 1. 1953. p. 981. 542 tor in determining educational policy. The facilitates the movement of families with influence extends directly to the school cur- children, thus increasing worker mobility, ricula. and (2) it expedites state control over the The reform legislation recently enacted entire educational machine. is a reflection of state concern over the We might add that it also makes it easier curricular content of the Soviet schools. for outsiders to study and evaluate their There has been a growing awareness on the educational system, and this point applies part of the state of a central shortcoming in particularly to the context of this paper. the ten-year schools: they have been train- In trying to determine what knowledge is ing too many youngsters in the academic deemed important enough to be imparted pre-university line and too few in the voca- to all youth of a country, we can make some tional and industrially oriented lines of interesting observations on those things that education.9 The intent now is to insert into the country honors most. the curriculum more direct emphasis on In Russia, we find that mathematics, the vocational training and the educational ad- sciences, and languages have a major place vantages of physical labor, and to extend in the curriculum. Table I depicts the uni- the seven- and ten-year schools by one year versal ten-year curriculum of the Soviet to accommodate these changes. Since the schools. details of the anticipated curriculum changes Six significant features of the ten-year cur- are as yet unclear, we can only judge what riculum have been succinctly summarized the new school is going to be in terms of by Counts: what we know has been the case of the ten- In the first place, all children follow the same year school. curriculum from the first grade to the tenth, The uniformity of curricula in the ten- except for differentiation between the sexes in year elementary-secondary education of all the realm of military-physical preparation and Soviet youth has two main bases: (1) it opportunity to choose among foreign languages, if two or more are offered in the same school. 9 Medlin, op. cit. p. 127. In the second place, all ten-year schools

t TABLE I CURRICULUM FOR SOVIET ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS a

’From George S. Counts, The Challenge of Soviet Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957) p. 77. 543 throughout the Soviet Union teach the same higher education curricula. Time magazine subjects in the same grades, except the non- reports: Russian schools in which the Russian language aside, the trouble with Soviet edu- is taught as an additional subject from the Quality big cation is that in third to the tenth grade inclusive. In the third overemphasizing specialization, it is out a almost place, the school year is long, ranging from 213 turning generation wholly of days in the first three grades to 230 in the ignorant the sort of liberal arts education tenth, and the school week embraces six days. known in the West.&dquo; In the fourth place, the curriculum emphasizes In the Soviet Union the institutions of the native language, mathematics, and physical higher education, including the universities, science. Morevover, according to the the plan, have a utilitarian and vocational Soviet is carried much further in mathe- primarily pupil orientation. matics and science than the American pupil. Except for those students major- in the social sciences or Though not stated in the table (Table I) , ing the humanities, there is little or no mathematics includes trigonometry, as well as content in these areas astronomy. And the study of physics and provided for or required of the typical uni- chemistry begins in the sixth and seventh versity student. At the University of Moscow, grades respectively. Both science and mathe- the faculties of philosophy, philology, eco- matics are classified as &dquo;important subjects.&dquo; In nomics, history, law, and journalism are the fifth place, the study of foreign languages, still quartered in the old university build- usually English, German, and Fiench, is taken ings opposite the Kremlin. They lie six very seriously. Instruction begins in the fifth miles distant from the magnificent new Uni- grade. In the sixth place, systematic physical on Lenin Hills, where the education is provided in all grades from the first versity plant sciences are housed. The of each to the tenth for the purpose of &dquo;cultivating such program student is almost qualities in the younger generation as bravery, university completely taken with courses in his persistence and will.&dquo; The reader should not up specialty. forget those gold and silver medals shining and beckoning in the distance which open freely Indoctrination the doors to the higher schools.10 Indoctrination in Communist ideology is an of the education of The of education integral part general concept &dquo;polytechnic&dquo; Soviet student. This is admitted looms large in Soviet thought. The word every freely by the Communist officials and is recurs again and again in pedagogical writ- quite obvious from an examination of some of ings, and takes on a certain aura of sanctity. the course materials. The It is considered very unwise to slander or Dodges reported that students seemed to be the most thor- otherwise to retard educa- try polytechnic indoctrinated tion. oughly group they met.l2 The intensity of this propaganda campaign is There has been a long-standing policy often underestimated by Americans. Lenin that an essential of individual’s part every is quoted as follows: education, and alike, is some first- boys girls that contributes to the of hand training and experience in the manual Everything building a Communist society is moral; everything that arts. must be a certain love for and There hinders this is immoral and amoral .13 devotion to manual labor in the breast of The student cannot the every Soviet citizen. This can best be achieved escape party-line indoctrination. Not are the schools a through the inclusion of a required block only of labor and practical work in the universal vehicle for propaganda dissemination, but a ten-year curriculum. In addition, several whole host of publicity techniques are em- kinds of institutions exist which are almost ployed which are educational in effect. There is even a for this exclusively devoted to vocational or semi- specific agency professional education. purpose: One of the most noteworthy differences 11 "The One-Track Mind," Time 66:46; No- between United States and Soviet education vember 28, 1955. 12 lies in the treatment of the liberal arts in Homer and Norton Dodge, "Russia Gains Over U.S. in Educating Scientists," U.S. News and World Report 39:97; September 16, 1955. 10 Counts, op. cit. p. 76-77. 13 Counts, op. cit. p. 112. 544

Agitprop, the party apparatus dealing with The Russians have the most formidable edu- agitation and propaganda, is &dquo;keeper of the cational machine in the world, but they are sacred flame.&dquo; It does not create the party line, also the most ignorant people in the world but disseminates it, and is responsible for what about affairs outside their own country. 18 one astute and knowledgeable observer, former While indoctrination and education are Senator William Benton, calls the &dquo;most stupendous psychological manipulation in his- theoretically quite distinct, the Communists have taken to see that the text- tory.&dquo; It maintains more than 6,000 schools, great pains and has 375,000 full-time propagandists and books used in the ten-year curricula reflect agitators in the field. Each is armed with the proper party line. Most notorious has &dquo;scripture&dquo;-an 824-page book, called Guide for been the repeated re-writing of history texts the Propagandist and Agitator. 14 to &dquo;correct&dquo; (or remove altogether) impres- sions given concerning the prowess of partic- Mr. Benton also stated, after his 1955 ular Russian leaders, or the role of the visit to the Soviet that &dquo;in Russia Union, Soviet Union in or the successes of discovers that the rulers seek history, [the American] the Communist party on the world scene. to convert the total culture into a giant propaganda apparatus.&dquo;15 There is a feeling now that while the activities of the propagandists can have great The evidences of the effects of the propa- and insidious effects in the presentation of ganda techniques on students are marked. social science materials, it is difficult, if not Misinformation as to American accomplish- impossible, to insert doctrinaire materials ments and intentions are particularly notice- into the study of mathematics or engineer- able. Some observers have indicated that ing or the physical sciences. The fact that there has been a campaign to transfer much it is these very subjects that the Soviets are of the hatred for the Nazis to a similar in- now concentrating upon most heavily leads tense hatred of Americans.16 Even the some observers to believe that the influence phrasing of the questions asked American of party indoctrination must not be so pro- visitors reflects the Communist party’s in- nounced as it has been in the past. fluence. These have a classic wife- questions Even in areas such as history and political beating quality, and are apt to go something science, the effect of repeated changes in the like this: &dquo;When are Americans you going party line has been detrimental to the effort to warlike actions stop your aggressive, to indoctrinate the youth of the country. has against our beloved country?&dquo; Thayer The United States Office of Educationl9 re- observed: ports that many teachers have postponed or as as a While the American government and private neglected long possible thorough institutions have been training thousands of teaching of subjects where party shifts may because realize that specialists on the Soviet Union, the Soviet Gov- occur, they by waiting ernment has so far as I know not trained a until the eleventh hour, i.e., just before single serious student in American affairs.&dquo; students are scheduled for the state examinations, they have a much better chance of Gunther John says: teaching the materials in the manner in which they will be covered in the examinations. If this phenomenon occurs to any 14 Gunther, Inside Russia John Today (Lon- great degree, there must be a considerable don : Hamish Hamilton, 229. 1958) p. loss of impact of the propagandizing mate- 15 William Benton, "William Benton Reports rials. A further facet of this illustration is on of the The 1956 the Voice Kremlin," Ency- the fact that the evaluation of a teacher’s Brittanica Book of the Year (Chicago: clopedia success is based largely upon the success of P. F. Collier, 1956) . Feature article, pages his students in the examinations. unnumbered. 16 Merle Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled (Cam- bridge : Harvard University Press, 1958) p. 260. 18 Gunther, op. cit. p. 292. 17 Charles W. Thayer, "I Found Russia 19 United States Department of Health, Edu- Changed," Saturday Evening Post 228:158; April cation, and Welfare, Education in the USSR, 14, 1956. op. cit. p. 87. 545

But there is no escaping the fact that the party can measure the effect of its measures intent of the Communist party is to ideolog- on the younger generation. ically influence the mind of every school The attraction and significance of these child through every possible avenue in the very active youth organizations cannot be curriculum. Counts states: overemphasized. Through their constant of activities, their &dquo;houses&dquo; The process of education in Communist program youth and and their direct ties to the morality is highly complex. It involves every &dquo;palaces,&dquo; Communist have served to enlist teacher, every subject, every pupils’ collective, party, they the of the in nationalistic every worker, and the entire regimen of the youth country school. Everything must be organized and ad- causes and have provided an organized out- ministered for the purpose of achieving the let for propaganda. common goal. The youth organizations must indeed be The organization of instruction is particularly considered as arms of the educational ap- important. The way pupils study influences paratus of the Soviet Union. They are the development of conscious discipline and avowedly educational in character and in traits of will and character. Each has subject operation, and their influence on impres- a special contribution to make in the shaping sionable youth is undoubtedly salutary from of attitudes, the acquisition of interests, and the Communist point of view. the forming of convictions. The roles of language, history, geography, and the sciences are Practical Matters fairly obvious. But even aesthetics has a contribution to make. &dquo;Understanding the beauti- In their effort to achieve the optimum ful,&dquo; observes Kairov, &dquo;has an historical and a educational investment in each youth, the class character.&dquo;&dquo;&dquo; Soviet leaders have had to cope with several practicalities. In some cases, they have ex- tried which have later The Youth Organizations perimentally patterns proved to be unwise. These efforts have The Communist has taken party particu- nonetheless had an influence on the youth lar pains to establish a system for developing in the schools. members from the ranks loyal party among In 1943, for example, it was decreed that of the youth of the country. While still in coeducation should be abolished and that nursery school, youngsters can become Little separate schools should be operated for boys Octobrists. From about age nine to 14, they and girls. In 1954 this policy was reversed. And may belong to the Young Pioneers. That its implementation was never really from the more loyal of the Young Pioneers accomplished in the period 1943-54 is at- are selected the members of the Komsomol, tested to by this observation made by a or Young Communist League, which covers visitor to Moscow in 1954, when coeduca- the age span of 14 to 26 years. There are tion was still taboo: about 20 million Young Pioneers, and about 18 million Komsomols.21 (The total Russian It was startling to learn that in spite of the change in official policy, all but 2 per cent of population is a little over 200 million.) The schools and 12 cent of still have co- transition from the Komsomol to Commu- per pupils education.22 nist party membership is accompanied by a further screening process, so that only the Because of a serious shortage of school most eligible and best proved candidates buildings, it has been necessary to operate may become party members. schools on shifts, with sometimes as many as The activities of the youth organizations three shifts in a building. Several observers cover the whole gamut of extracurricular who have recently visited the Soviet Union and cultural activities. The Komsomols and have remarked, however, that there does not the Young Pioneers are among the foremost seem to be a shortage of teachers.23 This agencies in the field of political education. 22 "Visit to a Moscow School," (London) ’They also provide a sounding board for Times Educational Supplement; April 16, 1954. party propaganda and a gauge by which the p. 337. 23 20 Counts, op. cit. p. 129-30. Lawrence G. Derthick, "The Russian Race 21 Gunther, op. cit. p. 228. for Knowledge," School Life 40:3; June 1958. 546 advantage undoubtedly can be attributed to The Soviet youth who excels in academic the effectiveness of state planning in the pursuits will find his financial road quite direction of placing the required number of easy, since the state takes a large part of the individuals into teacher education curricula. responsibility for his academic expenses. According to U.S. Commissioner of Educa- the concentrated of Through management tion Derthick, the state pays stipends to their resources, the Soviets have achieved a approximately 80 per cent of the 1,100,000 near-deification of education. Counts relates full-time students in institutions of higher that the Soviet Union &dquo;has marshaled all education. None of these students pays the forces of education to achieve organized tuition.29 Draft deferments are also avail- its and advance toward its distant purposes able to those students who keep their studies He continues that it apocalyptic goals.&dquo; up. While they must take some military &dquo;has employed the full force of education to training along with their regular academic the course of and the nature change history pursuits, the prospect of continued defer- of man.&dquo;24 President Hatcher has meta- ment from active military duty again oper- likened the educational to phorically system ates as a distinct pressure of the student to a which the Soviets have great power plant, remain in school and to do as well as pos- felt they must build first in order for other sible in his work. things to follow.25 Soviet Attitudes Toward A great deal of popular support is ac- Their Program corded education. Estimates are that some- Informed Americans cannot help but ob- like 7 to 8 cent of the national thing per serve that the heavy emphasis on scientific income goes into education (vs. about 3 per and vocational pursuits in the Soviet Union cent in the United Collective farms States). has dealt a body blow to the humanities and and industrial lend direct to plants support the arts. The curriculum depicted in Table the schools and often with them co-operate I would certainly convey this impression, as on a direct and intimate basis. In rural would many outside observations made by areas the school is often the center of the students of Soviet society. The matter of cultural life of the district.26 individual acceptance of the large degree of Perhaps the strongest coercion of Soviet regimentation in the Soviet educational youth is the incentive system which is used scheme has also raised questions in Ameri- to draw him onward.27 Great rewards lie in can minds. wait for those who diligently apply them- These questions have been equally ob- selves to their studies. President Hatcher vious to the many Americans who have re- reported finding &dquo;the strongest incentive cently visited the Soviet Union, and several system I have seen anywhere.&dquo;28 of them have inquired of Soviet citizens just what their attitudes are toward the The pressures for academic success bear general education upon the pupil. While repeated program. strongly For President Hatcher efforts will be made to help the child example, reported that he raised the of the through his studies (e.g., he may repeat any question neglect of the humanities and the arts with several year’s work in the ten-year curriculum if Russian with whom he came in con- necessary), there is a definite stigma accruing people tact. The as we was to the pupil and to his teacher if this occurs. answer, might expect, an denial of the The There are thus subtle penalties attached to unqualified charge. academic failure. Russians reported that they actually accomplished more in these areas in their ten-year 24 George S. Counts, "Soviet Education and schools than the United States does in 12 Soviet Power," Educational Digest 23:2; Septem- years. They pointed out that much of the ber 1957. child’s education in the humanities and the 25 Hatcher, op. cit. arts comes from his immersion in the total 26 Harry Milne, "The Challenge of Soviet Soviet culture, under the guidance of his Education," Educational Digest 23:2; March 1958. 29 Fred M. Hechinger, "U.S. Mission Finds 27 Fainsod, loc. cit. Soviet Education Is Grand Passion," New York 28 Hatcher, op. cit. Times, September 6, 1959. p. 42. 547 superiors.3~ This extra-curricular activity in- The acceptance of regimentation is some- cludes an impressive program of visits to thing which Soviet youth have come to ac- museums, libraries, concerts, and other cul- cept quite routinely. Soviet youth wonder, tural buildings and events. Visitors to the in fact, why American youth are not quite Soviet Union have reported seeing such displeased over their lot in having to pound student groups on tour frequently, and the pavement to look for jobs after gradu- there is no reason to discount their educa- ation. The University graduate in the tional value. Soviet Union is automatically assigned his first after and he is A statement by a leading Soviet educa- job graduation, expected tional official concerning cultural education to work at it for three years. This he accepts in as a of the resulted from an inquiry by the Times of good grace necessary part sys- London just after the launching of the tem which largely subsidized his education. Sputniks in the fall of 1957. The question This arrangement and the students’ attitude of it’ has been to our was addressed to Mrs. Lyudmila Dubrovina, compared military deputy minister of education of the Russian academy graduates, who also must agree to serve in the armed forces for a certain Republic, and her cabled answer is repro- period duced below. This rather extensive quota- of time after graduation. tion is presented to show the influence of Current Reform party thought and the general ambiguity of the statements: One has only to dip briefly into Soviet educational to that Q.uestion: Has the Soviet Union’s develop- history recognize many have taken in and ment of scientific studies led to any neglect of gyrations place policy general cultural education? practice. Ideological changes have been re- Answer: The curricula of the Soviet schools sponsible for much of the flux. The study are specially directed toward fostering general of Soviet education is complicated by these cultural education. In addition to mathematics, shifts in the party line, for the educational physics, chemistry, biology, the elements of pro- system is of prime concern to party leaders duction, and draughtsmanship, they provide for and political shifts often result in educa- the of those which the stu- study subjects give tional shifts. The currency of observations dents a of the humanities, an knowledge on the Soviet educational system must always aesthetic education, and a high standard of be since sometimes oc- general cultural attainment.... questioned, changes cur quite dramatically. Education in the spirit of socialism has The latest major changes in Soviet edu- brought about radical changes in the spiritual cational practice are contained in a new and moral make-up of the Soviet people. They law enacted by the Supreme Soviet on De- are imbued with the spirit of love and devotion cember 24, entitled &dquo;Law on to their socialist homeland. At the same time 1958, Strength- the Ties of School with Life and on all racial or national prejudices are alien to ening the Further them. In the spirit of humanism they are Development of the System of brought up to be cheerful and buoyant, to Public Education in the USSR.&dquo;32 Prior to perform exploits in labor and science, and not the enactment of this legislation, there had to rest on their laurels. Thus the development been several indications of growing dissatis- of scientific research in the Soviet Union has not faction with the Soviet educational plan. and could not to led, clearly lead, any neglect The criticism was first heard at the Twen- of cultural For both are general education. tieth Communist in 1956. of the cultural Party Congress interdependent integral parts Read33 and others confirmed the discontent and technical revolution accomplished in our observed visits to the Soviet Union, country. They are two interconnected aspects during and some of the directions which of the process of cultural-political and scientific- suggested technical growth towards carrying out man- reform might take. kind’s age-old dream of building the perfect The intent of the new law is to bring the Communist society.31 schools &dquo;closer to life,&dquo; and to require all

30 Hatcher, op. cit. 32 Medlin, op. cit., p. 126. 31 "Pyramid to Outer Space-The Educational 33 Gerald Read, "The Big Reform in Soviet Foundations," (London) Times Educational Education," Phi Delta Kappan 40:194-99; Feb- Supplement, December 6, 1957. p. 1551. ruary 1959. 548 pupils to engage in &dquo;socially useful labor&dquo; also continue to be the prime source of during their school days. To accomplish university matriculants. this, the law contains provisions which will Another type of special school should be lead to an increased emphasis on polytechnic mentioned. A system of secondary (eleven- education for all youth. The criticism which year) boarding schools has been instituted ultimately led to legislative action centered which, it is predicted, will &dquo;continue to de- mainly around the feeling in the Communist velop and expand until some two and a Party that some youth were becoming soft, half million youth attend them in 1965.&dquo;37 that they were avoiding hard work, and Korol states that the boarding schools are that they were interested only in career visualized as a model for future develop- berths in the white-collar occupations. ments in Soviet education.38 has that a further con- Hechinger reported The boarding schools are thus a reflection sideration behind the law was &dquo;an attempt of the attitude of the state toward the im- to the massive rush to the universities stop portance of the training of the young. Spe- and to instead more skilled man- provide cifically, the importance attached to this for on a level that does power technology kind of training has been observed to indi- not require university training.&dquo;34 cate that the influence of the father and The most of the new significant provision mother on a child is often i.e., is that concerned with improper, legislation extending contrary to the best over-all interests of the the traditional school one seven-year by year, state. Thus the dominance of the what is known in offi- complete thereby establishing idea that the individual owes his first re- cial terms as an eight-year &dquo;incomplete, sponsibility to the state becomes coldly educational, labor, general polytechnical apparent, to the point that the child-state school.&dquo;35 The extension was one-year ap- relationship assumes more importance than parently felt necessary to compensate for the the child-parent relationship. Lenin, in fact, increased amounts of work experience hence- said that children should become the sole forth to be expected of school-age youth. charge of the state.39 The intent is to make this basic eight-year There have also been recent evidences of educational program and uni- compulsory a &dquo;Western&dquo; of versal throughout the Soviet Union, with all variety juvenile delinquency in the Soviet Union and some observers feel youths (except the really gifted) expected to that the new boarding schools are geared as engage in some form of labor productive much to as to train lead- after Some will also be stop delinquency graduation. changes ers.40 made in the curriculum as the conversion to Certain reforms have also been the eight-year program takes place. legislated While the proposed eight-year education for higher education in the Soviet Union. As with the the other will constitute terminal education for many changes affecting these increased attention to students, and is indeed so intended, there schools, specify and a will be three types of secondary schools in practical experience, greater emphasis on and education to which the youth may continue their educa- evening correspondence enable students to more time than tion on a part-time basis, through evening spend and correspondence instruction. they have previously familiarizing themselves with the world. Students One observer reports that &dquo;once the re- work-day with work records will organization is complete the ten-year schools experience generally be in admission to the will be converted to eleven-year schools and given preference universities. Certain a third of their work will be devoted to more organizational changes in education will also be carried out. sophisticated shop work and practical ex- higher perience.... It seems that all the existing 37 ten-year schools will stay in operation in Read, op. cit., p. 197. 38 Alexander G. Korol, Soviet Education the new format.&dquo;36 Presumably they will for Science and Technology (Boston: John Wiley 34 Hechinger, loc. cit. and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 35 Medlin, op. cit., p. 128. 1957) p. 36. 36 Max Frankel, "Changed Schools Reopen in 39 "Schools in Russia: Devouring the Mind," Soviet," New York Times, September 2, 1959, p. Newsweek 48:114; October 29, 1956. 20. 40 Ibid. 549

It is, of course, too early to make any valid Allen W. Dulles, head of the Central In- observations on the real scope and effect of telligence Agency of the United States, has the changes destined to follow the school stated: reform The first were legislation. changes In mass education, the troubled in and at that introducing begun only September, 1959, Soviet leaders have loosed forces to time Frankel in the New York dangerous reported themselves. It will be very difficult for them from that the which Times, Moscow, changes henceforth to close off their own people from he observed could be described as a &dquo;mod- access to the realities of the outside world.44 erate switch of emphasis.&dquo;41 He reiterated There is a effect that &dquo;it will be five years before (the potential &dquo;boomerang&dquo; in the current Soviet on science changes) are fully worked out and placed emphasis and which can be over- into effect.&dquo; Observers have differed some- technology easily what in their estimation of the impact of estimated, but is nonetheless real. DeWitt comments on this: the school reform program, and only time will reveal its true significance. In the Soviet setting, the creatively inclined individual is most likely to seek escape, yes, The Future indeed, escape, from political and social What long-range effect is the Soviet pat- reality, from the theology of communism, in a scientific or career. It is a tern of education on its engineering paradox, general having a dilemma of Soviet science education What is to in the tragic youth? likely happen that it is propelled by psychological forces foreseeable future as a result of the kind of largely not of its own making. Many good men education now so being promulgated avidly who flock to its ranks are there to escape the in the Soviet Union? hazards of political reality, to seek a safer haven, These are, of course, difficult but all- and to preserve the tiny bits of human honesty important questions. Unquestionably, the and dignity largely destroyed or shattered in inquiring mind which is fostered by a heavy the hypocrisy of communist tyranny .45 on science and the scientific emphasis Allen Dulles, in a commencement address method will insist on answers to eventually delivered at Columbia University, said: questions which have, to this date, been omitted from the education of the Soviet Possibly for a time the Soviets will go forward, youth. There are evidences already that the using their educational system as a sorting de- vice for human assets. Half-educated men-all youth are eager to learn more about the fact and no still be fodder outside world, and that are interested humanity-may good they for totalitarianism. the Soviet leaders in facts-not Communist-filtered Possibly propaganda. will encounter problems for which they will This attitude is not but widespread yet, seek the solutions by foreign adventures. But President Hatcher reported the instance of there remains the possibility that newly created a Soviet youth who discussed with him the wants and expectations, stimulated by educa- possibility of obtaining greater numbers and tion and perhaps by more exposure to the more representative translations of English West, will in time compel great and almost and American authors.42 unpredictable changes in the Soviet system it- sel f.46 The more optimistic observers predict that in a machine creating super-educational During 1959 and the early part of 1960 the Soviets have indeed sown the seeds of (before the collapse of the Summit Confer- their own downfall. Wendell Wilkie is ence in May, 1960) there was a noticeable quoted as having remarked to Stalin in lessening of tension behind the Russian 1942: facade. The Hatcher party was received If you continue to educate the Russian people, most hospitably in April and May, 1959. Mr. Stalin, the first thing you know you’ll educate yourself out of a job .43 44 Ibid., p. 128. 41 Frankel, loc. cit. 45 Nicholas DeWitt, "Soviet Science Education 42 Hatcher, op. cit. and Its Challenge," in Kermit Lansner (ed.) , 43 Allen W. Dulles, "Education in Russia May Second-Rate Brains (n. p.: Doubleday, 1958) Defeat Communists," U.S. News and World p. 18. Report 39:127; September 16, 1955. 46 Dulles, op. cit. p. 128. 550

Other reports indicate similar overtures of sponds closest to our concept of general friendliness on the part of Russian leaders education is completed in the elementary and particularly on the part of the Russian and secondary grades, grades I to 10. At people. the universities and other institutions of These friendly gestures were generally in- higher education students are required to terpreted to mean that the Russians had so take almost all of their work in their field much confidence in their system and in their of specialization, as they are in almost all doctrinaire hold on their youth that they continental European universities. could well afford the risk of letting them 2. Indoctrination in Communist ideology converse freely with representatives of the permeates all phases of Soviet education. West. The amiability of the Soviets was The schools are regarded as a primary agency thus undoubtedly an expression of the party for instilling loyalty and dedication to the line, which indicated that it was advanta- objectives of the Soviet state as decreed by geous to begin a certain degree of intercourse the Communist party. with the West. 3. The individual counts for nothing in President Hatcher has this interpreted the Soviet Union, except as an instrument same He phenomenon differently. explains which can be molded to aid in the attain- that the is one which present generation ment of Communist objectives. Hence, the &dquo;knew not the Czar,&dquo; that in fact this gen- emphasis in education is not the enrichment eration is one whose experience dates from of the individual for the individual’s sake, a more recent level. Not having known but exclusively for the state’s sake. This is first-hand the which their fore- oppression quite different, of course, from the American bears are less inclined to experienced, they concept of education, which is the general pri- recognize and/or appreciate saving marily to aid the individual in self-realization of the Communist-controlled state. graces and secondarily to help him make a signifi- One observer has said, &dquo;Give them another cant contribution to the national economy. ten years and they will defeat Communism.&dquo;47 4. There is a considerable rigidity extend- Thayer predicts: ing throughout the entire Soviet educational Student choice is minimized as a the time have solved their own system. By they prob- result of the demands of the lems and are ready to conquer the world for compelling students in I communism, they may also discover that the planned economy. All grades little gremlins in the Kremlin haven’t left them through 10 take the same subjects at the as much communism to spread around the same time, over the entire country, with globe as they imagine they have.’8 very few exceptions. Depending on aptitude and achievement, students are directed into It is significant to note that even when it fields of where can make is viewed apart from the machinations of specialization they the contribution to the state. the Communist party, the Soviet educational greatest Once have embarked on a which system is a highly efficient and successful they goal they enterprise. Allen Dulles49 and others have are competent of attaining, they are not commented that defectors and emigres from permitted to change careers as American students are. the Soviet Union still retain a great deal of pride in the education which they received 5. There is a heavy emphasis on the nobil- in Soviet hands. ity of manual labor and industrial production in the education of all youth. Students Conclusion are taught not only to respect but to be eager to participate in various kinds of Several factors stand out in the study of endeavors. The children are re- the education of Soviet youth: practical quired to engage in various agricultural and 1. General education as we know it in the industrial projects, not only as part of the United States is non-existent in the Soviet curriculum, but after school or during school Union. The academic work which corre- vacations. Appropriate recognition is given 47 for Hatcher, op. cit. such activity. 48 Thayer, loc. cit. The recent school reform legislation, 49 Dulles, op. cit., p. 124. which places great stress on polytechnic 551 work experience for all youth, will serve to derstand the Soviet people, politics, geog- increase national productivity and to disci- raphy, and educational system. The kind of pline the student in the dignity of work and mutual ignorance now extant in both the help him to sharpen his own vocational United States and the USSR relative to the goals. culture of the opposite country is in itself a threat to world and one which could 6. Women are accorded essentially the peace, be ameliorated increased of same educational and vocational opportuni- through study the available Our ties as men in the Soviet Union. There many publications. people should be in seems to be complete acceptance of women encouraged every way possible to learn more about the Soviet Union. in almost any profession, and their training is the same as that for men with only a few minor exceptions. Bibliography BENTON, WILLIAM. This Is the Challenge. New 7. The party-sponsored youth organiza- York: Associated College Presses, 1958. 254 p. tions in the education play a significant part "William Benton Reports on the Voice of the of Soviet youth. The Little Octobrists (to Kremlin," The 1956 Encyclopedia Brittanica age nine), the Young Pioneers (age nine to Book of the Year. Chicago: P. F. Collier and 14), and the Komsomols (age 14 to 26) Sons, 1956. Feature article; pages unnumbered. provide an opportunity for extracurricular COUNTS, GEORGE S. The Challenge of Soviet activities of many kinds. The programs of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Inc., 1957. 330 these organizations are purposely designed to Company, p. ——————. "Soviet Education and Soviet attract and retain the Power," bright, aggressive Educational 23:1-4; 1957. who will some become Digest September youngsters day party DERTHICK, LAWRENCE G. "The Russian Race for thus a leaders. These organizations provide Knowledge," School Life 40:3-4; June 1958. training ground for leaders, a sounding board DEWITT, NICHOLAS. "Soviet Science Education for propaganda, and an intensive activity and Its Challenge," Second-Rate Brains. program of an educational nature. Kermit Lansner, ed. (n.p.) : Doubleday and 1958. 8. There is a strong system of incentives Company, ——————. Soviet Professional Its at work in Soviet education. Numerous de- Manpower: Education, Training, and Supply. Washing- vices are to academic at- employed glorify ton : National Science Foundation, U.S. Gov- tainments and &dquo;hero&dquo; (silver gold stars, ernment Printing Office, 1955. 400 p. titles, etc.), and all children are made to DODGE, HOMER and DODGE, NORTON. "Russia realize that the greatest prestige attaches Gains Over U. S. in Educating Scientists," to academic or research careers. Financial U.S. News and World Report 37:94-98, 100, rewards come quite readily to those who do 102, 104; September 16, 1955. ALLEN well in their studies. Draft deferments are DULLES, W. "Education in Russia May also continued for the talented. Defeat Communists," U. S. News and World academically 39:124, 126-28; 1955. One of the reforms in Report September 16, currently suggested FAINSOD, MERLE. How Russia Is Ruled. Cam- Soviet education has to do with establishing bridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University special schools for gifted pupils in mathe- Press, 1958. matics and science in addition to those now GUNTHER, JOHN. Inside Russia Today. London: existing for the arts. Hamish Hamilton, 1958. HATCHER. HARLAN. "Our Soviet 9. Visitors to the Soviet Union Neighbors." report delivered at the of Michi- that there seems to be a favorable Speech University accept- gan, Ann Arbor, May 21, 1959. ance of the Soviet educational system among "How Russia Does It," (London) Times Edu- the people, and that the leaders believe it cational Supplement, November 29, 1957. to be almost above reproach. Defectors from KOROL, ALEXANDER G. Soviet Education for the Soviet Union have, in spite of their Science and Technology. New York: John break, held the educational system in high Wiley and Sons, Inc., and the Massachusetts esteem. There is every indication that the Institute of Technology, 1957. KOROLEV, F. Education in the USSR. London: Soviets have &dquo;paid for education and are making it pay.&dquo; Soviet News Booklet No. 24. (n.d.) . MILNE, HARRY. "The Challenge of Soviet Edu- 10. It is not only desirable, but impera- cation," Educational Digest 23:1-3; March tive, that Americans labor diligently to un- 1958.

..-.... 552

"The One-Track Mind," Time 66:46-49; No- vember 28, 1955. "Pyramid to Outer Space-The Educational Foundations," (London) Times Educational Supplement, December 6, 1957. READ, GERALD. "The Big Reform in Soviet Edu- cation," Phi Delta Kappan 40:194-99; Feb- ruary, 1959. "Schools in Russia: Devouring the Mind," Newsweek 48:110, 112, 114; October 29, 1956. "Soviet Educational Structure," (London) Times Educational Supplement, November 20, 1953. THAYER, CHARLES W. "I Found Russia Changed," Saturday Evening Post 228:155-58; April 14, 1956. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCA- TION, AND WELFARE; OFFICE OF EDUCATION. Education in the USSR. Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1958. ——————. Soviet Commitment to Education. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1959. "Visit to a Moscow School," (London) Times Educational Supplement, April 16, 1954. WIDMAYER, RUTH. "The Evolution of Soviet Educational Policy," Harvard Educational Re- view 24:159-75; Summer, 1954. ——————. "Recent Developments in Soviet Education," School Review 63:438-42; Novem- ber 1955.