Macroeconomic Drivers of Leadership
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FEEDING THE BEAST: MACROECONOMIC DRIVERS OF LEADERSHIP RESPONSES TO FOREIGN POLICY ACTION AND THE GENDERED CONSEQUENCES FOR HUMAN TRAFFICKING ___________________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School At the University of Missouri-Columbia _________________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _________________________________________________________ by KATHERINE PERRY Dr. A. Cooper Drury, Dissertation Supervisor MAY 2019 1 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled FEEDING THE BEAST: MACROECONOMIC DRIVERS OF LEADERSHIP RESPONSES TO FOREIGN POLICY ACTION AND THE GENDERED CONSEQUENCES FOR HUMAN TRAFFICKING Presented by Katherine Perry, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. __________________________________________________ Dr. A. Cooper Drury _________________________________________________ Dr. Stephen Quackenbush __________________________________________________ Dr. Jonathan Krieckhaus __________________________________________________ Dr. Bryce Reeder __________________________________________________ Dr. Rebecca Scott 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. A. Cooper Drury, and each of my dissertation committee members, Dr. Stephen Quackenbush, Dr. Jonathan “Vanya” Krieckhaus, Dr. Bryce Reeder, and Dr. Rebecca Scott, for their continued support of my graduate education and for overseeing this project. A special thank you to Dr. Heather Ba for the many hours she dedicated to helping me revise and overcome. Thank you, to my Village of Women, who have made me the scholar, friend, mother, teacher, mentor, and human, that I am today. Each one of you has lifted me up with your advice, your kindness, your friendship, and your example of what it means to be a phenomenal woman. In big ways and small ways, I owe my perseverance and determination to all of you. Dr. Rachel Bauer, Dr. Adriana Boersner, Hanna Brant, Dr. Courtney Burns, Kate Busselle, Dr. Farhat Haq, Dr. Joan Hermsen, Audra Jenkins, Dr. Kate Kelley, Myunghee Lee, Christy Lincoln, Dr. Molly Moore, Dr. Amanda Murdie, Dr. Veronica Newton-Burke, Isabella “Bella” Parker, Mary Peterson, Dr. Leona Rubin, Dr. Gwendolyn Sams, Payel Sen, Dr. Robin Walker, Randi Webster, Dr. Tiffanesha Williams, Dr. Carrie Winship, Evonnia Woods. And to all of the unnamed, often unseen women who are fighting and learning and working and loving and living and thriving every day for a better world. Thank you, to Dr. Kenneth Bryant, Jr., for being an amazing friend, graduate student mentor from my first year to today, impeccable scholar, and genuinely wonderful person I am so proud to know. Thank you, more than I can ever say, to Dr. Tobias Gibson and Scout Gibson for being friends who became family and for taking this journey with me for the last 13 years. Thank you to my family, especially to my mom, Laura Markley, for her love and unconditional support all the years of my life, and to my dad, Robert Davis, for his steady dedication to my future, constant support in every way, and love that never wavers. And, forever and always, to my children, River, Willow, and Briar. You have been worth every moment, all the hard things and all the wonderful things, that brought me to this day. My love for you will never end. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ ii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................1 Literature Review, Theory, Hypotheses 2. FOREIGN POLICY AND WOMEN’S RIGHTS ..................................................34 Sanctions, Government Spending on Primary Education, and Women’s Rights 3. FOREIGN POLICY AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING ..........................................55 Sanctions, Military Force, Government Public Spending, and Human Trafficking Response 4. INDONESIA ...........................................................................................................85 A Case Vignette 5. CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................141 Discussion of Findings and Suggestions for Moving Forward APPENDIX 1. FIGURES AND TABLES FROM CHAPTER 2 .................................................148 2. FIGURES AND TABLES FROM CHAPTER 3 .................................................152 3. FIGURES AND TABLES FROM CHAPTER 4 .................................................157 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................160 VITA ................................................................................................................................181 iii ABSTRACT How do the gendered macroeconomic and macropolitical structures of the international system exacerbate the rise in human trafficking? In this dissertation project, I use a mixed method approach to examine the relationship between domestic leadership responses to foreign policy actions and how those responses lead to rises in human trafficking in the target state. I begin with cross-national, quantitative models to illustrate that following two different types of foreign policy action, namely, economic sanctions and military force, domestic leaders are driven by the macropolitical interstate system to choose between hoarding finite resources among elites within the target state or redistributing those resources among the populace. I argue that when leaders choose to hoard resources, the populace suffers from lack of social program support and women are particularly vulnerable under such conditions. Leadership focus on self-preservation reduces government support for public programs such as anti-trafficking policy. The populace is then much more likely to choose illicit economic activities such as human trafficking to survive and without support for anti-trafficking in the target state, human trafficking flourishes. The macroeconomic structure of global capitalism relies on cheap labor and cheap goods which specifically reduces the options for women under times of financial duress, and women will suffer significantly as government spending on safety net programs is reduced. I support the quantitative results using a qualitative case study on Indonesia, which I develop using historical documents and resources. Ultimately, this project highlights the importance of developing anti-trafficking policies that do more than punish individual perpetrators but instead, acknowledge the negative impacts of the macroeconomic and macropolitical structures in international relations and how those structures significantly harm women throughout the world. iv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Every year, thousands of people are trapped in a system of modern slavery. They are exploited, body and mind, and discarded as disposable commodities. This epidemic-level system of abuse is found in every region of the world, on every continent, in every country. Both men and women are victims and perpetrators, the rich and the poor alike are entangled in its machinations, adults, children, and infants suffer under its weight, and every race, ethnicity, language, and religion is impacted by this heinous enterprise. Human trafficking is a global problem that demands a global solution and yet, most of the academic literature and policy prescriptions on human trafficking apply a victim-centered, bottom-up approach to this issue. Anti-trafficking laws place the responsibility for ending human slavery on the backs of everyday citizens and local courts and law enforcement officials. Very few efforts to address human trafficking mention the role of the state, or more importantly, the role of the international system in contributing to this global problem. As a consequence, we know very little about the impact policies have on trafficking in the international arena. In this dissertation project, I address this oversight by examining the impact of the actors and institutions which hold the most power in the world in advancing the macropolitical and macroeconomic drivers of human trafficking. I argue that the widely supported structures of the interstate system are primarily centered on gendered, structural violence and that these structures create a trickle-down effect that exacerbates human trafficking. The international embrace of neoliberal capitalism compounded by globalization and masculinized versions of financial risk taking has resulted in a widening of the gap in resources and wealth between the rich and the poor and accelerated the corporate reliance on cheap goods and cheap labor that leaves massive sections of the world population in abject poverty, and women in the world uniquely 1 impoverished. The global embrace of heavily masculinized, nationalistic, sovereignty focused, security driven violence has resulted in increased instability at the national level and rapidly rising migration flows that has left massive sections of the world population in serious risk, and women in the world uniquely endangered. States demonstrate their allegiance to these systems by implementing foreign policy actions that