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Home , Access Research Network, Intelligent design, Michael Behe, Michael Denton

Christian Spirituality and Issues in the Contemporary World

Volume 2 Issue 1 The Argument Article 2

2001

Intelligent Design: The Biochemical Challenge to Darwinian ?

Ewan Ward Avondale College

Marty Hancock Avondale College

Follow this and additional works at: https://research.avondale.edu.au/css

Recommended Citation Ward, E., & Hancock, M. (2001). : The biochemical challenge to Darwinian evolution? Christian Spirituality and Science, 2(1), 7-23. Retrieved from https://research.avondale.edu.au/css/vol2/ iss1/2

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Avondale Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Science at ResearchOnline@Avondale. It has been accepted for inclusion in Christian Spirituality and Science by an authorized editor of ResearchOnline@Avondale. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Ward and Hancock: Intelligent Design

Intelligent Design: The Biochemical Challenge to Darwinian Evolution? Ewan Ward and Marty Hancock Faculty of Science and Avondale College “For since the creation of the world ’s invisible qualities – his eternal power and divine – have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse.” Romans 1:20 (NIV)

Abstract The idea that nature shows evidence of intelligent design has been argued by theologians and scientists for centuries. The most famous of the design argu- ments is Paley’s watchmaker from his writings of the early 19th century. Interest in the concept of design in nature has recently had a resurgence and is often termed the Intelligent Design movement. Significant is the work of on biochemical systems. In his book, Darwin’s Black Box, Behe develops the idea that many biochemical systems are irreducibly complex in the sense that each component of these systems is essential for their functioning and cannot be removed or altered without compromising the system of which they are a part. Thus traditional Darwinian evolutionary theory has difficulty in explaining their development. When applied to the question of life’s origin on this planet, design arguments raise serious questions about traditional views of chemical evolution. To be considered a scientific alternative to Darwinian evolution, intelligent design needs to be empirically detectable. The develop- ment of a three-stage explanatory filter by William Dembski is arguably a fully that can, on the basis of observational data, reliably distinguish intelligent design in biological systems from undirected natural causes. However, at this stage, detection of intelligent design does not necessitate speculation on the nature of the , but does infer an intelligence behind the design.

Introduction deep within the crevices The question of the origin of life on of a meteor? Or is life the product of this planet is a fascinating one. Did an intelligence, hidden somewhere life begin on the surface of a cooling within the , orchestrating planet amidst the havoc of a rest- life by design and careful planning? less environment racked by violent Is there evidence of that design in na- lightning flashes andvolcanic activity? ture and can such evidence be used Did life flourish on earth after being to infer the existence of a Creator, as transported here as -like Romans 1:20 might indicate?

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Design in Nature turns out that the The idea that nature shows evidence is using chemistry. Prior to battle, of intelligent design is not at all new. specialised secretory lobes make a Theologians and scientists have very concentrated mixture of two argued for centuries that certain chemicals, hydrogen peroxide and natural features of our world are hydroquinone. The mixture is sent difficult to explain purely in natural- into a storage chamber that is con- istic terms. The most famous of the nected to an explosion chamber. At- design arguments is Paley’s watch- tached to the explosion chamber are maker illustration from his writings glands that secrete catalysts into the of the early 19th century. If you were explosion chamber. When a preda- to find a watch while crossing a field, tor threatens, the beetle squeezes what would you suppose about the muscles surrounding the storage origins of that watch? Would you chamber which forces the solution think that the parts had all come of hydrogen peroxide and hydro- together by chance, or would you quinone into the explosion chamber suspect that the watch was the where it mixes with the catalysts. product of a watchmaker and that The hydrogen peroxide rapidly de- someone had dropped the watch composes into ordinary water and as they passed by that way? Paley oxygen. Subsequently, oxygen reacts argues that because of its obviously with the hydroquinone to yield more intricate design and function there water, plus a highly irritating chemi- must have been a designer, “… cal called quinone. These reactions who formed it for a purpose which release a large quantity of heat. The we find it actually to answer, who temperature of the solution rises comprehended its construction and to boiling point and vaporises into designed its use”.1 steam. The beetle then points its tail at the enemy and directs the steam- A classic example of the watchmaker- ing, toxic solution into the face of the type argument is the bombardier would-be predator. 2 beetle. When threatened, the bom- bardier beetle has an amazing way Design theorists would argue that of defending itself. It squirts a boil- the defence system of this beetle is ing hot solution of chemicals at the far too complicated to have evolved enemy from an aperture in its hind in a step by step, naturalistic section. Hardly a polite gesture, and requires a designer. For many but then its aim is to escape, not Christians, seeing design in nature to win friends! The heated liquid is equivalent to seeing God, and for scalds its target, which then beats them the picture of God as Designer a hasty retreat. What is the secret or Architect makes good sense. to the bombardier beetle’s trick? It However, while watchmaker-style

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arguments are intuitively appealing quite false, although it is regularly and have convinced Christians for repeated throughout the creationist centuries that God exists, they have literature”.4 As mentioned previ- not been well received by the modern ously, however, these chemicals . This was due require the presence of a catalyst to in no small part to the success of undergo significant reaction. Darwinian Evolution in suggesting While Dawkins uses such apparent how complex structures may have problems in the design literature to evolved through natural processes. his advantage and doesn’t offer any , Oxford Zoologist explanation for how the bombardier and well-known defender of Dar- Beetle’s defence may have evolved winian Evolution, has challenged by , he does offer the apparent need for a designer in plausible scenarios for the evolution the bombardier beetle. In his book, of other classic design examples such The Blind Watchmaker, Dawkins first as the mammalian eye.5 Typically, quotes a passage from a book called creationists have argued that struc- The Neck of the Giraffe by Francis tures such as the bombardier beetle’s Hitching . “The chain of events that defensive system and the mamma- could have led to the evolution of lian eye could not have evolved by such a complex, coordinated and gradual evolutionary steps because subtle process [in the bombardier all the parts are required for it to beetle] is beyond biological expla- function effectively. Dawkins dem- nation on a simple step-by-step onstrates that there are eyes of vary- basis. The slightest alteration in the ing complexity and resolving power chemical balance would result im- in the animal kingdom and that it mediately in a race of exploded bee- is quite conceivable that the mam- tles”.3 Dawkins then responds. “A malian eye evolved from a simpler colleague has kindly pro- eye by small steps that progressively vided me with a bottle of hydrogen improved upon the primitive eye. peroxide, and enough hydroquinone Darwin’s Black Box for 50 bombardier beetles. I am about While Dawkins seemingly gets the to mix the two together. According to better of this exchange, the design the above [Hitching], they will ex- argument has recently had a resur- plode in my face. Here goes … Well, gence and this time it is being led I’m still here. I poured the hydrogen by well-informed professionals and peroxide in the hydroquinone, and academics. Michael Behe, professor absolutely nothing happened. It of at didn’t even get warm… The state- in , USA, published ment that ‘these two chemicals, when a watershed book in 1996 entitled, mixed together, literally explode’ is

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Darwin’s Black Box: the biochemical over time. This is often called mi- challenge to evolution, (The , croevolution. What Behe and others New York). A black box is a term such as in Evolution: used to refer to a device that does A theory in crisis and Phillip Johnson something, but whose inner work- in Darwin on Trial, have exposed in ings are mysterious. A computer is recent years is the inability of Dar- a black box to many that rely on its winian evolution to explain the big function everyday. They can use it, questions, such as how life arose on but what happens inside that box is this earth in the first place. Further, a complete mystery. In Darwin’s day, how did the great diversity of life biologists knew very little about the evolve from the theorised primor- complex biochemical systems within dial soup in a step by step fashion? living organisms and such organisms A growing number in the scientific were indeed remarkable black boxes community are now beginning to ask to the observer. Knowledge about the whether Darwinian Evolution has intricate operations of organisms did the answers to these questions. not emerge until the development of However it would be completely the disciplines of biochemistry and wrong to suggest that most evolu- molecular many years later. tionists are admitting to these flaws However, we now live in the age of in their theory. For instance, in The . Consequently, Meaning of Evolution, George Simp- Darwin’s black box has been partly son, one of the founders of modern opened to reveal the most astonish- Darwinian evolution, asserts, “Al- ing complexity of chemical and though many details remain to be biochemical activity. Highly elabo- worked out, it is already evident rate biochemical systems have been that all the objective phenomena of discovered that display a of the history of life can be explained sophistication that defies an explana- by purely naturalistic … factors. tion for their existence by evolution- They are readily explicable on the ary mechanisms. basis of … [natural selection and Behe begins his book by pointing random ]. Therefore, man out that Darwinian evolution is not is the result of a purposeless and the impenetrable theoretical fortress natural process that did not have that its proponents would have us him in mind”.6 Richard Dawkins, think. Now it should be made clear in another of his popular books The that very few, creationists included, Selfish Gene writes “Today the theory would deny that Darwin’s evolution- of evolution is about as much open ary mechanism of natural selection to doubt as the theory that the earth successfully explains how small goes around the sun…”.7 changes have occurred in However, and much to the an-

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noyance of evolutionists such as ern biochemistry has elucidated most Dawkins, they haven’t managed to of the components and these systems convince western society of the ‘fact can be examined for evidence that of evolution’. According to a Gal- supports either a design or evolu- lup poll close to 50% of Americans tionary model. are creationists of the conservative Behe begins his examination of bio- variety, another 40% believe in some chemical systems with an unusual il- sort of God-directed evolution over lustration – a household mouse trap. millions of years and only 9% are The function of the mouse trap is to Darwinian evolutionists.8 However, kill mice so that they cannot go about those 9% do control the academic their messy destructive business in world. our homes. A mouse trap consists of As noted, up until now design theo- five parts - a wooden base, a spring, a ries have not faired well in academic hammer (to break the mouse’s back), circles. This may be partly because a sensitive catch (releases when slight creationists have not developed pressure is applied) and a metal bar an alternate theory that could be (connects to the catch and holds empirically tested and examined by the hammer back when the trap is the scientific community. As philoso- charged).10 This simple mechanical phers of science have pointed out, system is an example of what Behe for scientific paradigms to shift there calls an irreducibly complex system. has to be a new paradigm available It is irreducibly complex because all to take its place. You cannot shift the components are essential if it is to into a vacuum. Currently, however, function as designed. If the hammer new paradigms are being developed. were removed the mouse could help Design arguments are now being itself to the cheese, dance on the trap supported by conventional scientific all night long and not be pinned to arguments. In Darwin’s Black Box, the wooden platform. If there were Michael Behe asks the question - Can no spring, the hammer and catch complex natural systems such as the would sit loosely and again the little Bombardier beetle be accounted for rodent would be completely safe. by small changes over millions of In fact, if any single part were not years – that is by natural selection? present the trap would be completely His answer to this question? We can’t ineffective in catching mice. really tell because we don’t know Evidence of design in biochemical enough about the components of and molecular systems the system to determine whether the As previously indicated, we live in beetle’s defence could have occurred the age of molecular biology, where by chance.9 But, Behe contends, there scientific inquiry focuses on the are biochemical systems where mod- universe within – ie, the make-up

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of the . Extraordinary advances then required at certain crucial steps have been made in the understand- in the pathway itself. In other words, ing of cell structure and function the entire pathway has to operate at the molecular level. The cells for the cell to go about its business of an depend on their and the idea that it can evolve in biochemistry for function. Chemi- piece-meal fashion must necessarily cal events upon which cells rely for compromise the function of the cell. their daily existence and function As stated by Behe, this situation are organised in stepwise fashion. A “…would be a powerful chal- specialised class of protein molecules lenge to Darwinian evolution. Since called enzymes (enzymes may be natural selection can only choose considered as the molecular tools systems that are already working, of the cell) mediate the conversion then if a biological system cannot be of one target molecule (chemical produced gradually it would have to substrate) into another, which is in arise as an integrated unit, in one fell turn worked on by the next enzyme swoop, for natural selection to have in the sequence. One can think of anything to act on”.11 these sequences much like the as- A  B  C  D  E sembly line of a factory, each worker e1 e2 e3 e4 along the line uniquely modifies the Schematic diagram of a typical product being assembled. Thus each biochemical pathway enzyme, or assembly line worker, Chemical substrate A is converted to depends on the previous one for its B by enzyme e1. Substrate B is then

activity. Removing, or disabling one converted to C by enzyme e2 and enzyme in a biochemical pathway so on until product E is formed by enzyme e . effectively shuts down that pathway 4 as there will be no more substrate Another cellular mechanism that molecules produced for the next displays is enzyme in the sequence. Because of that for transmitting genetic informa- the interdependence of each enzyme tion, either from one cell to another on earlier enzymes in the pathway, or in the formation of a completely one can consider such pathways to new organism. Deoxyribose nucleic be irreducibly complex, much like acid or DNA, the genetic material, Behe’s mouse-trap. Such displayed is a complex molecule consisting interdependency makes it difficult of sugars, phosphate and nitrogen to envisage how such pathways may containing bases. Its structure allows have evolved, especially if the final for the transmission of genetic infor- product of a pathway is, for example, mation which is encoded in the base required by the cell for func- sequence of the molecule. All the tion. Often the energy generated is information that will ever be needed

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by an organism is encoded within produced cannot take its place in the cells as molecules of DNA. DNA the biochemical assembly line for is like the hard disc of the computer which it is intended, or dare we say containing all the programs needed designed. The resulting failure of a at various times during the life of the biochemical pathway can be fatal cell. This complex information sys- to the cell. tem can be accessed by specialised DNA can also be completely rep- cellular enzymes. One such enzyme, licated so that genetic information called RNA polymerase, actually can be passed on to daughter cells. reads the chemical code of DNA, This is an essential feature of cell stored as a series of chemical bases, replication and indeed, on a grander and sets in motion an exceedingly scale, development of an organ- complex chain of events culminat- ism’s offspring. Thus the name of ing in the formation of other protein the game for the perpetuation of molecules. The order of bases read life on this planet is information by RNA polymerase in DNA deter- storage and transmission. But here mines the order of amino acids in is the catch; and a perfect example the protein molecule. The order in of irreducible complexity. DNA which these amino acids appear stores the information needed to in the protein molecule is crucial. synthesise the enzymes needed to Its three dimensional shape (and replicate itself and it can’t replicate hence function) depends upon the itself without these enzymes. This sequence of its amino acids. In terms is circular dependency at its best! of the flow of genetic information, Genetic information contained in one can consider this relationship DNA codes for the DNA replicating between the DNA chemical bases, enzyme, DNA polymerase. DNA the order of amino acids in protein, polymerase reads the chemical and the shape and function of the code of DNA and faithfully creates protein itself, all to be irreducibly another exact duplicate molecule. complex. Information in DNA de- So without the information in DNA termines the structure and shape of coding for DNA polymerase, there the enzyme molecule, which in turn can be no replicating enzyme and determines which chemical substrate without the replicating enzyme and it may interact with in a biochemical a pre-existing DNA molecule, there pathway. Interference with the trans- can be no new DNA to be passed mission of this information at any on to new cells. In other words, to point will dramatically alter the final be able to synthesise a new DNA enzyme product. Minute changes in molecule prior to cell division, there the sequence of bases in DNA can must be a pre-existing DNA molecule mean that the enzyme subsequently which not only directs the synthesis

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Information Corresponding amino Protein shape in DNA acid sequence in  determines protein molecule protein function

Relationship between DNA information and protein function The information in DNA determines the amino acid sequence of a protein which in turn determines protein function.

of DNA polymerase, but acts as There are seemingly endless exam- a template or pattern for the new ples of design in molecular systems, daughter DNA molecule. Because anything from enzyme catalysed of the interdependency of DNA and metabolic pathways to large mo- its replicating enzyme, the process of lecular structures. Michael Behe accessing information in DNA and discusses a number of these complex transmitting genetic information to systems at length, including blood daughter cells displays a high degree clotting systems, bacterial flagella of irreducible complexity. The inter- and a variety of other biochemical dependent nature of this relationship systems.12 is shown in the diagram below.

Diagram illustrating the DNA molecule relationship between DNA containing genetic and its replicating enzyme. information Synthesis of new Information in DNA is used to   DNA molecule synthesise DNA polymerase.  containing the same  In turn, DNA polymerase Production of DNA genetic information uses the original DNA replicating enzyme molecule as a template to make –DNA polymerase another new DNA molecule.

Origin of the Primordial cell of Chicago during the early 1950’s Biochemical systems make for fas- set the groundwork for the concept cinating study. But how did they of chemical evolution.13, 14 Their ap- come to exist anyway? How did paratus replicated what was thought life arise on this planet in the first to have been the atmosphere of place? Pick up any biology or bio- primitive earth and this mixture of chemistry textbook and you can read gases was subjected to high voltage how life supposedly started on this discharges simulating lightning. planet. The work of Stanley Miller Organic molecules produced were and Harold Urey at the University trapped and removed from the

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reaction system and subsequently stalemate or in a confession of ignorance. analysed. The variety of basic organic New lines of thinking and experimenta- compounds (much like simple pieces tion must be tried.18 of Lego) which they detected, were Leaving aside the technical problems considered to be the building blocks of such chemistry, let us ask our- of biological macromolecules which selves what a primordial organism would in turn become the building would need to survive, replicate and blocks of the first primordial cell. to get the theorised evolutionary ball However, it is a far cry from Lego rolling. Firstly, it would require a building blocks to a functional Lego method for capturing energy (as in model. Such experiments eventually the case of photosynthetic organ- gave rise to the concept of a primor- isms that make their own food) or dial “soup” from which life could a mechanism for utilising energy arise and give something for natu- derived from pre-formed organic ral selection to work on. (The term molecules. Both methods involve “soup”, commonly used in textbooks very complex biochemistry even in that deal with biochemical origins, is the simplest of organisms. Secondly, misleading. Such a term suggests a cells must possess a membrane to nutrient rich liquid, in contrast to the keep the outside environment from dilute oceans theorised for the devel- disturbing the staggering array of oping primordial world. However, chemical reactions required. Thirdly, a complete critique of the Miller and there must be a system by which Urey experiment is beyond the scope genetic information can be stored of this paper.) In any case, the valid- and accessed. Organisms store such ity and meaning of such experiments information as a chemical language is now under scrutiny.15, 16, 17 It is now in the sequence of bases that make up apparent that there are enormous the DNA. The genetic information is problems with the concept of form- used to direct the synthesis of other ing biological building blocks from important molecules needed by the inorganic chemicals by naturalistic cell for normal functions. Fourthly, processes. In fact, Professor Klaus this information must be converted Dose comments: into the molecular tools the cell More than 30 years of experimentation requires to function. Finally, there on the origin of life in the fields of chemi- is the all important requirement for cal and molecular evolution have led to cellular division and self-replication. a better perception of the immensity of The stored genetic information the problem of the origin of life on earth must be replicated and passed onto rather than to its solution. At present daughter cells in order to produce all discussions on principal theories and descendant life forms. experiments in the field either end in

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All these processes are of extraordi- rating the cell’s biochemical reactions nary complexity despite the apparent from the external environment. “simplicity” of the first theorised Indeed, synthesis of the membrane primordial organisms. For such itself is directed by enzymes encoded organisms to exist, all the biochemi- by information in DNA. cal systems must not only function Surprisingly, there are no suggested correctly in their own right, but mechanisms available to satisfacto- must also coordinate with the other rily explain the molecular evolution systems. Because of the interde- of individual biochemical systems pendency of these systems, such such as those mentioned above, let a cell can also be considered to be alone explain how such interdepend- irreducibly complex. Thus, the pri- ent systems would develop in a mordial cell, like any other, would coordinated fashion with a common depend on its energy-generating bio- goal in mind; the development of a chemistry in order to operate crucial functional cell. Behe devotes a chap- metabolic processes and synthesise ter in his book to an analysis of the essential molecules. Information published scientific literature con- for molecular synthesis is stored in cerned with mechanisms of molecu- DNA. Energy generated by the cell lar and biochemical evolution. He is required for DNA synthesis and examines scientific papers published cellular replication. DNA synthesis in the Journal of Molecular Evolution depends upon enzymes whose blue- (JME) since 1971, the first year it was print is contained in DNA. None established. He concludes that while of these systems could function if it there are many papers that examine were not for the cell membrane sepa- comparisons of the order in which

Cell Membrane: separation from environment DNA: replication, control of cellular activities

Cell Cytoplasm: metabolism, energy generation, protein synthesis, etc.

Diagram showing the basic requirements of a cell to sustain life. Cells must be separate from their environment to allow biochemical reactions to generate energy, synthesise proteins, allow for DNA replication and cell division.

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amino acids appear in the same pro- determining whether they are. Even teins, or the order of bases in DNA evolutionists who have serious objec- molecules from different species, tions to the design argument accept there is nothing in the literature that that nature appears to be designed. describes mechanisms of molecular Richard Dawkins states in his book evolution that relate to the formation The Blind Watchmaker that: “Biology of complex biomolecular structures is the study of complicated things within the cell. “In fact, none of the that give the appearance of hav- papers published in JME over the ing been designed for a purpose”21 entire course of its life as a journal and “Natural selection is the blind has ever proposed a detailed model watchmaker, blind because it does by which a complex biochemical not see ahead, does not plan conse- system might have been produced quences, has no purpose in view. Yet in a gradual, step-by-step Darwinian the living results of natural selection fashion.” 19 overwhelmingly impress us with the Detecting Intelligent Design appearance of design as if by a mas- Behe’s biochemical challenge to ter watchmaker, [they] impress us Darwinian evolution has made a sig- with the illusion of design and plan- 22 nificant impact on the scientific com- ning”. Dembski, on the other hand, munity. His book was reviewed in proposed what he to be a prestigious scientific journals such as scientific method for detecting intel- Nature. Here was a credible, well-in- ligent design. This he claims is not formed biochemist with an argument new to science. For example the work that could not be easily dismissed. of forensic scientists is to distinguish Darwin had admitted himself that chance events from criminal activity. “If it could be demonstrated that any Cryptographers distinguish between complex organ existed which could random signals and those that carry not possibly have been formed by encoded messages, and scientists numerous successive, slight modifi- in their search for extraterrestrial cations, my theory would absolutely life have their radio telescopes con- break down”.20 stantly on the lookout in an attempt to detect intelligent messages from Recently, Behe’s renewal of the in- outer . Dembski claims that telligent design argument has been intelligent design is actually empiri- strengthened by the contribution cally detectable. In other words there of another design theorist, William are well-defined methods that, on Dembski. One of the major criticisms the basis of observational data, are of Behe’s book was that even though capable of reliably distinguishing living things may look like they are intelligent causes from undirected designed there is no scientific way of natural causes.

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Dembski’s method of detecting intel- slips on the same flavoured jelly ligent design takes the form of a three twice. Unlikely but possible, and stage explanatory filter.23 If an event or we pay him out but it starts to look observation passes through all three suspicious. But the same guy, same layers of the filter then we are justi- flavoured jelly, half a dozen times? fied in asserting the event involved I don’t think so! This guy is a fraud intelligent design. In a nutshell the and has found a way to make some explanatory filter asks three ques- quick dollars by defrauding insur- tions in the following order: Does a ance companies. The thing that gets natural law explain it? Does chance me about this true case is: Why didn’t explain it? Does design explain it? he at least change the jelly flavour? And why the mint? To see how this filter works in prac- tice, consider the case of a man who Anyway, back to Dembski’s three was brought before the courts in the stage explanatory filter. When we US for fraudulent liability claims have an event such as I have just ex- against restaurants.24 He claimed plained we have a decision to make. that he had been dining in a restau- Are we going to attribute it to natural rant when he slipped on mint jelly law, chance or design? We start by that had been spilt on the floor. In taking the event and we first ask if the fall he had dropped the glass he this is a HP (high probability) event. was carrying and cut his hand and The chance of slipping six times on forearms. He sued the restaurant for mint jelly while dining in restaurants being negligent in not having cleaned is not a high probability event. It fails up the mint jelly, won the case and to be explained by natural law. We was awarded some tens of thousands now proceed to the next level of the of dollars for the injury and trauma explanatory filter. Is the event an IP caused by the accident. Probably no (intermediate probability) event? In one would have thought any more other words, is this the sort of event about it if it were not for the fact that that doesn’t often occur but which the same man slipped on mint jelly in might occur by chance? Like win- another half a dozen or so restaurants ning the lotto. The chances are not over the next year. On each occasion great but it does happen and we are he was carrying a glass and cut his not that surprised to hear that some- hands and arms, then sued the res- one has just scooped the big one. We taurant and was awarded a generous just wish it was us. Could we explain payout. Now you start to get a little the mint jelly man in this way? The suspicious, especially if you’re an court thought not. Maybe two times insurance company. A guy slips on he might have got away with it, but mint jelly and injures himself. Bad not six. So we proceed to the next luck, we pay him his claim. The guy level of the explanatory filter. The

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next level of the filter involves SP in completely naturalistic terms with (small probability) events. Small no call on outside help to explain probability events do not in them- anything. If successful, the empiri- selves require intelligent design. Ex- cal detectability of intelligent causes tremely unlikely events occur all the may render intelligent design a fully time. Suppose a coin is flipped 1000 . This is certainly times and the result recorded each the hope of the Intelligent Design time. There are 21000 or approximately movement. 300 10 equally probable outcomes. The Criticisms of the Design outcome obtained has an extremely Argument low probability of occurring but Despite the attraction of the design it did happen. What would be re- argument, it is impossible to ignore ally clever is for the outcome to be potential problems. Indeed it would predicted before the event actually be hazardous to do so. Although happened. This is what Dembski Behe has been championed by many calls specification or fabrication. So, for reviving the design argument, at the third level of the filter we ask some are concerned that he has set if there is any reason why the mint it up for future destruction. The jelly man might have fabricated this concern is that Behe has a two-tiered SP event. If yes, Design. view of design, where those things Or, alternatively, had he by some that can be explained by natural very remote chance been very un- processes such as natural selection, fortunate and had no motive for have evolved and things that can- slipping on mint jelly so frequently. not be explained are evidence for If yes, Chance. Obviously one must intelligent design and by inference, conclude that he designed the event. a creator. For example, Behe suggests He discovered a way to make seem- that the argument for design of hae- ingly easy money and the court ruled moglobin is weak because given my- that he had fabricated or designed oglobin as a starting point the change the whole event. to haemoglobin is a small one and in his opinion likely to have occurred The strength of Dembski’s contribu- by evolutionary processes.25 How- tion to the design argument is that ever, the blood clotting mechanism it provides a analytical method for shows evidence of design because detecting design. The success of all of the components are needed for this approach will depend upon the mechanism to work and have no whether biologists are able to apply function on their own and therefore this method to living systems and the system is irreducibly complex.26 demonstrate empirically the exist- This obviously creates some con- ence of intelligent design. Modern fusion and the obvious question, science has generally defined itself

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“Is only the clotting of blood fear- revealed in nature, but what does a fully and wonderfully made, but not predator like a lion teach us about haemoglobin itself?” Thus Behe’s God? Darwin asked the same ques- irreducible complexity is often ac- tions and concluded that there was cused of being simply a God of the just “too much misery in the world” gaps theory. In other words God is to accept design: “I cannot persuade used to explain things that science myself that a beneficent and om- doesn’t yet have an explanation for. nipotent God would have designedly In the review of Darwin’s Black Box, created the Ichneu-monidae [wasps published in Nature, Coyne says that capture caterpillars and paralyse “If the shows us them for their larvae to parasitise anything, it is that we get nowhere and eventually kill] with the express by labelling our ignorance ‘God’”.27 intention of their feeding within the Even Christians get nervous about living bodies of caterpillars, or that a theories because cat should play with mice”.28 they have been caught out in the Dembski’s response to this criticism past. Science progresses so rapidly of Intelligent Design is that design that what appears as gaps today does not have to be perfect. We recog- are filled in by scientific knowledge nise computer software or operating tomorrow and God is pushed further systems such as Windows as being and further back. Science requires designed but most people find them experimental data and theories to be to be less than perfect. From a scien- falsifiable. It is not good enough in tific perspective Dembski argues that science to simply say ‘science doesn’t just because nature doesn’t appear have the answers so God must have to us to be perfect doesn’t mean that done it’. design cannot be detected. At any While Behe’s idea of irreducible com- rate, tells us that evil has plexity has appeal at the molecular entered this world and what we level of life, problems arise when see now is not what God initially we consider life at the level of entire intended, so we should expect to see functional organisms. Many of the a creation that shows evidence of a amazing and beautifully complex good designer but also evidence of it biochemical systems at which we having been perverted by evil. marvel also make a functioning pred- Conclusion ator or parasite. As we look at nature The design argument is not new. and realise that the whole system is What is original in the work of built on a system of death and decay Behe and Dembski is the analytical we are tempted to ask ‘What sort of approach they take to design. The God would create that?’ According reader probably should be aware to Romans 1:20, God’s character is

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that Dembski describes Intelligent So what do the recent developments Design as theologically minimalist, in the design argument teach us? ie, by this he means that Intelligent For many observers a beautiful Design in no way hinges on the sunset, a rocky mountain stream or Genesis account of creation, nor any the flight of a bird will be evidence particular age interpretation of Gen- enough that God exists. Speaking esis. To quote Dembski “... Intelligent for ourselves, our study of biology Design presupposes neither a creator continues to inspire awe at the amaz- nor … It detects intelligence ing complexity and beauty of life. We without speculating about the na- concur with the writer of Romans, ture of the intelligence … It is the that God is adequately revealed in empirical detectability of intelligent nature. But while Christians may design or order that renders Intelli- be convinced that design in nature gent Design a fully scientific theory, points to a Creator-God, the general and distinguishes it from the design scientific community has not been arguments of philosophers, or what persuaded. Perhaps the more scien- has traditionally been called natural tific approach of the recent Intelligent theology”.29 While some will be un- Design theorists such as Behe and comfortable with this approach, the Dembski, will encourage evolution- fact that Intelligent Design has not ary scientists to look beyond purely been defined in terms of chronology, naturalistic mechanisms to explain age, or theology, has enabled people the complexity and meaning of life. from various positions on the origins If evolutionary scientists are con- debate to engage in the development vinced that is limited in of the Intelligent Design movement. its explanatory power and that there Even people of quite divergent beliefs is evidence for an intelligence behind such as Jews, , Hare Krish- the universe then perhaps they will nas and agnostics have joined the be open to considering that this in- movement because they see it as an telligence is the God of the universe honest attempt to search for answers who wants a deep and personal rela- to origin issues without the severe tionship with his crowning creative restrictions of scientific naturalism. If masterpiece – human beings. the Intelligent Design movement ac- Discussion Questions complishes nothing other than bring- 1. What differences/similarities do ing together Christian professionals, you see between Paley’s watch- and others who have problems with maker style argument and Behe’s accepted naturalistic evolutionary irreducible complexity? theory, we can expect success, and 2. How do you think that Behe’s a greater understanding of the crea- ideas are more supportive of tion process. (God began

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life millions of years ago with the Probe Ministries ability to evolve, thus ‘natural’ www.probe.org processes have produced what we see today) or of progressive Origins creation (God has been involved www.origins.org in progressive creative events Talk Origins Archive over millions of years) rather www.talkorigins.org than recent creation (God created a perfect world about 6000 years ago)? www.arn.org

3. How do you consider Behe’s ir- The American Scientific Affiliation reducible complexity to be a ‘God www.calvin.edu of the gaps’ argument? Canadian Scientific Affiliation 4. Finding evidence for intelligent www.csca.ca design in biochemical systems seems like good evidence for the existence of a Creator. But these www.discovery.org systems at times produce para- sites, predators, and the whole Leadership University earth system of death and decay. www.leaderu.com How do you explain such prob- *Search these sites using the key- lems with design at the ecological level of life? words: intelligent design, Behe or Dembski 5. Are the arguments of the recent Intelligent Design movement References more likely to convince people of 1. Paley, W (1828) . the than Paley’s American Tract Society, New watchmaker style arguments? York. p9–10. Comment. 2. Behe, M J (1996) Darwin’s Black 6. With the advance of science and Box: The Biochemical Challenge to its ability to offer an explanation Evolution. The Free Press, New for the natural world in what York. p31–35. sense might Romans 1:20 be less 3. Hitching, F cited in Dawkins, R applicable to the modern mind? (1985) The Blind Watchmaker. W Helpful Internet Sites W Norton, London. p86–87. 4. Dawkins, R (1985) The Blind www.christianityonline.com Watchmaker. W W Norton, Lon- don. p87. Geoscience Research Institute (SDA Church) 5. Ibid, p77–110. www.grisda.org 6. Simpson, G G cited in Dembski,

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W A (ed) (1998) Mere Creation: Sci- 18. Dose, K (1988) The origin of life: ence, and Intelligent Design. more questions than answers. Intervarsity Press, Illinois. p25. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 13:348–356. 7. Dawkins, R (1989) The Selfish Gene. , 19. Behe, M J (1996), Op cit, p176. Oxford. p1. 20. Darwin, C (1872) Origin of Species, 8. cited in Dembski, W A (ed) (1998) 6th ed (1988). New York University Mere Creation: Science, Faith and Press, New York. p154. Intelligent Design. Intervarsity 21. Dawkins, R (1985), Op cit, p1. Press, Illinois. p26. 22. Ibid, p21. 9. Behe, M J (1996), Op cit, p41. 23. Dembski, W A (ed) (1998) Mere 10. Ibid, p42–44. Creation: Science, Faith and Intel- 11. Ibid, p39. ligent Design. Intervarsity Press, Illinois. p98–108. 12. Ibid, Ch 4–7. 24. This illustration of the explana- 13. Miller, S L and Orgel, L E (1974) tory filter was used by Paul The Origins of Life on Earth. Pren- Nelson in a presentation at the tice Hall, New Jersey. Conference on Science and Faith, 14. Miller, S L (1987) Which organic Andrews University. Dembski compounds could have occurred uses a case of electoral fraud to on the pre-biotic earth? Cold illustrate the filter in Mere Crea- Spring Harbour Symp. Quant. Biol tion: Science, Faith and Intelligent 52:17–27. Design. 15. Behe, M J (1996), Op cit, 25.Behe, M J (1996), Op cit, p207. p166–170. 26. Ibid, p204. 16. Meyer, S C (1998) The explana- 27. Coyne, J A (1996) God in the de- tory power of design. DNA tails. Nature 383, p227–228. and the origin of information, in Dembski, W A (ed) Mere Crea- 28. Darwin, F (ed) cited in Dembski, tion: Science, Faith and Intelligent W A (2000) Intelligent design is Design. Intervarsity Press, Illinois. not optimal design. Discovery p116–119. Institute internet site (www.dis- covery.org) 17. Bradley, W L and Thaxton, C B (1994) Information and the origin 29. Dembski, W A (ed) (1998), Op cit, of life, in Moreland, J P (ed) The p17. Creation Hypothesis. Intervarsity Press, Illinois. p173–196.

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