Urbanisation, Development and Socio Cultural Changes in Malaysia

著者 YOSHIMURA Mako 出版者 Institute of Comparative Economic Studies, Hosei University journal or Journal of International Economic Studies publication title volume 17 page range 107-128 year 2003-03 URL http://hdl.handle.net/10114/696 JoumaloflntemationalEconomicS[udies(2003),No.17,107-128 o2003ThelmstituteofCompamtiveEconomicStudics,HoseiUniversity

Urbanisation,DevelopmentandSocioCulturalChanges inMalaysia＊

MakoYOshimura FtJC"lZyq/SoCjα/SCje"CCS,ＨＯＳｅｊＵ"ive）Tｊｊｙ

1．Introduction

Sincethe1970,s,theMalaysianeconomy-anditscapitalcity,KualaLumpur-de- velopedatalcmarkablerate,causingdramaticsocio-culmralchangesintheurbanareas・ Malaysiaisamulti-ethnicnationcomprisingMalays，Chinese，Indiansandotherethnic groups,Thegovernmentpolicy,especiallybeginningwiththeNewEconomicPolicy(NER l970-1990)wastoencourageMalaystoenterthemodemsectors・Thisinasenseledto the‘UrbanisationoftheMalays，andcaused,amongstothereffects,theMalaypopulation inKualaLumpurtoincleasesignificantlyThepoliciesthatsucceededtheNEP-viz･ theNationalDevelopmentPolicy(NDR1991-2000)andtheNationalVisionPolicy(NVR 2001-2010)－continuedthistendency､Whiletherehavebeenlecentdiscussionsontherise ofthe`newmiddleclass(es)，inSoutheastAsiancountries,inthecaseofMalaysia,itis necessarytoincludethefactorｓsuchasethnicity,genderandnationalityindiscusSionson thesocio-culturalsituation KualaLumpur,withapopulationofL37million(Z000Census)istheadministrative andeconomiccentre，ａｓwellasthecapitalcityofMalaysia・Thecityprovidedample employmentopportumties,andtheconsequentinHuxofMalayyouthschangeditsstrucmre ofpopulationandemployment､AstheMalaysianeconomydeveloped,iteventuallyfaceda seriouslabourshortageespeciaUyinsomespecihcsectorsandthosesectorshadtodepend onfbreignworkers・AlsqlocalyouthsbegantochoosethenatureofjObsandworking placesmtheurbanareas、 Thispaperexaminestheemploymentandsocio-culturalchangesinKualaLumpurl broughtaboutbytheeconomicgrowthinMalaysiaespeciallysincethel970s．

2．UrbanisationandEthnicPopulatioｎｉｎＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕｒ

UndertheBritishcolonialrule,KualaLumpurHourishedwhenRajaAbdullａｈｓｔｒｕｃｋａｖｅｉｎｏｆｔｉｎｉｎＡｍｐａｎｇｉｎｌ８５７１．ＹａｐＡｈＬｏｙ,whowasappointedas‘KapitanChina，，in l868，wasinchargeoftheadministrationｏｆＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕｒｕｎｔｉｌｈｉｓｄｅａｔｈｉｎｌ８85,after which,itwastakenovertheBritishcolonialadministration、KualaLumpurdevelopedinto atin-miningtownandcommemialcentre・ThetownwasmainlypopulatedbytheChinese andthebusinesssectorwasdominatedbythisparticularethnicgroup(Gullick,1955;Mid- dlebrook,1951)．Thefirstpopulationcensusinl891showedthat7396ofpopulationin *TⅥeauthorwouldlike[othankDLColinNicholasfbrkindsuppolTandcheCking･Yet,allremainingelTorsal巳nnne．■

107 Urbanisation､Developmentａ肱dSocioCulturalChnngesinMaIaysiａ

1,200,000 pOther mlndian 圏Chinese 1Ⅲ000,000 図Malay

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

０１８９１１９０１１１２１３１４７５７７０８０g1 Sou1℃e:CompiledfromManiiISighSidhulI970Lp､13;JabatanPerangkaanMalaysia[1983];JabatanPerang‐ kaanMalaysia[19951 FigurelPopulationbyethnicgroupiｎＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｍ１８９１－ｌ９９１

KualaLumpurwasChineseanduntillndependenceinl957,theaveragewasabove6096 (Figurel).KualaLumpurbecamethecapitalcityoftheFederatedMalayStates-andthe cent1℃ofcolonialadministrationinBritishMalaya-inl898 Smcel957,theMalaypopulationhasbeenincreasinginKualaLumpur・Duringthe Britishcolonialperiod,itaccountedfOronly9-1296butincrｅａｓｅｄｆｒｏｍｌ５９６ｉｎｌ９５７ｔｏ 25％inl970DuringtheimplementationoftheNewEconomicPolicy（1971-90)that encouragedMalaystoenterthemodemsectors，theMalaypopulationinKualaLumpur increasedfromll3,642ｉｎｌ９７０(25％)tｏ４４Ｌ７４７ｉｎｌ９９１（40％)．1,1991,theChinese populationdroppedto47％－thefirsttimeinthehistoryofKualaLumpurthatithasdropped below５０％(Figurel)． KualaLumpurwasdividedintofburareasclassifiedbythecolonialadministration inaccordancewiththeStateCouncilandNewBuildingRulel884：commemialareas， manufacmringareas,1℃sidentialareasandentertainment/amusementareas(LimHenKow， 1976,ｐ50).Sincethen,theresidentialareasinKualaLumpurweresegregatedbyethnicity bythecolonialgovemment(Lee,1976,ｐ､43;Butcher,1979,pll6;Horii,1989,ｐ､249).As such,spatialsegregationofethnicgroupsinKualaLumpurhadexistedsinceitsfOunding (MohdRazaliAgus,1992,ｐ39)． TheChineseandlndianstendedtoresideindistrictswherethereweremembersof theircommunitywhospokesimilarlanguages・TheMalays,ｗｈｏｗｅ１℃mostlygovemment employees,andthelndians,livedinquartersprovidedfbrthem TheChinesepredominately1℃sidedinfOurmaioralCas：Chinatown,tｈｅＮewVil- lagesthatwereincolporatedthroughurbanexpansion,localitiesliningtheolderinter-city routes,andthemanufacturingzones(Sidhu,1978,ｐ､13).Thelndianswereconcentratedm twoareas,Sentul(Batu)andBricklields(SungaiBesi-Seputehareas).Therewererailway

1０８ MakoYbshimuTa workshopsinthesealmsandtheybecameenclavesfOrlargenumbersofIndianworkers・ MohdRazaliAgus(1992)analysedthespatialsegregationinKualaLumpurfOrl970 andl990､HisstudyshowedthatMalayswerethemajorityinonlyonearea,Titiwangsain l970,whiletheChinesewerethemajorityinalltheotheralcasexceptfOrLembahPantai -wheretheywereoutnumberedbytheMalays-althoughnoethnicgroupconstimtedthe

Ｂａｔｕ Kepong

Titiwangsa

Lembah Pantai Bukitit Bintangang

Lege ､。 Ⅲ己 Malay

ＳｅｐSeputeh Chinese Sungai Besi

Source:Mohd・RagaIiAgus［1992],Ｍａｐ４＆5,pp43-44・ MaplMajorityEthnicPopulationinParliamentaryAreas,KualaLumpuB1970

109 Urbanisatjon,DevcIopmentandSocioCulturaIChangesinMalaysia majorityhereByl990,theMalayshadbecomethemajorityinBamandLembahPantai， inadditiontoTitiwangsa,whereastheChinesedominatedonlythleeareas：BukitBintang， SeputehandKepong(Ｍａｐｓｌａｎｄ２)． WhileitseemsthattheMalayshavetakenoverlalgesectionsofthecity,Titiwangsa LembahPantaiandBatua１℃ａ1℃aswheretheMalaystraditionallyinhabitedInl970,62％

Batu Kepong

Titiwangsa

Lembah Pantai Bukitiｔ Bintang､９

Legend

MaIay

Seputeh Chinese Sungai Besi

Source:MohdRagaliAgus［1992],Ｍａｐ４＆５，pp43-44， Map2Majori[yEthnicPopulationinParliamentaryAreas,KualaLumpurJ990

110 MakoYbshimura ofMalaysinKualaLumpurwereconcentratedinthesethreeareasandthisincreasedto７５％inl990Similarly,ｉｎ1970,60％oftheChinesewereconcentratedinthreeareas-Bukit Bintang,SeputehandKepong-anditaccounteｄfor６２％oftheminl990(MohdRazali Agus,1992,T1able3a,ｐ､41；Ｍａｐ６，ｐ45;Ｍａｐ７，ｐ､46;ｐ､47).Whiledrasticchangeshave takenplaceasmoreMalaysmovedtoKualaLumpuEethnicallymixedresidencesdidnot takeoffasexpectedandthebasicpattemsにmainthesame．

3．StructuralChangesofEmploymentinKualaLumpur

ThestmctureofemploymentinMalaysiadramaticallychangedduetotheprocessof economicdevelopmentsincethel970s、Themainchangesinemploymentare：（１）the traditionalethnicdivisionoflabourtransfOnnedbytheNewEconomicPolicy（1971-90） whichencouragedMalaystoenterthemodernsectors;(2)femalelabourpromotedespe‐ ciallyinthelabour-orientedmanufacturingindustries;ａｎｄ(3)thefOreignlabourutilisedin manysectorsbecauseoflabourshortages(YOshimura,l998a).Theseeconomicchangesin MalaysiaalsoaffectedchangesinemploymentandsocialstructuresinKualaLumpul： Figure2showstheemploymentbysectorsinKualaLumpurbetweenl986anｄｌ９９ａＩｎｌ９９５,thisconsistedofagriculture(0.1％),mining(0.3％),manufacturing（14％),ＣＯ､‐ stluction(9％),transport(6％),trade(22％),linance（16％)ａｎｄgovernment(20％)．The ma1orsectorsaretrade，government，financeandmanufacturing・Whileemploymentin- creaseｄｂｙ３０９６ｆｉｒｏｍ５６２,OOOinl985to750,O00inl995,employmentinthemanufactur- ingsectorroseby70％fiPom64,Ｏ００ｔｏｌＯ６,OOOeventhoughthissectorislessimportantto KualaLumpurthaninSelangororJohor・WithKualaLumpurbeingthecentにfOrtradeand financefOrthecountry,employmentintradesectorroseby30％ｆｒｏｍ131,000ｔｏ１６６，０００， andtheemploymentinfinancesectorroseby６０％ｆｒｏｍ72,OOOtoll6,O00betweenl985 andl995．

800

700

600 □OtherService 国Government 500 図Finance 図Ｔ｢ade ４００ mTransport

３００回Facility 圏Construction

200 函Manufacturing ■Mining 1００ pAgricuIture

0 １９８５１９９０１９９１１９９２１９９３１９９４１９g5 Source:Compiledfmmunpub]isheddatKlprovide(IbyEconomicPlanUnit・ Figure2EmploymeminKualaLumpu凪］g85-l995

1１１ Urbanisation,DeveIopmentandSocioCullumIChangesinMalaysia

KualaLumpurisalsotheadministrativecentreinthecount1y・UndertheNewEco- nomicPolicy（1971-90),the`Malay-isation，oftheeconomywaspromotedandemploy- mentopportunitiesmcreasedinthepublicsectoHOneineveryfOurnewjobopportunities fOrMalaysinthetertiaryindustrywascreatedbythepublicsectorlnKualaLumpur,60- 80％ofpublicsectorrelatedjobswiththegovernment(i､e・governmentadministration， legalandadministration,securityservice,etc.）wereheldbyMalays・Notsulprisingly therefOrathemajorityofgovemmentemployeesareMalays・Howevel;dueto6nancial deiicitsandprivatisation，thetotalemploymentinthegovernmentsectordeclcasedfrom l67,OOOinl985tol46,OOOinl995,decreasingfrom30％ｔｏ２０％・ Historically,themajorityofpopulationinKualaLumpurhadbeenChinese・Theethnic compositionofthoseemployedinallthesectorsinKualaLumpurisMalay(37％),Chinese (46％),andother(17％).Howeverinthel980s,theethnicstructureofemploymentinKuala Lumpurbegantochange,especiallywithregaldtoMalayproportion(Figure3)． ThechangesinemploymentinKualaLumpur1℃flectedthepositionofKualaLumpur inthenationaleconomy、Thedeclineofprimaryindustriessuchastheagriculmraland fb1℃strysectoEfbrexample，isnaturalfOracapitalcity、ThenumberofMalaymanage- ment/administrativestaff,however,inclCasedintheshrinkingsectors,reHectingtheMalay‐ isation，oftheestate2sectorinthel98０，s・ThenumberofskilledconstructionWorkers， includingcallpenters,decreasedwhilethedemandfOrlabourandhumanlcsourcesfOrthe constructionsectormcreasedasdevelopmentprqjectsamundKualaLumpurwerestepped upThisledtoasenousshortageofhumanresourcesandcauseddependenceonfO1℃ign labourtobedeepened・ Occupationsdominatedbywomenalcthoseinteaching，themedical，clericaland domesticservices,thegarmentsindustryandsuchThefemaleratioinprofessionaland technicaloccupationsisampliliedbythefemale-dominatedpositionssuchasschoolteach‐ ersandnurses・Menhoweverdominateothercategoriesintheprofessionalandtechnical ００００００００ｍｍ伽加加印加叩辞１６４２０８６４２１１１１ □Other/Female 国Chinese/Female 囚Malay/Female mOthe"Ｍａｌｅ回Chinese/Ｍａｌｅ '111 園Malay/Ｍａｌｅ園Malay

lＩｌｌ

蕊11vii1p`:l(,`零３蕨7:`《談１$`ﾖﾎﾞ1；隷蝿 `､s`i;1＄;感:;§ 9Ｆ｡ Source:CompiledfiomJnbatnnPerangkaanMalaysial983andl９９５．Ｆigure30ccupationinKualaLumpur,Ｉ９８０Ｋｌｎｄｌ９９１

1１２ MakoYOshimura sectors・Theyalsodominatethemanagementandadministrativejobs・Thereisthefemi- nisationoflabourinthetraditionallyfemale-orientedjobssuchasclericaljobs,domestic service,teachingandnursingbutitisinterestingtonotethatmanyMalaymenalsowork inclericaljobs,whicharegenerallyconsideredtobetypicallyfemale-dominated・Inthe l991census，ｉｔｗａｓｓｈｏｗｎｔｈａｔｔｂｅｒｅｗｅｒｅｍｏｒｅＭａｌaymaleclerksthanMalayfemale clerksinKualaLumpur・Thiscouldbeduetothegreateremploymentopportunitiesinthe governmentsectorinthecity ThemanufacturingsectorislessimportanttotheKualaLumpureconomy,withitcon- stitutingonlyl4先ofthecity，semployedpopulationWhilethereweremorewomenthan menintheelectricalandelectronicsindustryinl980,thisratiowasreversedinl990・The labour-orientedindustriessuchastheelectricalandelectronicsindustryandthegarment andclothesindustrypleferredunskilledfemalelabourandmanyyoungMalaywomenwere employedundertheNEPLThelcversalinl990occurrednotbecauseofthechangesinthe characteristicsofindustries,butpossiblyduetothereductionoflabour-orientedproduction、 Whilebig-scalemulti-nationalcorporationsinthegarmentandclothesindustrygenerally employedmoreMalaywomen,thereweremoreChineseinthefactoriesincludingtheChi- nesesmall-andmedium-scaleindustries．

4．LabourShortagesandForeignLabour

TheshortageoflabourisacuteintheMalaysianeconomyespeciaUyinsectorssuchas construction,estate,domesticservices,ａｎｄmanufacturingNotsurprisingly,thesesectors heavilydependonfbreignlabour､TheshortagewasstructuraLasontheotherhandthere wasunemploymentfromthel970stoearlyl980s､Seriousunemploymentoccurredduring themid-1980slccession,whichlaterrecoveredgradually・Theunemploymentraterapidly decreasedt０２．８％inthel990，suntiltheeconomiccrisisinmid-1997． Labourshortagesbecameheightenedasyoungpeoplebegantoavoidworkinthose sectorsbecauseofindustrialisationandimprovedlivingstandards、First,thewageslevels alCgenerallylowcompalcdtoothermanufacturingandservicesectors・Second,thework istoughandhoursarespentinpoorworkingconditions（Le、underhotsun,withheat and/ordust,dirtyplaces,etc.).Third,skilledorsemi-skilledjobs,professionalortechnical positionsareprefelT巳dtounskilledworkinconstructionsites，estates，etc・duetorising levelsofeducation・FOurth,the妃arealtemativejobopportunitiesavailableinothersectors becauseofthegenerallabourshortageinthecountry・Fifththerearenegativeimagesof thoseindustries,workersasbeing``poor，，,“dirty，，,``less-educated,，,andsuchSixth,white- collaredjobsandofficeworkisfavouredwithpenetrationofaconsumption,westemand urbancultulc(YOshmura,l997a)． Thus,theyouthsavoidunskilledmanualworkbecausetheyconsiderjobssuchasman- uallabourmconstructionsites，estatesandfactories，domesticservice，etc・aslow-paid， low-status,withlowcaleerprospects、TheypreferworkinginofYicesorfactorieswithair- conditioningandwithbetterworkingconditionsmurbanareas(YOshimural997a;1997b)． Often,theywouldeven"wait”fOrbetterjobs(MalaysiaMinistryofLabour,1987/８８un- dated,ｐ､2)．Inthesecircumstances,itwouldbedifnculttobringyouthsbacktounskilled manualjobsevenifthewagesandworkingconditionsweretoimprove,astheybelieve thesearejobsbestsuitedfbrfOreignworkers．

1１３ Urbanisation,DcvelopmentamdSocioCulluralChangesinMalaysia

Duringtheeconomicgrowthinthel970s,thenumberofundocumented("illegal"） fOreignworkersincl巴asedlnthe1980,s，however,thisbecameasenoussocialproblem inthecountryastheybecamevisible、ThefOreignworkerswhohadworkedfOrestates， FELDAschemes,etc・infOrestareasgraduallycaｍｅｔｏｗｏｒｋｉｎｕｒｂａｎａｌｅａｓａｓｔｈｅｄｅｍａｎd fbrlabourincreasedwiththeincreaseindevelopmentprqjectsandsmall-scaleservicesec‐ tonTheMalaysiangovernmentdirectedregistrationofundocumentedworkersthroughthe RegularisationProgramofMigrantIndonesianWOrkerswithoutPelmitS(PｍｇｍｍＰと、""‐ hcJ〃化"｡、α"ｇ７ＺｍｐａｌＺｊ〃、｡ｂ"esjα)mainlyfOrestateworkersandconstructionworkers inl989,andfOllowmgthis,theAmnestyProgramfOrdomestichelpers、１，１９９１，thegov- ernmentpermittedtheemploymentoffOreignlabourinthemanufacturingsectoraswell3・ InfOnnationonfOreignimmigrantHowintoMalaysiasuffersfromalackofaproper statisticalbase・AzizahKassimestimatesthereare2to25millionfOreignworkersinclu｡‐ ingdocumentedandundocumentedWorkers,whilethegovemmentestimatesthistobeL7 millionThetradeunions,however,putthisestimateat3million・Aligurｅｏｆ２ｍｉｌｌｉｏｎｌｃｐ1℃sentslO96ofthe20､６９millionpopulationinMalaysia，andconstitutes25％ofthe entirelabourfo1℃e(includingfOreignworkers)of814million・so,onefOurthofthelabour fOrceisnowfOreignandtheMalaysianeconomydependsheavilyonfblcignlabourinmost sectors・ Betweenl9９２ａｎｄ1995,650,000T1emporaryEmploymentPasses(TEP)weleissued toregisteredfOreignWorkers・Thecategorieswere:construction(31％),estate(31％),do- mestichelp(22％),manufacturing(14％),andservices(2％).Themajorissuancelocations areKualaLumpurJohorandSelangor(Figure4)． Morethanhalf(57％）ofTEPsweIcissuedinKualaLumpur－７１％fbrdomestic helpers,５２％fbrconstmctionworkers,７８％fOrserviceworkers,ａｎｄ５９％fOrmanufactur岩 ingworkers・However,itisnotalwaysnecessarythattheissuinglocationsaretheirworking locations,althoughitisnecessaryfOrthemtoregisterneartheworkingplaces・Agentsof domestichelpersandcontractorsofconstructionworkersusuallyregistertheirworkersnear theworkingplaces,unlikethebigestatecompaniesheadquarteredinKualaLumpur4・ TheservicesectorhaslessthanlO,OOOregisteredfOreignworkers,rep1℃sentingonly

200,000 回Perlis ￣ 180,000 ￣￣￣回Kelantan ￣ 160,000 □Ｎ・SembiIan 篝;:i；回Melaka 140,OOO ロPerak ￣ｉｌｉｉＩｉ;12ｉ 1201OOO 国Kedah iiiliiiiiiii liilllililllilii □Trengganu 1000000 |IllIlⅢlⅢⅢ’ 霧;鱸鰍臘鍵回Pahang 8qOOO 柵柵 i澱国Penang 6qOOO 図Johore 鰯剛鰯 ;iii霧４０，０００ mSelango「剛蝋澱 |i鑿iii 曰ＫＬ２０，０００ 111蟻！ ;|鱗灘11Ｉ篝１１iii：鴎;;;罰－－－０ DomesticHeIpEstate Const｢uction SeMceManufacturing Other

Source:CompiIedfiPomunpubIisheddataprovidedbyJabatanlng｢esenMaIaysia・ Figu｢e4TbmporaryWOrkPasseslssuancebyStateinPeninsuIarMalaysia，1992-1995

1１４ MakoYbshimura

２％ofthetotalregistrationofTEPs・MostofthemworkinKualaLumpur(80％)．Itis commontoseethatmostoftheservicestaffinpetrolstationsareBangladeshimenBecause ofthelabourshortage,theservicesectorsrequirefOreignwolkers・Thehotelindustly,in particulal；hadrequestedpermissionfromthegｏｖｅｍｍｅｎｔｔｏｅｍｐｌｏｙｌＯＯ,OOOfO1℃igners duringthel998CommonwealthGames(T/ZeSmr,３Mayl997)． Asmorewomenenteredthelabourmalket-aconsequenceoftheimprovementin educationlevelsanddiversificationofjobopportunitiesfOrwomen-thedemandfOrdo‐ mestichelpersincreasedMoreover,lifestyleandvalueshavechangedwiththeincrease inincome、Furthermore,todaywomenintheurbanareasareofferedachoiceofavariety ofjobopportunities・Soevenwomenwithlesseducation,whomayhavetakenjobssuch asdomestichelpersinthepast,nowchooseotherjobs・WhileitiscommonfOrworking womentoaskfamily/relativesorneighbourstolookaftertheirchildreninruralareas,itiｓ moredifficultinurbanareas・DomesticworkinMalaysianowdependsonfOreignworkers andthesehelperssupporttheurbanlifestyleofmiddleclass(es)aswellasupperclass・Ａｌｓｏ， ithasbecome`plcstigious，fOrmiddleclasshouseholdstohaveafblEignhelper､When,due totheeconomiccrisis,thegovemmentannouncedthesuspensioｎｏｆｎｅｗ1℃gistrationoffOr- eigndomestichelpersinlateAugustl997,resistancetoitwasstrong､Thegovernmentwas criticisedfOrgoingagainstitsownpolicyofencouragingwomentoworktorelievelabour shortages・Thegovernmenteventuallywithdrewthesuspension TheissuanceofworkpermitsfbrdomestichelpersaremainlyinKualaLumpur(71％)． Amongthedomestichelpers,Indonesians(60,000or67％)alcalmostdoubleofthesecond biggestgroup,Filipinos(30,000ｏｒ29％).Yet,Filipinosdomestichelpershaveabetterrep- utationasprofessionalhelpersduetotheirprofessionalattitudes,betterHuencyinEnglish， andbettereducationalbackground・TheregistrationlevyandwagesfOrFilipinohelpersalc alsohigherthanlndonesianhelpers、 TheutilisationoffOreignlabourintheconstructionsectorisrelatedtodevelopment prQ]ectsinMalaysia・TheconstructionindustrylCquil巴salotofmanualworkersandde- pendsonfOreignlabourinthecurrentlaboursituation・Theconstructionboom,especially duringrapideconomicgrｏｗｔｈｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｅｌ９８０ｓｉｎｕｒｂａｎａｒｅａｓｓｕｃｈａｓｔｈｅＫｌａｎｇＶａｌｌｅｙ， inc1℃asedtheuseofundocumemedfOreignWorkers・Thegovemmentallowedtheemploy‐ mentoffO妃ignersatconstructionsitesinl989becauseoftheindustry，srequestsandsocial conHictsinvolvingundocumentedwolkers・Yet,evenafterthegovernmentpolicyofreg- ularisation,manyundocumentedfO1℃ignworkerscontinuedtoworkinconstructionsites、 AbouthalfofthefbICignworkerswhoworkonconstructionsitesintheKlangValleyalC undocumentedForexample,wheninearlyJulyl997,policeraidedconstructionsitesand thewolkers，quarters，１９２ｏｕｔｏｆｔｈe347fblCignworkersa汀estedattheconstmctionsite fbrthelOIShoppingComplexinPuchongwereundocumented(S“,ZJulyl997)．And attheconstructionsitefbrashoppingcomplexinBandarBaru,Bangi，１３０outofthe300 fOreignersalTestedwereundocumentedworkers(MZJ/αｙＭＪｊﾉ,，Julyl997)．ThefOnner caseshowsthat5596offOreignworkerswerenotregisteredandthelattercaseshowsthat 4396werenotregistered・ Althoughcontractorscould1℃gistertheirfOreignworkers，theyusefOreignerswith‐ outrcgistrationbecause：（１）theycankeepwageslow;(2)theycansaveonlcgistration costs,EPFs,paperwork,etc.;(3)theydonothavetoprovideproperaccommodationasper governmentguidelinesfbrworkers;(4)theycangettherequirednumberofworkerseasily whereastheywillhavetowaitfOrrecruitmentandregistrationiftheyfOllowtheproper procedulcs;(5)theycannotcontrolthenumberofworkerseasilyaftertheregistrationas

115 Urbanisation,DevelopmcntandSocioCulturaIChangesinMalay5ia theyhavetoregisterworkersfOrthreeyears;ａｎｄ(6)thesituationwiththeworkersrCmam insecul巳andunstableevenafterregistration(YOshimura,1998b,ｐ47).Pomts(1)to(3)are tosavedirectcostsandpoints(4)ｔｏ(6)aretocontrolvolume、 Theconstluctionsectorisanindustrywhichdividesconstructionworkintoparts amongsub-contractors,andtherearesub-sub-contractorswhoworkunderthesub-contractors・ Intheindustry，ssub-contractionstructure,theyearnprofitwiththepieceworkpayments， regardlessoftheirowncostsandschedules・Ｓｏ，ａｓｌｏｎｇａｓｔｈｅｒｅｉｓａｎｏｐｔｉｏｎｔｏｕｔｉｌｉse fbreigners,includingthosewhoareillegaLitwillremainastructuralproblemofthein- dustry・Recently,theindustrysufferedfiPomshortagesofskilledworkersandprofessional technicianssuchasbricklayersandcarpentersaswellasunskilledmanualWorkers５． TheconstmctionindustrysavescostbyusingundocumentedfOreignworkersThe proportionoflabourtototalcostsis30-4096intheconstructionindustry・so,ifitispossible todec1℃aｓｅｗagesfOrworkers,itwillbringareductionincostsandassuchmoreprofits、 Theaveragewageofundocumentedfbreignworkersisapproximately７０％ofMalaysian workersworkinginconstmctionsitesinandnearKualaLumpur(HalimSallehandAbdul Rashid,1997).Moreover,asoftenfeaturedinthemassmedia,thereareissuespertainingto badworkingconditionsandcircumstancessuchashardworkfOrlonghours,poorworking conditionsandenviro､ment,poorlybuiltandunhygienicaccommodationwithoutproper toiletandbathrooms,etc､clearly,therefOre,theindustrytakesadvantageofundocumented fOreignworkers Malaysiapromotesvariousdevelopmentprq]ectsSuchdevelopmentitselfcreates thestructureoffOreigners，undocumentedlabour・IffOreignersareregisteredaccordmg toproperprocedures，ｉｔｗｉｌｌｔａｋｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｅｘｐｅｎｓｅ，affectingschedulesandcostsofthe plDject・Thebigprq]ectsofthegovemment,suchasthenewKualaLumpurlntemational Ailport(KLIA)thatopenedinJunel998,aredictatedbyastrictscheduleandcostguide- lineswhichcouldnotbeallowedtochangebydelaysand/Orcostinc1℃ases、ＴｈｉｓｉｓａｌｓｏｔｈｅｃａｓｅｗｉｔｈｐublicsectorpIQlectssuchaslowcosthousingandnewtownshippmjects andalsowithprivatesectorprq]ectssuchasshoppmgcomplexesandcondominiumsinand aroundKualaLumpur・NowthatMalaysianyouthsarenotwillingtowolkinconstruction sites,fbreignlabouriscrucialfOrdevelopmentprq]ects．

5．Changesof"Job，，RecognitionofMaIayVillagersnearKualaLumpur

Ｉｎｔｈｅｌ９７０ｓ，theshortagesinthemanufacturingsectormeantascarcityoftrained humanresourcessuchasengineersandtechniciansaswellasadministrativestaff・However，ｉｎｔｈｅｌ９８０ｓ，theshortageoflabourbecamemoreseriousinsectorsinvolvingunskilled andsemi-skilledworkers・TheproblembecamethenormfOrthemanufacturingsectorb especiallysincetheunemploymentratedecreasedwhentherecessionrecoveredafterthe mid-1980s、 ThissituationdirectlyinHuencedMalayvillages（AzJ'71pLｲ"gmMalay）inadistrict (zmemﾉiinMalay)inPetaling,Selangor、SelangoristhemostdevelopedstatesulTound- ingthecapitalcity,KualaLumpur,TheMalayvillagesresearchedinl993/９４werelocated inthenorthwestofKualaLumpurwitheasyaccesstoSubangAirportandindustrialestates suchasShahAlamandKlang・Althoughthedistrictwasbetweenthemostdevelopedareas likeKualaLumpurandthebiggestindustrialestates，ｉｔｗａｓｎｏｔｓｅｅｎａｓｂｅｉｎｇａｓｄｅｖｅｌ－

1１６ MakoYOshimura

opedanareaasanothersuburbantow､,PetalmgJaya,andthelocationswithinitweICstill consideredas"villages"(Aα”""g)6． Therearellvillagesbesidessevera］ｔｏｗｎｓｉｎｔｈｅｄｉｓｔｒｉｃＬＴｂｎｏｆｔｈｅｍａlcMalay traditionalvillagesfOImedinthejungleinthel920sand30s,andtheremainingoneisa Chineｓｅ``NewVillage，，(ktJmpLI"ｇＢａ'winMalay;Ｓｊ〃Ｔｓｚｌ〃inMandarin)fbrmedaround l950/５１１ikeotherAcampul"８ｂａｒ",duringtheperiodoftheEmergency7、Thevillagers whousedtoworkintheagriculturalsector(i､e､rubbersmallholders)eventuallymovedto themanufacturingandservicesectorafterthel970，ｓａｎｄｃｏｍｍｕｔｅｔｏＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕｒａｎｄｉｎｄustrialestatesinSelangor・Factoriesinthisareahavefacedlabourshortages・ Small-andmedium-sizelocalcompaniesandfactoriesinthedistrictaremainlylo- catedinKampongBaruwheretherearemanyChinese・Thesefactoriesfacedlabourshort‐ agesandstartedusingfbreignlaboｕｒｉｎｔｈｅｌ９８０ｓ・Atfirst，theyhiredlndonesians，but laterBangladeshis(sometimes,Myanmars)inthel990sastheIndonesiansmovedtothe constructionsectorthatoffelcdhigherwages・Atthelirststage,allthefOreignerswereun- documente。(i,e､“illegal").After1992,however,factoriesr巳gisteredfOreignworkerswith thegovernment・AbouthalfoftheworkersinfactoriesinKampongBaruwerefO正igners anditwasestimatedthatthereweremorethanl,OOOinl993・InthelastlOyears,howeveE localyouthsinKampongBaruhadgonetoworkinJapan,Tniwan,theUSAandEurope8・ The1℃isaJapanesecompanyneartheMalayvillagessurveyedlntheeallyl970s whenthefactorystarteditsoperationtherewerethejunglesandfbrestsnearbyandthe companywastheonlyemployerwhooffeledwageemploymentinthearea､Thesalaryand workingconditionswelCconsideredgoodbythevillagers，Thefactorystartedproduction with300workersandincreasedtol,200workersinthel990s､MostofworkerswerefiPom theneighbourhoodand80％oftheMalayproductionworkerswerefiPomthehveMalay villagesinthearea ThecompanyrecruitedstaffthroughadvertisementsintheEnglishandMalaynews- papers(suchastheﾉＶＥｗＳｒｍ"８万mes,７１/ｉｅＳｍｌ;UlWsQ〃ＭＪﾉﾋJysja,erc.）whileproduction workerswererecmitedthroughnoticesoutsidethefactory9・ ThecompanycouldgetsufficientlabourfiPomtheneighbourhoodinthel970sand earlyl980sJnthelatel980s,howeveEthefactolybegantofacediflicultiesinmeetingits labourrequirementsandhadtorecognisetheproblemoflabourshortage・Requiringmore labourfOritsnewproductionlines，companylCcruitmentpersonnelwenttootherstates (includingSabahandSarawakinEastMalaysia)tohireworkersbutthiswasinvainlo、 so,finally,thecompanyemployedfOreignworkers、1,1996,thecompanyemployed2,200 workersofwhom240welcfOreigners（l40BangladeshisandlOOIndonesians)aswellas 300-400MalaysianfiomotherstatesinPeninsularMalaysiaand60homEastMalaysia・ ThecompanyadministrationwantedtoprioritiseMalaysiansinproductionandmanage- mentandconsidered３０％astheceilingfOrfbreignlaboun Thelabourshortagewasdueto:（１）tbelaboursituationchangedfTomunemployment intherecessionofmid-1980stoagenerallabourshortagecausedbytheeconomy，srecovely inthelatel980s；（２）thecompanywasnottheonlyplaceofworkfOrthosewhocould commutetoShahAlamandKualaLumpur;(3)thecompany，swageratesandbenefitswere notthebestanymore;(4)workingenvironmentinfactories,considered“hotanddusty"， werenotpreferlmbyyoungpeopleingeneral;ａｎｄ(5)thenewproductionlinerequired morelabourthanwhatthelocallabourcouldsupply・ThefOurthpointcamewithchanges inyoungpeople，svaluesandlifestylesthroughsocialdevelopmenLThislabourshortage wasnotonlyfOrthisJapanesecompany,ｂｕｔａ]ｓｏｆｂｒｏｔｈｅｒｃｏｍｐａｎｉｅｓｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａａｎｄｔｈｅ

1１７ Urbanisation,DeveIopmentandSocioCuIlu｢alChangcsinMalaysia Problemcouldnotbesolveddespitesomeimprovementinwagesandworkingconditjons･ ThisisalsorelatedwithMalayvillagers,attitudestowardsjobsaswellasthedevel- oPmentinthearea11・TheauthorsurveyedthoseMalayvillagers，preferencesonlocations andtypesofcompaniesinwhichtheymightwishtowork Firstly,thelocationpreferenceswere:“inorneartheirvillages''’６６％;KualaLumpur， 14％;ＳｈａｈＡｌａｍ,９％；andOtherLocation，１１％・ThosewhoplCfelTcdworkingneartheir villagescutacrossgenerations，andthispreferencewasstrongeramongwomenThose whowereolderthaｎ４０ｙｅａｒsofagepredominantlypreferredinthevillages・Amongthe youngergeneration,suchasinthoseinthat20,s，lessthanhalfpr℃ferredvillagesandthe ratioofthosewhopreferredKualaLumpurandotherlocationswasmorethanintheolder generation,Thosewhochose“OtherLocations，，wouldcommutetoanyplaceiftheycould getgoodjobopportunitieswithbetterwagesandconditions・ Thereasonsfbrchoiceoflocationsweremultiple:Z7personssaid“facilitiesandbuild- ings，，;Z2personssaid“Wages，，;ａｎｄｌ９ｐｅｒｓｏｎｓｓａｉｄ``Other，，、Thelastfactor,``other,，，was mainlyraisedbythosewhopreferredtoworkin“nearvillages，，andtheyemphasiseddis- tanceandconvemence Secondly，thepreferencesfOrtypesofcompanieswelC：Malaypnvatecompanies， 52％;Japanesecompanies,３１％;Malaysianpubliccompanies,３％;andAmericancompa- nies,３％(3％chose"Other"３％while８％gave"NoAnswer")、 ThemainreasonsfOrtheirchoicesweregenerally“Wages，，、Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ,they mentionedthattheypreferredMalaysiancompanies“becausetheyalcMalaysians，，、Some saidthattheywouldliketocontributetothecountly，sdevelopmentbyworkinginMalaysian companies・Ｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒｈａｎｄ，Japanesecompanieswe正valuedsincetherewelcmany JapanesecompaniesandtheywerecrucialtotheMalaysianeconomy、 Finally,thepreferencesfOrtheethnictypesofMalaysiancompanieswere:Malay5196； Chinese６％;Indianｓ０％；NoDifference3096；ａｎｄＮｏＡｎｓｗｅｒｌ３兜'２．Themainreasons mchoosing“Malay”were：“thesameethnicity(DCJ"gsainMalay)",“Samelanguageas wellasthecultureandcustom，，,etc、ＴｈｅｒｅspondentswhopICferredChinesecompanies constitutedlessthanl０％・ButsomesaidthatmanagementinChinesecompanieswas rationalandpracticalandthatthelocalcompanieｓｉｎｔｈｅａ1℃ａｗｅｌepredominantlyChinese small-andmiddle-sizecompaniesandofficesanyway、Theyoungergenerationdidnot alwaysprefer``Malaycompanies，，unliketheoldergeneration Hence,therearedifferencesamonggenerationsinconsiderationsandpreferencesfOr jobsandworkingplaces・TheyoungergenerationaremorefOcusedonwages,workmg conditionsandenvironment･Theyknowthatcloserplacesareconvenientbutwagesa1℃ｎｏｔａｓｇｏｏｄａｓｉｎＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕｒ,ＳｈａｈＡｌａｍａｎｄＫｌａｎｇＳｏｔｈｅｙｄｏｎｏｔａｌwayspreferworking in/nearvillagesliketheoldergenerationWhobelievethatworkingin/nearvillagesisbesL AndamongMalaysiancompanies,plcfermcefOrMalaycompaniesisverystrongwhere ethnicity，language，cultureandreligionarefactors・MalaysalsorecognisetheChinese companieshavebusinesscapabilitiesandarerationaLHowever,thepreferencefOrMalay companiesisnotfUndamentalamongtheyoungergeneration Still，thepreferencefOrthecloserworkiｎｇｐ１ａｃｅｓａｎｄｌｏｃａｌｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙｉｓｃｏmmon amongMalaysiansthroughoutthecountlyl3、Theseprefelmcesillustratetheirlifestyles andvaluesaswellastheclosetiesoffamiliesandfriends，ａｎｄtheiridentilicationwith hometownsandlocalcommunities・Also，ｉｔｉｓｉｎｔｅｌＣｓｔｉｎｇｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｏｕｔｔｈａｔtheir1℃cogni- tionaboutthedistancebetweenlivingplacesandworkingplaceｓａｒｅｑｕｉｔｅｓｈｏｒｔｉｎａｓｍａｌｌａｒｅａｌ４．

1１８ MakoYOshimuTa

6．NewMiddleClass(es)ａｎｄ“MelayuBaru，，

AstheeconomydevelopedandtheemploymentstructuretransfOrmed,theemergence oftheNewMiddleClass(es)'５occurredmainlyintheurbanareas・TheOldMiddleClass were,fOrexample,traditionalcommemialpeopleandlowerbu１℃aucratsundertheBritish rulewhereasthenewmiddleclassappearedduringtheeconomicgrowthinthepastthree decades・Itisarelativelyhigherincomegroupwithcommoneconomic,socialandcultural behaviourandlifestylesthataredifferentfromthelifestyleofthelowerincomegroupand thehigherincomegroups Thenewmiddleclassisclassifiedbyoccupatio､,income,education(humanresource)， consumptionbehaviourpattem,etc'６．１tincludessmall-andmiddle-sizeCompanies，own- ers，middle-managementstaffofbigCompanies；professionalssuchaslawyers，doctors， accountants,engineersandteachers；Ｓｅｍｉ‐professionalssuchasnurses,librarians,clerks， marketing/sales/servicestaffcivilservants(middle-andupper-level),andsuchTheyare mainlythosewhoworkinwhite-collared,professionalandtechnicaljobs、 Betweenl980andl990,thenumberofprofessionalandtecbnicaljobsmKuala LumpurdoubledwhilethatofmanagementandadministrativejobstripledThisshows theincreaseinthesizeofthemiddleclass(es).Theratioofprofessionalsandtechnicians (20％),andsalesandservicerelatedjobs（16％)inKualaLumpurisalsohigherthanthe labourpopulation(8％)inthecountry(seeFigure3)． TheincreaseintheMalaycompositioninthemiddleclassisrelatedtotheincreaseof employmentinthemodemsectorsundertheNEPForexample,whiletheprofessionaljobs requiringqualificationsincreasedl3timesfOrtheperiodl970-95,theMalayratioinclcased fiPom5兜ｔｏ３３％・Inthel990s,thegrowthrate(11％)fOrtheMalayswashigherthanother ethnicgroup(Jomo,1997,Ｔｎｂｌｅ６)．ThisalsomilTorstheincreaseinMalaycomposition inwageemployment・ＭＯＩ℃thanhalfoftheChineseandthelndianswerealreadywage- employedduringtheBritishperiodInl970,theMalaywage-employedscompriseｄ３６％・ UndertheNEP-whenjobopportunitiesincreasedand,withapro-Malaypolicy,theself employedandfamily-employedintheagriculturalsectormovedtowageemployment-the proportionofMalaysinwage-employmentincreasedto５５％、１，１９９１，itfUrtherroseto ７３％(JabatanPerangkaanMalaysia,1995,Table6.6)． InKualaLumpur,theMalayratioincreasedintheservicesectorfOrl980-9LInthe professionalandtechnicalsector,theMalaycompositiondoubledwhileintheadministra- tiveandmanagementsector,theincreasewasmorethanfOurtimes・Insalesandrelated jobsdoubled,MalayparticipationalsodoubledFortheperiodl980-9LMalaystookhalf ofallnewly-createdjobs,ｗｉｔｈ７０％oftheminclericaljobs(includingthosegovemment sector)．Yet,theMalayscontributedonlyonethirdoftheincreaseinadministrativeand managementjobs,andsalesrelatedjobs,whichwerestiUheldmainlybytheChinese・ Thepositionofthenewmiddleclass(es)hastobeconsideredwithethnicrelations， economicandpoliticalpolicies，andotherfactorsｉｎMalaysia、TheNEPencouragedthe MalaystoenterthemodernsectorsandtransfOImedthetraditionalethnicdivisionoflaboun ThishelpedtheemergenceoftheMalaymiddleclassinurbanareas、 ThePrimeMinister,DEMahathirbinMohamad，however,doesnotthinkthatthe creationofaMalaymiddleclasshasbeensuccessfULWhenaskedwhetheritwasstulnec- essarytosupportMalaysastheMalaymiddleclasshadincreased,hesaidthatthesituation wasbasicallythesameandtheMalaymiddleclass，suchastheMalayprofessionals,did notincleaseenoughltwasbecausesomeMalaysdependedonthegoveｍｍｅｎｔａｓｔｈｅｙ

1１９ Urbanisation,DeveIopmelBtandSocioCuIturalChangesinMaIaysia misunderstoodtheNEPtobejustapro-Malaypolicy(ﾉＶＣｗＳｌｉｍｊな刀meMJanuaryl988)． HealsomentionedthatMalaymiddleclasswasnotbigenoughbecausemanystillcannot affbrdtobuy50,O00to300,OOOringgithouses、Ａｓｓｕｃｈ，ｈｅsaid，thesizeoftheMalay middleclasshadtobeincreased(BUJsj"ess7】imes,５Ｍa1℃ｈ1997;Ｔ１ｈｅＳｍｒ,SMarchl997； T1heS""’５Marchl997l Mahathirpresentedanewconcept,Ｍ２ﾉαyⅣＢａ'抑(NewMalay)ａｔａｎＵＭＮＯｍｅｅｔｉｎｇｉｎｌ９９１・ＴｈｉｓﾉVどＷＭＪ/αyareMalayswhoclearlyrecognisetheiridentity,perspectives andtheirownrolesasMalays(MuhammadHajiMuhdTaib,1996;ChamilWariya,1993)． These,accordingtoMahathir,areMalayswithconfidencewhowouldovercomemferior- ityanddependencyasillustratedinhisbook,772ＧＭJ/αy､此'"､α・Malaysshouldutilise theirfUUestpotentialbytryinghardandfacinginternationalisationandcompetitionwith entrepreneurshipandabusinessmindset・Thisconceptappearedtogetherwiththelcmark‐ ableeconomicgrowthofMalaysia，itspositionintheinternationalpoliticalscenes，and thechangesofselfIccognitionamongtheMalays,especiallytheyoungergenerationwho acceptedprivilegesundertheNEPL ThisconceptoftheNewMalayinsistsontheurbanisationoftheMalays・Itissaid thattheMalaysshouldchangeattitudesandworldviewthroughurbanisation(Muhammad HajiMuhdTnibl996,Chapter3）TbetraditionalMalayworldthatisrepresentedbythe Ic[J"qpul'１９(Village)hasgoodvaluessuchasgoro"ｇ'℃yo"８，butnegativecultures(i､e・neg- ativetraditions,unproductivelifestyle,envy,jealousy,gossip,hate,etc.)characterisetheir lifestyleandwayofthinking Movingintoand/orlivinginurbanareasarenotenoughfOrtheurbanisationofthe Malays・Ｉｔｉｓｎｏｔｏｎｌｙａｍａｔｔｅｒｏｆｃａｐｉｔａｌａｎｄcapability,ｂｕｔａｌｓｏａmatterofmotivation thattheMalayscannotcompetewiththeChineseinKampungBaru、TheMalaysaresaid tobringnegativecultureseveninSubangJayainthesuburbofKualaLumpurwherethere isalargeMalaymiddleclass・Itmaytakeseveralgenerationsbeforeabusinessculmlc isinstilled・TheurbanisationoftheMalayschangestheirattitudesandmakesthemmolc competitive、Inthisprocess,theMalaysaregivenmanyopportunitiestoparticipateinde- velopment・ImeednotbejustaboutthecreationofnewjobopportunitiesfOrMalays,but alsothecreationofentrepreneurs,industrialistsandbusinesspeopleaswellasprofession- als・ Thus,theemelgenceofaMalaymiddleclasｓａｎｄ/orcreationofaMalayhumanrC- source(suchasentrepreneursandprofessiona]andtechnicaljobs)isapoliticalasweUas aneconomictalgetfOrthegovernmentbecauseoftheethnicstructureinthecountry．

7．MalaysianYOuthaMUrbanCulture

UrbanisationhastransfOrmedMalaysia，seconomicstructuresandsocialsystemand theinc1℃aseinthenewmiddleclassbroughtonanurbanlifestyleandcultule Onemajorcharacteristicofthisnewmiddleclassisthattheyhaveacommonlifestyle， consumptionpatternandcultulCalthoughtheiroccupationsarevaried､Theyclcatedemand withtheirconsumptionpoweEhencetheproliferationofshoppingcomplexesl7，fastfOod shopsl8，ICstaurants,discothequesl9，brandedclothes,electricalgoods,Cars,travel,amuse- mentparks,etc・Theyhaveadifferentconsumptioncultureandconstituteanewsegmentin theconsumermarketzo．

1２０ MakoYOshimura

Ｔｈｅｙｄｏｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｂｕｙｇｏｏｄｓ，butarealsointerestedincultureandart，leisulcand traveLTheyprefertheEnglishlanguage，areeducation-oriented2l，andalcinterestedin issuesconcerningenvironment,women,andthepoliticallycorlcct・ TheirinterestsinHuencethemassmedia、MajornewspaperstransfOrmedandused colourphoto厚aphssincel99LEnglishnewspapersCreatednewsectionstosuittheinter‐ estsofthemiddleclass､Forexample,ＬｉｆｅａｎｄＴｉｍｅｓｏｆｔｈｅＮｅｗＳｒｍｊなT1imesandSection ２ｏｆｍｅＳｍ７ｆｅａｔｕｒｅｃｕｌｔｕｒｅａｎｄａｒｔ，issuesonenvironmentandwomen，leisureanden- tertainment,etc・NewspapersinMalaysia,howeveEdonotgenerallyincludecritiqueand analysisofpolitics，sothemiddleclasswouldrelegatethisroletoothermediaiftheyaIc moreinterestedinpoliticsaswellassocialissues(LohandMustafa,1996,ppl22-123)． PopcultureinMalaysiaismainlyshapedinKualaLumpurltishe1℃wherenewtrends a１℃pickedbyTVandradioprograms，iilms，concerts，newspapersandmagazines，etc.， despitestronginHuencesfromwestemculture・ThestagepeIfOrmancessuchasplays,dance andclassicalmusicconcertsarealsoheldinKualaLumpurbuttheaudienceislimitedin Malaysia OneofthemajorcharacteristicsofMalaysianyouthpopcultureistheexistenceof sub-culturesbasedonethnicity・SongsofUShitchartsandHollywoodmoviesalcpopular amongallyouthsfromallethnicgroups・HoweverMalaypopandlndonesianmusicand filmsmainlycaterfbrMalays・ＭｏｖｉｅｓａｎｄｓｏｎｇｓｆｒｏｍＨｏｎｇＫｏｎｇａｒｅｐlCfelTedbythe Chineseyouths,andthelndiansenjoyTnmil(andHindi)moviesandmusic lnMalaysiancinemas,AmericanHollywoodmovieshaveMalaysubtitles・HongKong movies，whichuseCantonese，adialectspokenbymanyChineseinKualaLumpur,have theMalaysubtitlesasweUastheoriginalsubtitlesinChineseandEnglish；thescreen iscoveredwithmanylinesofvariouslanguages・mamilandHindimovieshaveEnglish subtitles・BesidesHollywoodmovies，theaudienceofeachlanguagemovieisdividedby ethnicityThisissameasinJapanwhereHollywoodmovies(withbig-scalebudgets)are morepopularwiththeyouthsthanlocalJapanesemovies・Malaymoviesarenotsopopular evenamongMalayyouthsexceptthePLRamlee22movieswhichareconsidered`℃lassics，，、Ｉｎｔｈｅｌ９９０ｓ，howeveEaMalaylove-storymovie，Sembiﾉmwhichfeatulcdpopularpop singersinthemaincast,ｗａｓａｂｉｇｈｉｔ,togetherwithitssoundtrackSequels，ＳｅｍＭｕｌ２ａｎｄ刀可ediOA1oberwerealsoverysuccessfuLThesemoviesfeaturepopularMalaypop starsandtheirsongsandillustrateaglamorousurbanlifestylewithfashionablerestaurants， residencesanddiscotheques,brandedclothes,Cars,bigbikesandsuchThisissimilartothe "trendydramas，，wbichwerepopularonJapaneseTVinthelatel980swhentheeconomy wasbooming BefblCtheseMalay``trendylilms，，emelged,itwasthoughtthattheMalaymoviesｗｅｒｅ "boring”(thestorybemgpredictableandslow)and/orsomebettermovieswere“artistic，’ ｗｉｔｈlimitedaudienceexceptRRamlee，sworkswhicharepopularacrossallgenerations andoflenfeatuにｄｏｎＴＶａｓｃｌａｓｓｉｃｓ・Ｓｏｔｈｅｓｅ``tlCndyfilms，，becamethekindofturning pointfOrMalaymovies,andwillbesuccessfUlsolongastheｙｃａｎａttracttheyoungpeo- ple，ThisisrelatedwiththeemergenceoftheMalaymiddleclassandthepenetrationof anewconsumptioncultureamongtheyoungergenerationofMalays、Yet，itissaidthat theseMalaylilmswereratherpopularamonglowerincomeMalaysandincomegapamong MalaysshouldalsobediscussedaswelL Inthel990s,newTVstations,MetroVisionandNTV7joinedthethreeexistingTV stations-theｓｔａｔｅ－ｒｕｎＲＴＭｌａｎｄＲＴＭ２，ａｎｄＴＶ３，ａｐｒｌｖａｔｅｓｔａｔｉｏｎＲＴＭｌａｎｄＲＴＭ２ｈａｖｅmainlyMalayprogramsincludingprayersprogramsfOrMuslims,ａｎｄｎｅｗｓｐｒｏｇｒａｍｓ

1２１ Urbanisation,DevclopmentandSocioCultumIChangcsinMnlaysia inMalay,Chinese，ＴｎｍｉｌａｎｄＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＲＴＭ２ｓｈｏｗｓｍａｎｙｅｄucationalprOgrams・TV3 feamresmoreentertainmentwithpopularTVdramasfromtheUSA・TV3announcedtheir starting24-hourbroadcastinginl997butitsuspendedbecauseoftheeconomictumdown・ NewTVstations，MetroVisionandNTV7areentertainment-orientedandthemain mediumistheEnglishlanguage・MetroVision,ｋｎｏｗｎａｓＴＶ４ｗａｓｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｕｒｂａｎ areasoftheKlangValleyasthenameofthestationsuggests・MetroVisionshowedmany Americandramasandalsoairedaprogram“αZiesα"a7bw"s”(onairfOrl995-96)which introducedthelatesttrendsintownsuchasfashionableshops，restaurantsandeventsin KualaLumpuranditsneighbourhoods・But,MetroVisionwasclosedonlyafterseveral- yearoperationNTV7ispopularwithAmericansitcomsanditalsoshowsT1amilprograms andChinese(mainly,ｆｒｏｍＨＫ)programsfOrweekend lnMalaysia,theprivatemediaisalsoundergovemmemcontrolandisscrutinisedfOr politics，Islam，sex，violence，etcAsanIslamiccountry，alltheimmoralanddecadent culturesuchassexandnudity(includingkissing),vulgarwordsetc.,onTVandfilmsare censored,Also,thebehaviourofartistes(singers,actors/actresses,etc.）issometimescriti- cised・Forexample,aMalayHemalesingerwhokissedadoｇｏｎＴＶｗａｓｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｅｄａｓｄｏｇｓａｒｅｓｕｐposedtobe`dirty，fbrMuslimslnthel990s,aMalaymalerockstar,Ａｍｙ,ｈａdhis perfOnnancerestrictedbecausehislonghairwasconsideredtobedecadentandheiinally hadtocuthishairinpublic､ＡｂｉｇＴＶｃｏｍｅｄｙｈｉｔ,""gα〃Ｋｍｚｗａ,intheearlyl990，Sai1℃d onTV3wasalsocriticisedbecausetheMalaymalecomedianswolewomen,scosmmesal- thoughtheyinsistedthatitcamefiromaMalaytTaditionalplayAMalayactresswhoacted asBlanchonstageofthefamousT1ennesseeWilliam，ｓＡＳｒ花ercqrMJmedDesi”２３was criticisedbecauseofher“excellent,，perfbrmanceoftheimmoralandscandalousheroine， andshehadtostatemnewspapersthatshewasaldigiousMuslimwoman・ AstheurbancultureandtrendspenetratetheyouthcultureinMalaysia,therearesocial changesandconHicｔｓｓｕｃｈａｓｄｍｇｓ２４，crimes,thesexindustry25，suicides26，etc・thatare oftenconsidelcdsymptomsofurbanimmoralityanddecadence･Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，the governmentandmassmediafiPequentlychoosetohighlightandcriticiseyouthbehaviouras beingrelatedtosocialproblems・ NegativeimagesoffemalefactoryWorkersinl970sandl980sareatypicalcase・The employmentofwomenincreasedinthemanufacturingsectorandMalaｙｗｏｍｅｎｅｎｔｅ1℃d factoriesasunskilledlabourundertheNEPLHowever,thesefactorywomenarecriticisedfOr theirUfestyleandbehaviour,saidtobeinconflictwithlslamictraditionalvalues・Theyare criticisedfbrtheirwestemclothes,goingoutshoppingandwatchingmoviesbythemselves， staymgaloneintownsandnearfactories,minglingwithmen,etc・Ｔｈｅｍａｓsmediafeatured casesoffactoryworkerswhobecameprostitutesafiergettingintothebadhabitofspend- ingmoneyandcreatedsomelermssucｈａｓ“k＠kﾉﾙﾉα"',(walkingfeet)，“Ｍｊ"α/ｚＫｎｍ"” (electricMinahorhotstufD,todescribetheirimmoralbehaviour・Politiciansandreligious leadersalsoaddedtheircriticismofthesewomen，sbehaviour(YOshimura,1998b:141-143； 0,9,1987)． Also,itiscommontoseeyoungpeoplehangingout(`ｿepak")atshoppmgcomplexes andstlCetsinKualaLumpuTandothertownsinMalaysiaandnewspapershavehighlighted thisPoliticianshavesaidthatitwasunproductiveandnotgoodfOryoungpeOplewho insteadshouldbeworkinghardfOrdevelopmentofthenationThisisadevelopment- orientedrationalistview・IftheydidthesamethingatAedcJikOpi(coffeeshops)inkzJmpm"ｇ (villages)inruralareas,theyouthswouldnotbecriticised・ThesamebehaviouEhowever， oncespatiallytransfelTedintotheurbanareas,wouldbepointedoutasaproblematicone、

1２２ MakoYbshimura

Furthermore,girls,andyoungwomen，sbehavioursuchasﾉepαえgoingtodiscothe‐ ques,goingoutwithstrangemen（includingaskingstrangemenfOrlifts,dinners,etc.)， havebeenhighlightedbythemediaanditwassaidthatthesekindsofactionwouldeasily leadthemtoprostitutionandcrimes Recently,itisoftenbeensaidthatyoungpeopledonotvaluefamilyvaluesasbefOIe ThegovemmentcampaigninsiststhattheyouthsshouldlCspecttheirpa１℃ntsandsenior peopleandshouldrecognisefamilytiesastraditionalanduniversalvalues､Thus,theideal modelfOryoungpeopleistobeagoodreligiousMuslimwhostudieshardfOrhighereduca‐ tion,whohasmotivationfOragoodcareenｗｈｏ1℃spectsandlovesthefamilyandtraditional values,andwhocontributestothecommunityanddevelopmentofthenation

8．ConcIusion

Thecharacteristicsofthecultureofmiddleclass(es)arewestem-orientedconsumption‐ based・Thiswestem-orientedculture,however,causedculturalconHictswithlslamictra- ditionalvaluesandmorals､MoreoveEwhilethemiddleclass(es)preferwestemandurban lifestyles,theyoungmiddlｅclass(es)inurbanareasalsochooselslamicpoliticalactivities andeducation,andholdstrongerethnichostility２７，resultinginanewconservativegroup Themiddleclass(es)aremotivatedandeducated,andareinterestedandawareofsocial issuesandpolitics・ThepoliticalstructurecreatessupportfOrthisgroupindealingwith ethnicproblems TheconceptofurbanisationofMalaysisthattheMalaysshouldrecognisetheirethnic identityandachievearationalbusinesscultuICandcompetemcompetitivecircumstances・ ThisisnotbecauseMalayswanttoexcludeotherethnicgroups、Ａｌltheethnicgroupscan respectotheｒｅｔｈｎｉｃｇｒｏｕｐｓａｓｌｏｎｇａｓｔｈｅｙａｒｅｃｏnIidentabouttheiridentityandethnic- ity、Thismulti-culturalismcouldbethelirststepfOrtheconceptofa``BangsaMalaysia，， (MalaysianNationality)２８withthenationalidentitybeingthatofbeingseenasMalaysians andnotaspereachmdividualethnicgrCup、 WecanalsounderstandthatethnicproblemsinMalaysiawerenotculturalproblems， butmamlyeconomicandpoliticalproblems・Wecannowdiscussincomedistributionand socialstratificationsmcetheethnicdivisionoflabour,whichwasestablishedduringthe Britishcolonialperiod,hasbeentransfOnned（SyedHusinAli，1984)．Theincreaseof Malaysinthemiddleclass(es)transfOrmsthetraditionalformsofethnicdivisionoflabour andpowerldations､Theemelgenceofnewmiddleclass(es)fOnnsnewurbanculturesand eachethniccultureisinHuencedbythenewurbanyouthcultuleWhileitisimportantto seethaturbanUfehasbecomephysicallyrich,atthesametimeoneneedstothinkaboutthe structuにsofanurbansocietywithissuesonnewrelationsamongethnicgroupsanｄｃｕｌｍｒｅｓ (includingthepositionsofurbanMalaysinsociety),developmentandfbreignlabour,new consumptionpattemsandtraditionalvalues,ａｎｄsuch．

Notes １ ThedisputeovertheidentityofthefbunderofKualaLumpurhasreceivedconsiderable attentionsincel980Carstens(1988)notesthathigh-schooltextbooksnowcreditRaja AbdullahofKlangratherthanYapAhLoywithhavingfbundedtheCity・AdnanHj．

1２３ UrbanisationPeveIopmentandSocioCuIluraIChangcsinMalaysia

Nawang，citingsourcesquotedinWtJ〃αＭｎ/αy[J，anewspaperincirculationinthe l930,shighlightsthepresenceofMalaytradersfiDmSumatrainKualaLumpurbefbre l86qandthusbefOreYapAhLoywassaidtohavecontributedtothedevelopmentof thecity(MohdRazaliAgus,1992,ｐ３３)． ZAnestateisabig-scalemanagedplantationwithmorethanlOOacres、３SeeYOshimura(1997a)fOracasestudyonfbreignworkersinestatesandYbshimura （1997b)fbracasestudyonafactory、４AbouthalfoffbreignestateworkersareregisteredinKualaLumpuralthoughmostof estatesarenotnearKualaLumpur､Thisisbecauseheadquartersofestatecompanies dothepaperworkfOrregistrationoffOreignworkersintheirestatesinthecountry(by interviewswithestatemanagementcompanies)． STheconstructionsectorinMalaysiafacesseriousshortagesofskilled,andprofessional andtechnicalstaffTheprofessional/technicalstaffratioperonemillionlabourfbrce intheconstructionsectorinMalaysiais630(400professional/techniciansper635,OOO workers）whileitis6,200iｎJapan,2,200inSouthKolCa,andL870inSingapore （BMsj"ess71imeJ,４Marchl997)．６ThestategovemmentannouncedalO-yeardeveIopmentplanfbrthedistlictinJuly l993・ThiswastheseventhtownshipplaninSelangorandwoulddevelophouses， shopsandagreenlunginacurrentlyundevelopedarea・ThetotalaleainvolvedL600 hectaresandthetargetedfinalpopulatioｎｉｓ８５,OOOICsidents・Thetotalbudgetsetaside fOrthedevelopmentwaslbillionringgit(Ｍα/αｙﾉＷﾉﾉ,７Julyl993;ｍｈｅＳｍ7,7Ｊｕｌｙｌ９９３ａｎｄ２０Ａｕｇｕｓｔｌ９９３；ノＶｅｗＳ"YJitsnmes，６Augustl993；ａｎｄinterviewswith oflicersatPKNS）７KampungBaruisaChinesenewvillagethatwasclcatedbythegovemmentafterthe announcementofEmelgencｙｉｎｌ９４８ａｎｄｔｈｅａｉｍｗａｓｔｏｐｒｏｔｅｃｔ“Chineseresidents fmmthecommunists"･MostoftheAα"叩皿"８ｂａｒ"ｓｗｅｒｅｃ1℃atedinl949-53､Kampung Baruinthedistrictwassupposedtobeestablishedinl950/51、８FrominterviewswithKampungBaruvillageoflice,factoryownersandfOreignwork- ・ersinl993andl994 ９FactoriesinindustrialestatessuchasShahAlamandKlangalsorecruiｔｗｏｒｋｅｒｓｉｎｔｈｅｓａｍｅｗａｙ・Professionalandtechnicalstaff,aswellasclericalsta通archired throughfblmalchannels(viz・newspaperadvertisements)whileproductionwolkersare hilCdthroughinfOrmalchannels(throughfriends,relatives,localnotices)(Ybshimura， 1998b,Chapter2)． l0Companyrecruiterswenttotheless-developedstatesandvisitedl941ocationsinclud- ingthoseinEastMalaysia・Butthecompanycouldnotgetenoughworkers llThissurveyinvolvedinterviewswithlO1Malayvillagersfrom5fiveMalaykα"!p""gs inl993andl994・ThelanguageusedwasMalay､SeeYOshimura(l997bL 12Ethnicproblemsaresometimessensitiveandpoliticali、Malaysia,sotheauthorwas afmidthattheywouldnotanswer・Yet,thosewhoresponded“ＮｏＡｎｓｗｅｒ，，ｗａｓｏｎｌｙ１４％ofthetotaLAlso,onlyafewanswered“NoDifference，，、１３Fmminterviewswithl61MalaysianworkersofJapanesecompaniesinPeninsular Malaysia(KualaLumpul;ShahAlamKlang,Penang,Johor,etc.)(YOshimura,1998b， Chapter2)．１４Ｔｈｅａｖｅｒａｇｅｃｏｍｍｕｔｉｎｇｔｉｍｅｗａｓ２０ｍｉｎｕｔｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｌ９９１ａｎｄｌ９９２ｓｕｒｖｅｙ・ＩｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕＥｉｔｔａｋｅｓl-2hoursduringthepeakhourstogoｔｏＳｈａｈＡｌａｍａｎｄＫｌａｎｇｂｙｂｕｓｏｒｃａｒ;atothertimes，itwilltakeonlylO-20minutes・Yet,people

1２４ MakoYOshimura

plcferalcasclosetotheirhomeseveninthecityareawheにthereisrelativelybetter publictransportationTherewer巳caseswheresomepersonschangedjobsbecauseof location・WOrkersusuallyusecars,motorbikes,ａｎｄpublicbusorfactorybusservices・ ItisimportantfOrfactoriesinindustrialestatestoprovidetransportationThereisa tendencyfOrwomenworkerstoprefercloserworkinglocationsandtheywouldalways checkwhetherfactorieshavefactorybusservicｅｓｏｒｎｏｔ・Thisisespeciallysoifthey havetoworkshifts,whereirrcgularworkinghoursandsafetybecomeimportantcon- siderations・CasesasinTbkyowherepeoplespend2or3hourscommutinginpacked tramsaretheexception;unlikeinotherprefecturesinJapanlnMalaysia,too,thereare vanouscommutingstyles・Yet,youngMalayvillagers,whooftengotoKualaLumpur bymotorbikesduringtheweekends,stillpreferworkingin/nearvillagesalthoughit takesonlｙ２０ｍｉｎｕｔｅｓｔｏｇｏｔｏＫｕａｌａＬｕｍｐｕｒｂymotorbikeProbably,theirrecogni- tionofdistancebetweenlivingplacesandworkingplacesandtheirconsiderationabout citylifestylearedifferentfromyoungpeopleinTbkyowhopreferworkinginthebusi‐ nessareainthecity・Malaysianyouthmighthavedifferentconceptsandsettingswhen theyconsiderthelivingplacesandtheworkingplacesinaspace・ 1５ Foramoredetaileddiscussiononthenewmiddleclass(es),seeCrouch(1985),Syed HusinAli（1987),MohdNorNawawi（1991),Saravanamuttu（1989),Ｋａｈｎ（1995, 1996),Ｊｏｍｏ（1995,1997)，AbdulRahmanEmbong（1997),RahimahAbdulAziz (1997)． 1６ HughesandWOldekidan（1994)usedtwocriteria,occupationsandconsumptionpat‐ terns，todefinethemiddleclass・IntheMalaysiancase，however,itissaidthatitis difEculttouseincomelevelstodehnethemiddleclassandtocomparethisusingtime seriesbecauseofpricechangesandinHationJomo（1997)usesoccupationsandin- comedistributionHealsocomparestimeseriesdataofsuchvariables,includingthat ofethnicityandgender、AbdulRahmanEmbong(1997）usedoccupation,education andincometoidentifythosewhoweresupposedtobethemiddleclass(es)． 1７ ManyshoppingcomplexesarCunderconstructionandsomearehugecomplexeswith amusementcomers､Shoppingcomplexesoftenhavecinemas,karaoke,andgamecen- tresinside・Thehugeshoppingcomplex(PWCJm〃)inSunwayResort,whichopened inl997,hasanindooriceskatingrinkinthebuilding・Ｍｉｄ-ＭＪﾉﾉﾋﾞ)ﾉcalledMega-Mall， whichwasopenedinl999hascine-plexwithl8screens・Anothermega-shopping complex,whichstartedconstructioninl996asapartofthelc-developmentofBukit Bintangarea,planstohaveanindooramusementparkaswellasaniceskatingrink、 1８ InMalaysia,McDonald，ｓａｎｄＫentuckyFriedChickenusehalalmeatfbrthesakeof Muslims，asdootherfastfOodshops、Asigntothiseffect,endorsedbytheldevant religiousauthority,iscustomarilyplacedfOrtheconsumers，knowledgeMcDonald，ｓａｎｄＫＦＣａにrelativelymoreexpensivethanlocalsnacksandfOod,buttheya1℃popular amongyoungpeople・ 1９ Fashionablediscotheques,includingtheHardRockCaだ,attractbothlocalyouthsand fOreigners,andalCthepreferTedmeetingplacesofupperclass,childrenandcelebrities、 2０Ｋａｈｎ(1996,ppl3-14)pointedoutthattheexistenceofthenewmiddleclasswasfirst noticedinamarketingsurveybytheadvertisementindustryasadifferentcategoryof peoplewithregardtothenation,sconsumptionculturc ２１ Themiddleclassisconcemedabouteducationandwanttheirchildrentoachieve highereducationTheMalaysiansocietyisnowbecominganeducation-orientedsoci- etywheretheacademicbackgrounddefinesone，scareer．

1２５ Urbanisation,DevcIopmenIandSocioCulturaIChlIngcsinMaIaysill

22RRamleeisanationalactorwhowasalilmdirec[ｏＥｃｏｍｐｏｓｅＬａｎｄａｓｍｇｅｒｆｂｒｈｉｓｆｉｌｍｓ,ThereisamemorialmuseuminastreetnamedafterhiminKualaLumpur、２３AfamousstageplaybyanAmericanwriter,T1ennesseeWilliams､Theheroi､e,Blanch，ｃａｍｅｔｏｓｔａｙｗｉｔｈｈｅｒｓｉｓｔｅｒａｎｄｔｈｅhusband・Shealwaysreminiscedhermemoriesas arichfamily,sdaughterintheSouth，buthersecretthatsheprostitutedherselfwas revealed､Sheeventuallywentcrazyafterbeingrapedbyhersister，shusband、２４TheMalaysiangovernmentappliesthｅｄｅathpenaltyfordrugsmugglingandtraffick‐ ingbecausethesituationisveryserious、Itissaidthatitisdangerousinbackstreets ofChowKitandPuduRayainKualaLumpunForananti-drugcampaigninFebruary l997,atafashionableshoppingcomplex,LotlqinBukitBintang,thegovemmentex- hibitedsamplesofdrugsandtherackusedfOrwhippingthoseconvictedoftrafncking Atthesametime,newspapersandTVfeaturedthatjuniorhighschoolstudentswere arrestedfOrdrugsmugglingandusage・RTM2alsofeatulcdaneducationalｐｒｏｇｒａｍｗｉｔｈａｄｒａｍａｏｆａｙｏｕｎｇｍａｎｗｈospoiledeverythingbecauseofdrugsbutrecovercd withhisfamily，ssupportandlove、 Z5AlthoughsurveysonthesexindustryinMalaysiaarelimited,ShyamalaNagarajand SitiRohaniYahya(1995)discussesthesexindustlyanditsrelatedregulations、 26Therewere36casesofsuicidesandL390ofsuicidalbehaviourinl985・InKuala Lumpur,therewere326suicidesperlOO,OOOpopulation，comparedwithL47per lOO,OOOfOrthewholeofPeninsularMalaysia(OngandYeoh,1992,ＴＨｂｌｅ２,ｐ」５１ andTtlble3,ｐ､153)．２７JudithNagata(1984)pointedoutthatthemaingroupinvolvedintheDakwamovement wasyoungpeopleincityareaswithhigheducation 28BangsaMalaysiaisaconceptpresentedinWbwasα"２０２０(Vision2020)inl99LNon- MalaypartiessuchasMCAwelcomedtheconceptandinsistedthatalltheethnic groupsunitetoremovetheethnicborderｂＤｒ、Mahathirandthegovemmentusedthe concepttomobilisenon-MalaytoachievethetalgetofWawasan20201nMayl999， however,ｗｈｅｎｔｈｅＤＡＰｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆＭａｌａysianMalaysiawhichwasaDAP conceptfOrl969-1995andoriginallyfｍｍＬｅｅＫｕａｎＹｅｗ，sidea,therulingBarisan NasionalcriticisedtheDAPsayingthattheconceptwouldcausecommunalconHicts・ Mahathirlikenedthe“MalaysianMalaysia，，concepttoglobalisationwheretherich wouldbenelitandtheweakremainpoorandmalginalised、TheDAPwasthenfbrced topresentitsconceptofNewMalaysia(ＭロノαｙｓｊａＢα'w).HeIc,theyarguedthatethnic identitywouldbeprotectedaswellasthepositionoftheMalaysintheinstitutionof govemment．

References AbdulRahmanEmbong（1997),MalaysianMiddleClassStudies：ABriefOverview,a paperpresentedatthelstInternationalMalaysianStudiesConfe1℃､Ｃｅ，11-13August， UniversitiMalaya,KualaLumpur・ AdnanHi・Nawang(1989),PersepsiSepintasLaluHajiAbdullahHukummengenaiBeber‐ apaAspekSejarahSelangorKolokiumSejarahNegeriSelangorDarulEhsan:Sejarah DalamProsesPemhangunan,KualaLumpun AzizahKassim（1995),ImmigrantLabourandUrbanHousinginMalaysia,apaperpre‐ sentedatthel4"LConferenceofthePacilic-RegionalScienceConferenceOrganiza- tion,Tnipei,25-27July．

1２６ MakoYbshimura

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1２７ Urbanisation,DeveIopmentandSocioCullumlChangesinMalaysia

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