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Kantian Intuitionism An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism A critique of Mackie's scepticism, and an alternative proposal combining Ross's intuitionism with a Kantian epistemology by Simon John Duffy PhD The University of Edinburgh 2001 PhD Thesis: An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism - Page 1 CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................................... 4 DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................................................... 5 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................... 6 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... OUR BELIEFS ABOUT MORALITY .................................................................................................................................................................... 11 1.1 WHAT DO WE OWE COMMON-SENSE? .11 1.2 OUR EVERYDAY CONCEPTION OF ETHICS .17 1.3 THE CENTRALITY OF DUTY .24 1.4 THE IMPLICATIONS OF DUTY .32 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... THE SCEPTICAL ATTACK .................................................................................................................................................................... 36 2.1 MACKIE’S ERROR THEORY OF ETHICS .36 2.2 THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT FROM RELATIVITY .40 2.3 THE METAPHYSICAL ARGUMENT FROM RELATIVITY .48 2.4 THE METAPHYSICAL ARGUMENT FROM QUEERNESS .53 2.5 THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL ARGUMENT FROM QUEERNESS .62 3 .................................................................................................................................................................... THE PROBLEM OF MORAL RATIONALITY .................................................................................................................................................................... 68 3.1 CAN SCEPTICISM BE RECONCILED WITH RATIONALITY? .68 3.2 SOME WAYS OF JUSTIFYING A MORAL THEORY .73 3.3 THE NEED TO CONSTRAIN REFLECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM .85 3.4 THE FAILURE OF SCIENTIFIC EMPIRICISM .93 4 .................................................................................................................................................................... ALTERNATIVES TO SCEPTICISM .................................................................................................................................................................... 99 4.1 IS THERE AN ALTERNATIVE TO SCIENTIFIC EMPIRICISM? .99 4.2 LOVIBOND’S MORAL CONSTRUCTIVISM .104 4.3 BOYD’S MORAL NATURALISM .111 PhD Thesis: An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism - Page 2 4.4 KORSGAARD’S MORAL RATIONALISM .122 4.5 ROSS’S DEONTOLOGICAL INTUITIONISM .136 4.6 THE LIMITATIONS OF ROSS’S INTUITIONISM .143 5 .................................................................................................................................................................... TOWARDS A KANTIAN INTUITIONISM .................................................................................................................................................................... 147 5.1 HOW MIGHT WE JUSTIFY OBJECTIVISM? .147 5.2 THE WILL .151 5.3 JUDGEMENT .156 5.4 THINKING, JUDGING AND WILLING .161 5.5 CAN MORAL INTUITIONS BE RATIONALLY JUSTIFIED? .168 5.6 HOW REFLECTIVE EQUILIBRIUM CAN BE RATIONAL .180 5.7 THE JUSTIFICATION OF MORAL OBJECTIVISM .185 CONCLUDING REMARKS .................................................................................................................................................................... 192 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................................... 195 PhD Thesis: An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism - Page 3 ABSTRACT This thesis sets out an argument in defence of moral objectivism. It takes Mackie as the critic of objectivism and it ends by proposing that the best defence of objectivism may be found in what I shall call Kantian intuitionism, which brings together elements of the intuitionism of Ross and a Kantian epistemology. The argument is fundamentally transcendental in form and it proceeds by first setting out what we intuitively believe, rejecting the sceptical attacks on those beliefs, and by then proposing a theory that can legitimize what we already do believe. Chapter One sets out our intuitive understanding of morality: (1) that morality is cognitive, moral beliefs can be true or false; (2) that morality is real, we do not construct it; (3) that morality is rational, we can learn about it by rational investigation; and (4) that morality places us under an absolute constraint. The chapter ends by clarifying the nature of that absolute demand and by arguing that the critical idea within morality is the idea of duty. In Chapter Two Mackie’s sceptical attack on objectivism is examined. Four key arguments are identified: (1) that moral beliefs are relative to different agents; (2) that morality is based upon on non-rational causes; (3) that the idea of moral properties or entities is too queer to be sustainable; and (4) that moral objectivism involves queer epistemological commitments. Essentially all of these arguments are shown to be ambiguous; however it is proposed that Mackie has an underlying epistemological and metaphysical theory, scientific empiricism, which is (a) hostile to objectivism and (b) a theory that many find attractive for reasons that are independent of morality. Chapter Three explores the nature of moral rationality and whether scientific empiricism can use the idea of reflective equilibrium to offer a reasonable account of moral rationality. It concludes that, while reflective equilibrium is a useful account of moral rationality, it cannot be effectively reconciled with scientific empiricism. In order to function effectively as a rational process, reflective equilibrium must be rationally constrained by our moral judgements and our moral principles. Chapter Four begins the process of exploring some alternative epistemologies and argues that the only account that remains true to objectivism and the needs of reflective equilibrium is the account of intuitionism proposed by Ross. However this account can be developed further by drawing upon number of Kantian ideas and using them to supplement Ross’s intuitionism. So Chapter Five draws upon a number of Kant's ideas, most notably some key notions from the Critique of Judgement. These ideas are: (1) that we possess a rational will that is subject to the Moral law and determined by practical reason; (2) that we possess a faculty of judgement which enables us to become aware of moral properties and (3) that these two faculties together with the third faculty of thought can function to constitute the moral understanding. Using these ideas the thesis explores whether they can serve to explain how intuitions can be rational and how objectivism can be justified. PhD Thesis: An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism - Page 4 DECLARATION Research for this thesis began in October 1990 at Birkbeck College, London and was completed at The University of Edinburgh in 2001. I would like to thank my supervisors Roger Scruton, Andrew Chitty, Timothy Sprigge, Vinit Haksar and Rae Langton who all helped me considerably. I would particularly like to thank Rae Langton who gave me considerable support after taking on my supervision at a very last stage in my studies. I would also like to thank my employers Southwark Consortium and Inclusion Glasgow who gave me the flexibility to work full-time and to meet my academic responsibilities. All responsibility for research and writing are mine. Signed Simon John Duffy PhD Thesis: An Intuitionist Response to Moral Scepticism - Page 5 INTRODUCTION The argument of this thesis is that we should reject a certain kind of moral scepticism and, instead, that we should accept in its place a theory of moral intuitionism. The argument is advanced by a negative critical assault upon the arguments for scepticism proposed by Mackie and by the development of a positive alternative theory, that I shall call Kantian intuitionism. Put in these terms the argument may seem to be straightforward. However my argument is also forced to navigate between the varied uses, within meta-ethics, of different technical terms. Often these terms can confuse the reader, often implying ideas that the author does not intend. However there is no pure language that can serve as an alternative to the rich and contested language that we actually use. So I will use the opportunity of this introduction to both rehearse the overall structure of my argument and to provide the reader with certain warnings as to the precise use that I will make of some of the key terms within my thesis. One of the most important ideas within this thesis is the idea of an intuition. As a starting point I use the term intuition to refer only to those commonly assumed ideas or thoughts that we accept without question. I propose that in this limited sense we do have certain intuitions about the status of morality.
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