Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page i
Taenia solium Cysticercosis
From Basic to Clinical Science Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page ii Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page iii
Taenia solium Cysticercosis
From Basic to Clinical Science
Edited by
Gagandeep Singh
Dayanand Medical College & Hospital Ludhiana Punjab, India
and
Sudesh Prabhakar
Department of Neurology Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Chandigarh, India
CABI Publishing Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page iv
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Singh, G. (Gagandeep) Taenia solium cysticercosis : from basic to clinical science / edited by G. Singh and S. Prabhakar. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-85199-628-0 1. Cysticercosis. 2. Taenia. I. Prabhakar, S. (Sudesh) II. Title. RC136.7 .S545 2002 616.9’64--dc21 2002001332
ISBN 0 85199 628 0
Typeset in Palatino by Columns Design Ltd, Reading, UK Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and Kings Lynn. Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page v
Contents
Contributors ix Preface xiii Abbreviations xiv
SECTION I TAENIA SOLIUM CYSTICERCOSIS: BASIC SCIENCE 1. Taenia solium: Basic Biology and Transmission 1 Zbigniew S. Pawlowski 2. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: New and Revisited Immunological Aspects 15 Ana Flisser, Dolores Correa and Carlton A.W. Evans 3. Molecular Determinants of Host–Parasite Interactions: Focus on Parasite 25 José L. Molinari and Patricia Tato 4. Animal Models of Taenia solium Cysticercosis: Role in Understanding Host–Parasite Interactions 35 Astrid E. Cardona and Judy M. Teale 5. Mitochondrial DNA of Taenia solium: From Basic to Applied Science 47 Akira Ito, Minoru Nakao, Munehiro Okamoto, Yasuhito Sako and Hiroshi Yamasaki 6. Hereditary Factors in Neurocysticercosis with Emphasis on Single, Small, Enhancing CT Lesions 57 Vasantha Padma, Satish Jain, Achal Srivastava, Manjari Tripathi and Mahesh C. Maheshwari
SECTION II EPIDEMIOLOGY 7. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: an Overview of Global Distribution and Transmission 63 Peter M. Schantz 8. What Have We Learnt From Epidemiological Studies of Taenia solium Cysticercosis in Peru? 75 Hector H. García, Robert H. Gilman, Armando E. Gonzalez, Manuela Verastegui, Victor C.W. Tsang and The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru
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vi Contents
9. Epidemiology of Taenia solium Taeniasis and Cysticercosis in Mexico 83 Elsa Sarti 10. Taenia solium Taeniasis and Cysticercosis in Central America 91 José Garcia-Noval, Ana L. Sanchez and James C. Allan 11. Neurocysticercosis in Brazil: Epidemiological Aspects 101 Svetlana Agapejev 12. Taenia solium Taeniasis and Cysticercosis in Asia 111 Gagandeep Singh, Sudesh Prabhakar, Akira Ito, Seung Yull Cho and Dong-Chuan Qiu 13. Taenia solium Cysticercosis in Africa 129 Michel Druet-Cabanac, Bienvenue Ramanankandrasana, Sylvie Bisser, Louis Dongmo, Gilbert Avodé, Léopold Nzisabira, Michel Dumas and Pierre-Marie Preux 14. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: the Special Case of the United States 139 Wayne X. Shandera, Peter M. Schantz and A. Clinton White Jr 15. Porcine Cysticercosis 145 Armando E. Gonzalez, Patricia P. Wilkins and Teresa Lopez 16. Taenia solium: A Historical Note 157 Noshir H. Wadia and Gagandeep Singh
SECTION III TAENIA SOLIUM CYSTICERCOSIS: CLINICAL ASPECTS 17. Neurocysticercosis: an Overview of Clinical Presentations 169 Sudesh Prabhakar and Gagandeep Singh 18. Meningeal Cysticercosis 177 Oscar H. Del Brutto 19. Heavy Multilesional Cysticercotic Syndromes 189 Oscar H. Del Brutto, Hector H. García and Sudesh Prabhakar 20. Intraventricular Neurocysticercosis 199 Albert C. Cuetter and Russell J. Andrews 21. Neurocysticercosis and Epilepsy 211 Arturo Carpio and W. Allen Hauser 22. Cerebrovascular Manifestations of Neurocysticercosis 221 Fernando Barinagarrementeria and Carlos Cantú 23. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: Uncommon Manifestations 229 Gagandeep Singh and Indermohan S. Sawhney 24. The Story Behind Solitary Cysticercus Granuloma 241 Vedantam Rajshekhar 25. Seizures Due to Solitary Cysticercus Granuloma 251 J.M.K. Murthy 26. Paediatric Neurocysticercosis 257 Sudesh Prabhakar and Gagandeep Singh 27. Psychiatric Manifestations of Neurocysticercosis 263 Orestes V. Forlenza 28. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: Ophthalmic Aspects 269 Atul Kumar and Namrata Sharma Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page vii
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29. Neurocysticercosis: Diagnosis and Treatment in Special Situations 281 Ravindra K. Garg and Alok M. Kar
SECTION IV CYSTICERCOSIS: PATHOLOGY 30. The Pathology of Neurocysticercosis 289 Alfonso Escobar and Karen M. Weidenheim 31. Single Small Enhancing Computed Tomography Lesions – Pathological Correlates 307 Geeta Chacko
SECTION V NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS: INVESTIGATIONAL ASPECTS 32. Imaging and Spectroscopy of Neurocysticercosis 311 Deepshikha Sharda, Sanjeev Chawla and Rakesh K. Gupta 33. Taenia solium Cysticercosis: Immunodiagnosis of Neurocysticercosis and Taeniasis 329 Patricia P. Wilkins, Marianna Wilson, James C. Allan and Victor C.W. Tsang 34. Antigen-based Immunoassays in the Diagnosis of Taenia solium Cysticercosis 343 Dolores Correa, Raquel Tapia-Romero, Antonio Meza-Lucas and Olga Mata-Ruiz 35. Polymerase Chain Reaction in the Diagnosis of Taenia solium Cysticercosis 351 Taru Meri and Seppo Meri 36. Immunodiagnosis in Solitary Cysticercus Granulomas 359 Anna Oomen
SECTION VI TAENIASIS–CYSTICERCOSIS: THERAPY AND PREVENTION 37. Pharmacology of Anticysticercal Therapy 363 Helgi Jung and Dinora F. González-Esquivel 38. Controversies in the Drug Treatment of Neurocysticercosis 375 Bhim S. Singhal and Rodrigo A. Salinas 39. Neurocysticercosis: Neurosurgical Perspective 387 Bhawani S. Sharma and P. Sarat Chandra 40. Endoscopic Management of Intraventricular Cysticercosis 399 Marvin Bergsneider and Jaime H. Nieto 41. Control of Taenia solium with Emphasis on Treatment of Taeniasis 411 James C. Allan, Philip S. Craig and Zbigniew S. Pawlowski 42. Taenia solium Vaccination: Present Status and Future Prospects 421 Carlton A.W. Evans 43. Control of Taenia solium with Porcine Chemotherapy 431 Armando E. Gonzalez 44. Use of a Simulation Model to Evaluate Control Programmes against Taenia solium Cysticercosis 437 Armando E. Gonzalez, Robert H. Gilman, Hector H. García and Teresa Lopez Index 449 Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page viii Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page ix
Contributors
Svetlana Agapejev, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, PO Box 540, School of Medicine, UNESP, 18618-000 Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil. James C. Allan, Pfizer Global Research and Development – Veterinary Medicine Clinical Development, Pfizer Ltd, Sandwich, CT13 9NJ, UK. Russell J. Andrews, Department of Neurology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas 79905, USA. Gilbert Avodé, School of Medicine, Cotonou, Benin. Fernando Barinagarrementeria, Department of Neurology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Medicas y Nutricion, ‘Salvador Zubiran’, México City, México. Marvin Bergsneider, Division of Neurosurgery, University of California, Los Angeles, Harbor–UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA. Sylvie Bisser, Institut d’Epidémiologie Neurologique et de Neurologie Tropicale, EA 3174 (Neuroparasitologie et Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale) Faculté de Médecine, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges, France. Carlos Cantú, Department of Neurology, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirgia ‘Manuel Velasco Suarez’, México City, México. Astrid E. Cardona, Department of Microbiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229, USA. Arturo Carpio, Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, School of Medicine, University of Cuenca, Ecuador, PO Box 0101-719, Cuenca, Ecuador. Geeta Chacko, Division of Neuropathology, Department of Neurological Sciences, Christian Medical College and Hospital, Vellore 632 004, Tamil Nadu, India. P. Sarat Chandra, Department of Neurosurgery, CN Center, Room 720, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi 110 029, India. Sanjeev Chawla, Department of Radiodiagnosis, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Rae Bareli Road, Lucknow 226 014, Uttar Pradesh, India. Seung Yull Cho, Section of Molecular Parasitology, Department of Molecular Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University College of Medicine, Sungkyunkwan, Korea. Dolores Correa, Departmento de Biotecnologia, Instituto de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos (INDRE), Secretaria de Salud, México DF, México. Philip S. Craig, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Salford, M5 5W7, UK. Albert C. Cuetter, Department of Neurology, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas 79905, USA. © CAB International 2002. Taenia solium Cysticercosis (eds G. Singh and S. Prabhakar) ix Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page x
x Contributors
Oscar H. Del Brutto, Department of Neurology, Luis Vernaza Hospital, Guayaquil, Ecuador. Louis Dongmo, School of Medicine, Yaoude, Cameroon. Michel Druet-Cabanac, Institut d’Epidémiologie Neurologique et de Neurologie Tropicale, EA 3174 (Neuroparasitologie et Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale) Faculté de Médecine, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges, France. Michel Dumas, Institut d’Epidémiologie Neurologique et de Neurologie Tropicale, EA 3174 (Neuroparasitologie et Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale) Faculté de Médecine, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges, France. Alfonso Escobar, Instituto de Investigaciones, Biomedicas, National Autonomous University of México, Ciudad Universitaria 04510, México DF, México. Carlton A.W. Evans, Imperial College, Department of Infectious Diseases, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK. Ana Flisser, Departmento de Microbiologia y Parasitologia, Facultad de Medicina, National Autonomous University of México, Ciudad Universitaria, San Angel, México 04510 DF, México. Orestes V. Forlenza, Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM-27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. Hector H. García, Departments of Transmissible Diseases, Microbiology, and Pathology, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru. José Garcia-Noval, Centro de Investigaciones de las Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias Medicas, Universidad de San Carlos, Zona 12, Guatemala City, Guatemala. Ravindra K. Garg, Department of Neurology, King George’s Medical College, Lucknow, 226 003, Uttar Pradesh, India. Robert H. Gilman, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 N Wolfe St, Room W 3501, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA. Armando E. Gonzalez, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru. Dinora F. González-Esquivel, Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacologia, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, México City, México. Rakesh K. Gupta, Department of Radiodiagnosis, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Rae Bareli Road, Lucknow 226 014, Uttar Pradesh, India. W. Allen Hauser, Department of Neurology and Public Health, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, GH Sergievsky Center, 630 West 168th Street, New York 10032, USA. Akira Ito, Department of Parasitology, Asahikawa Medical College, Midorigaoka-Higashi 2-1-1-1, Asahikawa 078-8510, Hokkaido, Japan. Satish Jain, Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Helgi Jung, Laboratorio de Neuropsicofarmacologia, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia, México City, México. Alok M. Kar, Department of Neurology, King George’s Medical College, Lucknow, 226 003, Uttar Pradesh, India. Atul Kumar, Dr Rajendra Prasad Center for Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi 110 029, India. Teresa Lopez, Laboratorio de Micribiologia y Parasitologia, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Macos, Cdra. 29 Av. Circunvalacion s/n San Borja, Lima, Peru. Mahesh C. Maheshwari, Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Olga Mata-Ruiz, Departmento de Biotecnologia, Instituto de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos, Secretaria de Salud, México DF, México. Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xi
Contributors xi
Seppo Meri, Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Insitute, PO Box 21 (Haartmaninkatu 3) 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland. Taru Meri, Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Insitute, PO Box 21 (Haartmaninkatu 3) 00014, University of Helsinki, Finland. Antonio Meza-Lucas, Departmento de Biotecnologia, Instituto de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos, Secretaria de Salud, México DF, México. José L. Molinari, Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Cellular Physiology, National Autonomous University of México, México DF 04510, Apartado Postal 70–242, México. J.M.K. Murthy, Department of Neurology, The Institute of Neurological Sciences, CARE Hospital, Nampally, Hyderabad, 500 001, India. Minoru Nakao, Department of Parasitology, Asahikawa Medical College, Midorigaoka- Higashi 2-1-1-1, Asahikawa 078-8510, Hokkaido, Japan. Jaime H. Nieto, Division of Neurosurgery, University of California, Los Angeles, Harbor–UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA. Léopold Nzisabira, School of Medicine, Bujumbura, Burundi. Munehiro Okamoto, Department of Laboratory Animal Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Koyamacho-Minami 4-101, Tottori 680-8553, Tottori, Japan. Anna Oomen, Neurochemistry Laboratory, Department of Neurological Sciences, CMC Hospital, Vellore 632 004, India. Vasantha Padma, Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Zbigniew S. Pawlowski, Clinic of Parasitic and Tropical Diseases, ul., Przybyszewskiego 49, 60-355 Poznan, Poland. Sudesh Prabhakar, Department of Neurology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 161 001, India. Pierre-Marie Preux, Institut d’Epidémiologie Neurologique et de Neurologie Tropicale, EA 3174 (Neuroparasitologie et Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale) Faculté de Médecine, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges, France. Dong-Chuan Qiu, Sichuan Institute of Parasitic Diseases, 10 University Road, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, People’s Republic of China. Vedantam Rajshekhar, Department of Neurological Sciences, Christian Medical College and Hospital, Vellore, 632 004, India. Bienvenue Ramanankandrasana, Institut d’Epidémiologie Neurologique et de Neurologie Tropicale, EA 3174 (Neuroparasitologie et Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale) Faculté de Médecine, 2 rue du Dr Marcland, 87025 Limoges, France. Yasuhito Sako, Department of Parasitology, Asahikawa Medical College, Midorigaoka- Higashi 2-1-1-1, Asahikawa 078-8510, Hokkaido, Japan. Rodrigo A. Salinas, Healthcare Programmes Division, Ministry of Health, Chile. Ana L. Sanchez, Department of Microbiology, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Elsa Sarti, INDRE, Carpio no. 470, 3rd floor, Col. Sto. Tomás, CP 04230, Mexico City, Mexico. Indermohan S. Sawhney, Department of Neurology, Morriston Hospital, Morriston, Swansea SA6 6NL, UK. Peter M. Schantz, Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA. Wayne X. Shandera, Department of Medicine, Sections of General Internal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Baylor College of Medicine and Ben Taub General Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA. Deepshikka Sharda, Department of Radiodiagnosis, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Rae Bareli Road, Lucknow, 226 014, Uttar Pradesh, India. Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xii
xii Contributors
Bhawani S. Sharma, Department of Neurosurgery, CN Center, Room 720, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Namrata Sharma, Dr Rajendra Prasad Center of Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Gagandeep Singh, Department of Neurology, Dayanand Medical College and Hospital, Ludhiana, 141 001, Punjab, India. Bhim S. Singhal, Department of Neurology, Bombay Hospital Institute of Medical Sciences, 12 Marine Lines, Mumbai, 400 0020, India. Achal Srivastava, Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Raquel Tapia-Romero, Departmento de Biotecnologia, Instituto de Diagnostico y Referencia Epidemiologicos, Secretaria de Salud, México DF, México. Patricia Tato, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, National Autonomous University of México, México DF 04510, México. Judy M. Teale, Department of Microbiology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229, USA. Manjari Tripathi, Department of Neurology, Neurosciences Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India. Victor C.W. Tsang, Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA. Manuela Verastegui, Laboratorio de Parasitologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Av. Honorio Delgado s/n Urbanizacion Ingeniera, San Martin de Porres, Lima, Peru. Noshir H. Wadia, Director of Neurology, Jaslok Hospital and Research Center, Mumbai, India. Karen M. Weidenheim, Division of Neuropathology, Montefiore Medical Center, AECOM, YU111, East 210th Street, Bronx, New York 10467, USA. A. Clinton White Jr, Infectious Disease Section, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, One Baylor Plaza, Houston, Texas 77030, USA. Patricia P. Wilkins, Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA. Marianna Wilson, Division of Parasitic Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, USA. Hiroshi Yamasaki, Department of Parasitology, Asahikawa Medical College, Midorigaoka- Higashi 2-1-1-1, Asahikawa, 078-8510, Hokkaido, Japan. Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xiii
Preface
Neurocysticercosis and the macroparasite Taenia solium, which causes it, have been known about for time immemorial. Through history, one can follow the development of concepts regarding the aetiology, pathology, clinical science and treatment of the disorder. Recent times have however been complicated by accumulating knowledge regarding molecular biol- ogy, immunology and genetics of the disorder. The relationship between the molecular labo- ratory and bedside clinical practice is becoming increasingly powerful. In these times of molecular advances, a review of neurocysticercosis and T. solium that focuses on past accom- plishments, current understanding and future hopes seems appropriate. A number of scien- tific antecedents mean that the goals of effective treatment and, more importantly, eradication are foreseeable. This alone prompted the genesis of this textbook, which symbolizes the spirit of unity between basic researchers, clinicians and field workers. Since the book involved a large number of subspeciality areas including parasitology, immunology, biology, genetics, epidemiology and public health, clinical neurology, radiology and veterinary medicine, it was impossible for two authors alone to write such a volume. Therefore, we solicited the con- tribution of a number of experts, each with great depth of knowledge and experience in their respective areas. The contributors to this book are its principal strength and we are indebted to them for their time and effort spent not only in writing their respective chapters but also for the years of painstaking work that led to the realization of knowledge through basic, clini- cal or field research. It is because of their involvement, that the book turns out what it was meant to be, a ‘one-stop shop for T. solium cysticercosis’. We express our appreciation of several associates among the contributors, who gave invaluable suggestions while planning the book project and were also involved in stimulat- ing discussions: James Allan, Peter Schantz, Ana Flisser, Patricia Wilkins, Hector García, Akira Ito, Phillip Craig, Arturo Carpio, Carlton Evans and Svetlana Agapejev. Davinder Singh and Arun Gupta provided excellent editorial assistance with the text and illustrations, respectively. Finally, this book is a tribute to those millions afflicted by the disorder. They have contributed in their own way to the understanding of the disorder. It is our fervent hope that the recent accomplishments in scientific understanding brought out in this volume will ultimately lead to the goal of complete global eradication of the parasite, T. solium.
© CAB International 2002. Taenia solium Cysticercosis (eds G. Singh and S. Prabhakar) xiii Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xiv
Abbreviations
AED antiepileptic drug AFB acid-fast bacilli AIDS acquired immune-deficiency syndrome ALBSO albendazole sulphoxide ATT antitubercular treatment AUC area under the plasma concentration–time curve C1 first cervical vertebra CDC Centers for Disease Control cDNA complementary deoxyribonucleic acid CECT contrast enhanced CT CI confidence interval
Cmax maximal concentration CNS central nervous system COI cytochrome c oxidase subunit I COII cytochrome c oxidase subunit II COIII cytochrome c oxidase subunit III Con A concanavalin A CSF cerebrospinal fluid CT computed tomography CWG Cysticercosis Working Group DTH delayed type hypersensitivity EDTA ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid EEG electroencephalography EITB enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ES excretory–secretory FLAIR fluid attenuation inversion recovery FMO flavin-containing monoxygenase Gd gadolinium GIS global information system GPL glycoproteins GST glutathione-S-transferase HIV human immunodeficiency virus HLA human leucocyte antigen HPLC-ELISA high pressure liquid chromatography-ELISA hsps heat shock proteins © CAB International 2002. Taenia solium Cysticercosis xiv Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xv
Abbreviations xv
HU Hounsfield units ICH intracranial hypertension ICP intracranial pressure IDEMSC intradural extramedullary spinal cysticercosis IEF immunoelectrophoresis IFN interferon IgG immunoglobulin G IgM immunoglobulin M IHA indirect haemagglutination assay IL interleukin ILAE International League Against Epilepsy IMOA intramuscular oncosphere assay IMSC intramedullary spinal cysticercosis IP intraperitoneal IV intravascular IVNC intraventricular neurocysticercosis LLGP lentil lectin-bound glycoproteins LrRNA large subunit rRNA MAb monoclonal antibody MF metacestode factor MoAb monoclonal antibody MRI magnetic resonance imaging mtDNA mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid NADH reduced nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide NADPH nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form) NC neurocysticercosis Nd:YAG neodymium:yttrium alminium-garnet NOD-SCID non-obese diabetic-severe combined immunodeficiency Pc corrected P value PCR polymerase chain reaction PD proton density PoAb polyclonal antibody PRA participatory rural appraisal Rnase ribonuclease RR relative risk rRNA ribosomal ribonucleic acid SCG solitary cysticercus granuloma SDS-PAGE sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis SrRNA small subunit rRNA SSECTL single small enhancing CT lesion sTS synthetic Taenia solium TCD transcranial doppler Th T helper cell TNF tumour necrosis factor tRNA transfer ribonucleic acid VPS ventriculoperitoneal shunt Singh - Prelims 17/9/02 12:00 pm Page xvi Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 1
1 Taenia solium: Basic Biology and Transmission
Zbigniew S. Pawlowski
No animal has been responsible for more hypotheses, discussions and errors than the tapeworm Casimir Joseph Davaine, 18601
Introduction would take time in several developing coun- tries where cysticercosis is endemic. Even today, the above statement by the Recently, schemes for short-term control author of a French textbook of parasitology have been developed with an aim to bring deserves attention. While some of the earlier about immediate control of T. solium infec- controversies regarding the taxonomic sta- tion in developing countries (reviewed in tus, life cycle and pathogenicity of Taenia Chapters 41–44). These methods require solium have been solved, several issues in multidisciplinary collaboration between relation to basic biology, modalities of trans- clinical, veterinary and public health ser- mission and control remain unsettled. A vices, and immunology and parasitology major reason for these persisting uncertain- disciplines as well as support at the commu- ties has been that the study of Taeniidae is nity and national levels3. In order to under- neither a research nor a control priority. stand the basis of the control strategies, it is Fifty years ago in UK, and in many coun- necessary to have sound knowledge of the tries today, taeniasis in humans was consid- life cycle and mechanisms of transmission of ered a trifle, and regarded as more suitable infection. This chapter reviews basic biology for an examination question than for consid- of T. solium with emphasis on aspects related eration as a potential threat of cysticercosis2. to its transmission. Basic, experimental as well as field studies upon T. solium infection are still few. The control of human cysticercosis for a long Taxonomic Status of T. solium time was left to veterinary services alone. The eradication of human cysticercosis in The origin of tapeworms still remains a Europe made it clear that certain economic controversial issue4,5. According to actual and social standards and community disci- systematics, there are two major subclasses pline and cooperation were necessary for of tapeworms: Cestodaria and Eucestoda. successful control of infection. Since socio- Taenia solium belongs to the subclass, economic improvement is a gradual and Eucestoda, order, Cyclophyllidea and slow process, long-term control programmes family, Taeniidae5. The family, Taeniidae © CAB International 2002. Taenia solium Cysticercosis (eds G. Singh and S. Prabhakar) 1 Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 2
2 Z.S. Pawlowski
comprises 11 genera of small to large sized nata, and less frequently T. solium adult tapeworms. They have a holdfast organ – tapeworms have been noted, often giving the scolex – and an elongated-segmented rise to taxonomic confusion in the past. The tape-like body. Each segment has intri- taxonomic revision of genus Taenia, pub- cately developed sexual organs but does lished by Verster, recognizes only two not have an alimentary canal. The genus species of Taeniidae, namely, T. solium and Taenia has about 20 species; important T. saginata as capable of parasitizing the among these are T. solium (pork tapeworm), human gut8,9. The so called Asian Taenia, T. saginata (beef tapeworm), T. crassiceps first described in 1980s in Taiwan, was ini- (rodent tapeworm), T. hydatigena (canine tially proposed to be a new species but is tapeworm), T. ovis (canine tapeworm) and now accepted to be a subspecies of T. sagi- T. pisiformis (canine tapeworm). Only a few nata namely, T. saginata asiatica (see Chapter species among Taeniidae present potential 5)10,11. The adult stage of T. solium needs to health hazards to humans: Taenia solium, T. be differentiated from other Taeniidae, par- saginata, Echinococcus granulosus and E. mul- ticularly the closely related T. saginata (Table tilocularis. In addition, there are anecdotal 1.1, Fig. 1.1). Differences between scolices of reports of human infection with T. crassi- T. solium and T. saginata were recognized as ceps, T. hydatigena and T. multiceps. Few early as in the 17th century7. T. solium scol- other zoonotic species, e.g. T. taeniaeformis, ices are armed with hooks, while T. saginata T. ovis and T. hydatigena are good models scolices are not. This easily visible criterion for laboratory and field studies; the latter is now of little routine diagnostic value as can hardly be performed with T. solium on intact scolices can rarely be found after account of its high pathogenic risk poten- treatment with modern anthelminthics (that tial. Therefore, studies of related species cause considerable damage to the worm). In constitute a useful source of information on general, the adult T. solium is smaller and biology and transmission of T. solium. more delicate than T. saginata. For nearly Although the ‘Standardized Nomenclature 150 years, gravid proglottides of T. solium of Animal Parasitic Diseases’ recommended and T. saginata were differentiated by count- the use of the term ‘taeniosis’ (T. solium tae- ing the number of lateral uterine branches. niosis, T. saginata taeniosis), the term, ‘taeni- In 1967, Verster questioned this criterion asis’ continues to be widely used6. The term, and proposed three morphological charac- ‘cysticercosis’ denotes infection with the teristics for distinguishing T. solium from T. metacestode stage (cysticercus) of Taenia. It saginata, namely the presence of an armed was as late as 1853 that cysticerci were rostellum, three-lobed ovary and the demonstrated to be a developmental stage absence of a vaginal sphincter (Table 1.1, of T. solium and not a separate parasite Fig. 1.1)8. These differences are rarely species as was previously held7. The terms, observed in routine diagnostic parasitol- ‘cysticercus cellulosae’ and ‘cysticercus ogy practice as scolices and mature bovis’ were introduced in the 18th century; proglottides are not commonly available these are of historic value only and should and counting ovarian lobes as well as find- never be used in a generic fashion. In med- ing the vaginal sphincter requires fixation ical literature, the expression ‘cysticercosis’ and staining of mature proglottides, which synonymously denotes T. solium metaces- is an arduous procedure. tode infection unless otherwise specified, Enzyme electrophoresis for the differentia- e.g. bovine cysticercosis. tion of Taeniidae was elaborated in the early 1970s; it has been replaced by DNA finger- printing in the 1990s12,13. Specific DNA probes Differences between T. solium, T. saginata for T. solium and T. saginata are now avail- and T. saginata asiatica able13. Intraspecific DNA differences were demonstrated between T. solium tapeworms Several morphological abnormalities of originating from various continents (reviewed strobila or individual proglottides of T. sagi- in Chapter 5)14. These molecular studies also Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 3
Basic Biology and Transmission 3 2 16Ð21 (32) Dichotomous 260Ð1016 868Ð904 lobes Two Present No c. 3.5 0.24Ð0.29 c. 9.5 Present Absent 4 0.8 Wart-like formations Wart-like T. saginata asiatica T. Pig, cattle, goat, some wild mammals Liver (exclusively) 2 Single, spontaneously Rostellum, rudimentary hooklets (1Ð37) 4Ð6 (compiled from references 10, 18, 37 and 46). 18Ð32 (15) Dichotomous 800Ð1200 c. 2000 lobes Two Present No 4Ð12 0.7Ð0.8 12Ð14 Absent Absent 4 1.5Ð2.0 Rugae No rostellum Cattle, reindeer Muscle, viscera T. saginata T. 7Ð10 T. saginata asiatica and T. 3.1Ð6.5 7Ð12 (16) Dendritic 375Ð575 700Ð1000 Three lobes Absent Yes 1.5Ð8 0.4Ð0.5 7Ð10 Present 22Ð32 4 0.6Ð1.0 Wart-like formations Wart-like Rostellum and hooks Pig, wild boar Brain, skin, muscle T. solium T. 5.6Ð8.5 Mainly in groups, passively Single, spontaneously T. saginata solium , T. between T. Morphological differences Branching pattern Number of testes Number of uterine branches Ovary sphincter Vaginal Cirrus pouch extending to excretory vessels Number of proglottides Maximal breadth (mm) Length (mm) Number of hooks Rostellum Number of suckers Diameter of suckers (mm) Diameter (m) Expulsion from host Mature proglottides Gravid proglottides Proglottides Scolex Bladder surface Scolex Site Size (mm) Adult tapeworm Intermediate host Metacestodes Table 1.1. Table Characteristic Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 4
4 Z.S. Pawlowski 0.5 mm (a) (b) (c)
2 mm
(d) (e)
(f) (g)
ut 5 mm
(h) (i) (j)
Fig. 1.1. Diagrammatic representation of the comparative morphological features of adult T. solium (a, d, f, h), T. saginata (b, g, i) and T. saginata asiatica (c, e, j) (adapted from references 8, 10, 47). Note that tri-lobed ovary in the mature proglottid of T. solium (d), in comparison to two lobes in the mature proglottid of T. saginata and T. saginata asiatica (e), the presence of the vaginal sphincter in the atrium genitale of T. saginata (g). Note also the differences in the branching pattern of the uterus of T. solium (h), T. saginata (i) and T. saginata asiatica (j) proglottides. Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 5
Basic Biology and Transmission 5
support speciation of T. saginata asiatica as a Stages in Development of T. solium subspecies of T. saginata15. Recently, a sero- logic assay, using T. solium excretory–secre- The life cycle of T. solium is divided into six tory antigens that is 95% sensitive and 100% characteristic developmental stages (Fig. 1.2): specific, has been developed to identify T. solium tapeworms carriers (reviewed in 1. Preadult tapeworm: a stage between the Chapter 33)16. A rapid, highly sensitive and cysticercus, after it has successfully invaded specific dot blot assay has also been devel- the definite host, and the mature tapeworm. oped for detection of T. solium eggs, which 2. Adult tapeworm: a reproductive stage otherwise cannot be differentiated from T. sag- capable of producing thousands of eggs. inata and some other taeniid eggs by morpho- 3. Egg: a small embryo covered by an logical criteria alone17. The differentiation of embryophore, a stage responsible for dis- T. solium and T. saginata taeniasis is important semination to the external environment. for clinical reasons and epidemiological pur- 4. Oncosphere: a hexacanth larva which poses. However, in regions, where both are migrates from the intestine to internal tissues endemic in animals, and when species-spe- or organs within the intermediate host. cific diagnosis in humans is not possible, any 5. Postoncospheral form: an intermediate case of taeniasis should be considered and stage between an oncosphere in the tissues treated without delay as suspected T. solium and a fully developed cysticercus. infection. 6. Cysticercus: a bladder metacestode form that parasitizes tissues of the intermediate host, mainly pigs as well as humans. Taenia solium Infection: Host Characteristics Preadult and adult tapeworm Humans are the major natural final host of T. solium, implying that man, the only natural The ingestion of pork contaminated with definite host, is the most important multi- cysticerci by man is a prerequisite for this plier, reservoir and disseminator of the infec- stage. Upon reaching the human intestine tion to pigs. However, experimental the cysticercus evaginates and loses its infections with adult T. solium after ingestion bladder wall. The adult tapeworm grows of cysticerci have been successfully estab- up from behind the scolex of the cysticer- lished in lar gibbon (Hylobates lar), chacma cus. It takes approximately 2 months to baboon (Papio ursinus) and golden hamster develop into a mature, reproductively com- (Mesocricetus auratus). T. solium metacestodes petent, adult tapeworm that is capable of are less specific than adult cestodes18. The producing eggs. list of mammals in which cysticerci armed The adult tapeworm has a scolex, an elon- with hooks have been found includes mon- gated neck and a strobila4. The scolex is the keys (Ateles, Cercopithecus, Macacus sp.), wild holdfast organ armed with four suckers and a boars, bush pigs, bush babies, camels, rab- rostellum displaying 22–32 characteristic bits, hares, rock hyraxes, brown bears, dogs, hooks4. The strobila consists of 700–1000 seg- foxes, cats, polecats, coatis, rats and mice18. ments proglottids and can be extremely long In addition, experimental infection with T. (Fig. 1.3). It is made up of immature, mature solium oncospheres has been successfully and gravid proglottids, which differ in size, established in immunosuppressed mice (see shape and stage of development with respect Chapter 4)19. However, many of the to their internal reproductive organs and egg reported cysticerci differed in the size of content (Fig. 1.1). Proglottids located proxi- hooks and immunoelectrophoretic pattern mally are small, short and reproductively of T. solium cysticerci; not all armed cys- immature. Mature proglottids are almost rec- ticerci are those of T. solium18. Humans are tangular and have fully developed sexual unique in that they can harbour both adult organs. The gravid segments, located towards and metacestode stages. the very distal end of the strobila, are Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 6
6 Z.S. Pawlowski
Stages Habitat Number Time
*Human taeniasis
HUMANS
**Human cysticercosis around a carrier **Human cysticercosis: external / internal autoinfection
1. Preadult GutOne 2 months tapeworm
2. Adult Gut One In years tapeworm
(Gravid Several in a proglottids) week
ENVIRONMENT
3. Eggs Soil, water, 300,000 per day One year dirt
Transmission of human cysticercosis
PIGS
4. Oncosphere Gut / tissue OneÐseveral 2 days
5. Post-oncosphere Muscle, brain, OneÐseveral 10Ð12 weeks other organs
6. Cysticercus Muscle, brain, OneÐseveral <1 year other organs
Transmission of human taeniasis: meatborne
Fig. 1.2. Diagrammatic representation of the life cycle of T. solium. Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 7
Basic Biology and Transmission 7
elongated (20 5 mm) and each is packed testes; each connected to the sperm duct with a uterus full of eggs. The gravid proglot- (vas deferens) leading to the genital pore. tids detach from the strobila by ‘apolysis’ The female reproductive system comprises either individually or in groups of two to five, of a vagina, also located within the genital and are passed in the faeces a few times in a pore, a receptaculum seminis, an oviduct, a week20. Discharged proglottides remain active trilobed ovary and a vitelline gland. Both and may show some movements. self- and cross-fertilization may occur. The tapeworm is a protoandrous her- Spermatozoa formed in the testes are con- maphrodite4. Its reproductive system is veyed through the sperm duct to the genital intricately developed. Within each mature pore and thereafter to the vagina to finally proglottid, a centrally located ovary, a reach the receptaculum seminis and the vitelline gland and uterus, surrounded by oviduct. The ovary discharges eggs in to the numerous testes can be seen. The male oviduct, where the latter are fertilized by reproductive organs include numerous spermatozoa. The fertilized eggs acquire
Fig. 1.3. Picture depicting the entire length of the adult T. solium tapeworm. (Source: Ana Flisser, National Autonomous University of México, México DF, México.) Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 8
8 Z.S. Pawlowski
yolk cells from a vitelline gland in the being noticed in the faeces. Usually, a single oviduct itself and are relocated into the T. solium tapeworm parasitizes the human uterus, where they are stored. As the uterus gut; however, multiple infections may occur. tube is closed without any opening to out- Superinfection probably exists; it has been side it develops several ramifications packed documented in experimental T. saginata with eggs, thus occupying most of the infection27. gravid proglottid. Besides the reproductive system, the adult tapeworm has four major organ systems: tegument, nervous system, Taenia solium eggs osmoregulatory system and muscular sys- tem. It has no digestive canal4. The eggs of T. solium are morphologically While the tapeworm lives in human small indistinguishable from those of other Taenia intestine, its scolex is temporarily fixed in the sp. (Fig. 1.4a). As with eggs of other duodenum and the strobila is bent a few Taeniidae, the outer shell of T. solium eggs is times21. However, it frequently moves up very delicate and is usually lost while leav- and down, in synchrony with the passage of ing the uterus. What is found in the faeces is incoming food. It adapts to the rather hostile an oncosphere covered by an embryophore, intestinal environment, being mobile, anaer- characteristic for all Taenia. The embryophore obic, and is able to withstand the varying pH is globular in shape and measures 31–43 m and digestive enzymes within the intestine. in diameter28. It has a thick striated cover The adult worm is believed to survive for a and contains an oncosphere armed with six few years; new proglottides constantly typical embryonic hooklets (giving it the replace those expelled. Studies performed by name, ‘hexacanth embryo’), usually visible Yoshino in the 1930s are of interest22–26. He through the embryophore cover. The himself swallowed three T. solium cysticerci embryophore protects the oncosphere and noted passage of proglottides starting against various unfavourable environmental from 2 months after infection and lasting for conditions but is easily broken in the gut of 2 years and 3 months26. A tapeworm that the intermediate host where the substance dies naturally or after treatment is easily cementing the keratin-like prismatic ele- digested and disappears quickly without ments of its cover is digested.
(b)(a) (a)(b)
Fig. 1.4. Taenia solium eggs (a) and oncospheres (b). The eggs are 40 30 m in size and surrounded by a shell; in the centre of figure (a) is a disintegrating egg, showing the process of hatching of an oncosphere. The oncospheres can be seen surrounding a single egg in (b); their size is smaller (30 20 m) and they contain characteristic embryonic hooklets. (Source: Akivo Ito, Asahikawa Medical College, Asahikawa, Japan.) Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 9
Basic Biology and Transmission 9
The T. solium tapeworm can shed up to E. granulosus oncospheres). Others are 300,000 eggs daily29. Each apolysed proglot- mature and readily infective to humans tid has approximately 40,000 eggs. Most of and/or pigs. There are also few senile the eggs are discharged from a pore at the oncospheres that are incapable of develop- anterior part of the proglottid, but some ing further; nevertheless, they serve as remain in the uterus. Eggs that are shed into immunizing factors while disintegrating in faeces may serve as a source of external the intermediate host31. It is held that lumi- autoinfection to people in close contact with nal factors such as bile salts are involved in the carrier. However, most eggs are dissemi- the liberation and activation of mature nated to the environment. The fate of T. oncospheres in the gut. Within 2 hours of solium eggs in the environment has not been liberation, oncospheres enter submucosal adequately studied. In regions that lack sani- blood and/or lymphatic vessels and migrate tation, free-ranging pigs feed upon faecal to internal organs such as liver, lungs, mus- matter that is indiscriminately deposited by cles and brain. Why oncospheres have a people. This is a natural method to reduce predilection for certain sites such as muscle, contamination of the environment but it brain and subcutaneous tissue is not clear. increases incidence of swine cysticercosis. The high reproductive potential of the adult T. solium tapeworm is counterbalanced Postoncospheral stage or cysticercus by an enormous egg loss in the external envi- ronment29. Factors influencing egg survival The postoncospheral development of the and infectivity have been studied in other larva (also designated as ‘metacestode’) pro- members of the genus Taenia and have been ceeds within the intermediate host. During comprehensively reviewed elsewhere30–34. this stage, the parasite does not attain sexual Egg survival is adversely affected by maturity. The metacestode of the genus extremes of temperature and desiccation. Taenia is known as ‘cysticercus’. The parasite Conversely, humidity and temperatures is located in a cavity lined by host epitheloid between 10°C and room temperature favour cells originating from small vessels. The egg survival29. A number of agents such as oncosphere quickly change from a solid wind and water, and some invertebrates and larva into a bladder form filled with fluid birds are believed to aid in taeniid egg dis- and having a group of cells that will differen- persal30–35. However, egg dispersal may be of tiate further into an invaginated scolex. The less importance in the life cycle of T. solium experiments performed by Yoshino, referred than in that of Echinococcus sp., where sheep to earlier, helped to clarify the sequence of presumably get infected while grazing heav- development of the metacestode23–25. When ily contaminated pasturage31. the freed oncosphere enters the intestinal wall, it is less than 0.03 mm in size23. At about 6 days, the metacestode is still solid Oncosphere and measures 0.4 0.3 mm23. It has an outer membranous wall comprising of pleomorphic The mature oncosphere is a globular larva, cells, while its inner contents are myxoma- 30 m in diameter (Fig. 1.4b). Its body is tous. By 12 days, the metacestode is larger composed of a few hundred cells differenti- and becomes cystic. Between 20 and 30 days, ated into muscle, excretory and nervous sys- a rudimentary scolex is discernable24. Hooks tem; it also has six characteristic embryonic appear by 40 days and the rostellum and hooklets and a pair of penetration glands suckers are distinguishable by 40–50 days25. that are helpful in migration5. The metacestode reaches its fully grown size Oncospheres, enclosed within embryo- of 5.6–8.5 mm 3.1–6.5 mm by 60–70 days. phores while leaving the human gut, are in The cysticercus is an ovoid bladder stage. various stages of development. A few oncos- It is filled with an opalescent fluid and con- pheres are not fully developed and will tains an invaginated scolex. The bladder con- mature in the environment (as in the case of sists of outer and inner layers. The outer Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 10
10 Z.S. Pawlowski
layer has characteristic hair-like processes. route of self-infection. Internal autoinfection, This layer not only plays a protective role suggested by Leukart in 1856 and cited by but also serves as a trophoblast that absorbs others, implies infection with eggs through nutrients and excretes metabolites36. reverse peristalsis37. Internal autoinfection Between the outer and inner layers there are appears theoretically improbable since eggs few muscle bundles, fine fibres, flame cells, are required to pass through a brief period of calcareous corpuscles, neural and duct sys- peptic digestion that is necessary for disinte- tems and a group of non-differentiated oval gration of the embryophores before being cells. Any change in osmotic pressure causes invasive to human tissue37. The possibility of the scolex to become everted. The survival internal autoinfection cannot be totally disre- time of a cysticercus is limited to a few years. garded however, and merits further study. The naturally degenerating cysticercus From 5 to 40% of adult T. solium carriers becomes necrotic and eventually gets calci- have been reported to develop fied, or forms a granuloma that finally trans- cysticercosis38. In the case of infection with T. forms into a fibrotic scar. saginata, it has been demonstrated that the The cysticercus is typically found in the immediate environment of the infected indi- intermediate host, i.e. the pig. In humans, the vidual is heavily contaminated39. This may cysticercus constitutes a dead-end stage, i.e. not be the case, however, with pork tape- its life cycle cannot progress any further. worm infection, because unlike T. saginata, However, its development in pigs, known as the proglottides of T. solium do not pass out porcine cysticercosis, perpetuates the life actively through the anus. Nevertheless, the cycle of the parasite when man ingests conta- high rates of cysticercosis in individuals with minated pork with viable cysticerci. intestinal taeniasis and their family members and household contacts confirm that faecal–oral self- and cross-infection is com- Biological and Economic Cycles of T. mon38. Similarly, there is the theoretical pos- solium: Implications for Control sibility of outbreak of cysticercosis around T. solium carriers in schools, closed institutions Biological cycle and public eating facilities, though this has never been adequately confirmed. The relatively simple natural biological cycle of T. solium zoonosis consists of two hosts and the environment. Man, the final host, Economic cycle harbours the adult tapeworm, which pro- duces several thousands of eggs daily for One can imagine that in addition to the bio- years. The eggs are disseminated to the envi- logical cycle of T. solium described above, an ronment through faeces. The pig, which is economic cycle exists in several developing the intermediate host, ingests some of these countries40,41. Several economic factors sus- eggs; the latter develop into cysticerci. When tain the life cycle of T. solium in underdevel- man consumes contaminated pork contain- oped regions. Each rural household, in ing cysticerci, the latter develop into an adult certain developing countries, rears pigs in worm inhabiting the human intestine. This small numbers; the latter constitute an completes the life cycle of the parasite (Fig. important source not only of meat but also of 1.2). However, man may also be infected by immediate income. The production of free- T. solium eggs through internal and external ranging animals needs minimal investment autoinfection. External autoinfection implies and running costs for the rural poor. In faecal–oral infection with T. solium eggs in an absence of sanitary infrastructure, people use individual with intestinal taeniasis. Neglect houseyards, open areas and fields for defeca- of hygienic standards such as washing hands tion and ablution. This allows free-ranging after defecation and before consuming meals pigs access to human faeces and perpetuates are principal reasons for external autoinfec- transmission of parasite from man to pig. tion. External autoinfection is an established Individual rural pork producers and unli- Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 11
Basic Biology and Transmission 11
censed pig dealers are not motivated to pass there is no significant wildlife reservoir and pork through meat inspection because of finally a feasible intervention is available in threat of condemnation. Furthermore, the the form of mass chemotherapy of human lack of fuel as well as the local culinary taeniasis with safe and effective drugs habits facilitate the consumption of raw or (reviewed in Chapter 41). semi-cooked meat. These factors lead to the transmission of the parasite from pig to man in endemic areas42. The socio-ecological and Conclusions economic factors strongly influence the transmission of T. solium infection and are Six major stages of development have been responsible for its concentration in certain recognized in the life cycle of T. solium. Man areas, making short-term control with taenia- is a major reservoir, multiplier of the parasite sis therapy possible (discussed in Chapter and disseminator of infection to both himself 41)43,44. and to the pig. The pig does not play the most important role in spreading human cysticercosis, as was believed until not long Implications for control ago. The role of the external environment in transmission of T. solium infection is incom- In 1993, the Task Force for Disease pletely understood. The control of taenia- Eradication (Centers for Disease Control, sis/cysticercosis depends much not only on Atlanta, USA) itemized four diseases that the biological life cycle but also on the ‘eco- were potentially eradicable in the future; nomic’ cycle of T. solium. Several factors these included lymphatic filariasis, mumps, including inadequacies in pig husbandry, rubella and T. solium taeniasis/cysticerco- sanitary facilities, meat inspection, personal sis45. Several characteristics of T. solium hygiene and local feeding habits are infection make it suitable for eradication, involved in the perpetuation of the life cycle namely, adult tapeworm infection in of T. solium in the developing world. Control humans is the only source of infection for strategies should be able to deal with these intermediate hosts (pigs); the animal inter- deficiencies in order to be effective in eradi- mediate host population can be managed; cating taeniasis/cysticercosis.
References
1. Davaine, C.J. (1860) Traite des Entozoaires et des Maladies Vermineuses de l’Homme et des Animaux Domestiques. JB Bailière et fils, Paris, France. 2. Asher, R. (1953) Troublesome tapeworms. Lancet i, 1019–1021. 3. Schantz, P.M., Cruz, M., Sarti, E., et al. (1993) Potential eradicability of taeniasis and cysticercosis. Bulletin of the Pan American Health Organization 27, 397–403. 4. Wardle, R.A., McLeod, J.A., Radinovsky, S. (1974) Advances in the Zoology of Tapeworms 1950–1970. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 10–22. 5. Smyth, J.D. (1994) Introduction to Animal Parasitology, 3rd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 277–387. 6. Kassai, T., Cordero del Campillo, M., Euzeby, J., et al. (1988) Standardized nomenclature of animal parasitic diseases (SNOAPAD). Veterinary Parasitology 29, 299–326. 7. Grove, D.I. (1990) Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis. In: A History of Human Helminthology. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 355–383. 8. Verster, A. (1967) Redescription of Taenia solium Linnaeus, 1758 and Taenia saginata Goeze, 1782. Zeitschrift fuer Parasitenkunde 29, 313–328. 9. Verster, A. (1969) A taxonomic revision of the genus Taenia Linnaeus, 1758. Journal of Veterinary Research 36, 3–58. 10. Eom, K.S., Rim, H.J. (1993) Morphological descriptions of Taenia asiatica sp. Korean Journal of Parasitology 31, 1–6. Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 12
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11. Fan, P.C., Chung, W.C. (1998) Taenia saginata asiatica: Epidemiology, infection, and immunological and molecular studies. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection 31, 84–89. 12. La Riche, P.D., Sewell, M.M.H. (1978) Differentiation of taeniid cestodes by enzyme electrophoresis. International Journal of Parasitology 8, 479–483. 13. McManus, D.P. (1990) Characterization of taeniid cestodes by DNA analysis. Revue Scientifique et Technique 9, 489–510. 14. Rishi, A.K., McManus, D.P. (1988) Molecular cloning of Taenia solium genomic DNA and characteri- zation of taeniid cestodes by DNA analysis. Parasitology 97, 161–176. 15. Zarlenga, D.S., McManus, D.P., Fan, P.C., et al. (1991) Characterization and detection of a newly described Asian taeniid using cloned ribosomal DNA fragments and sequence amplification by the polymerase chain reaction. Experimental Parasitology 72, 174–183. 16. Wilkins, P.P., Allan, J.C., Verastegui, M., et al. (1999) Development of a serologic assay to detect Taenia solium taeniasis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 60, 199–204. 17. Chapman, A., Vallejo, V., Mossie, K.G., et al. (1995) Isolation and characterization of species-specific DNA probes from Taenia solium and Taenia saginata and their use in an egg detection assay. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 33, 1283–1288. 18. Pawlowski, Z.S. (1982) Taeniasis and cysticercosis. In: Steele, J.H. (ed.) Handbook Series. Zoonoses. Section C: Parasitic Zoonoses. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida Vol. 1, part 2, pp. 313–348. 19. Wang, I.C., Ma, Y.X., Guo, J.X., et al. (1999) Oncospheres of Taenia solium and Taenia saginata asiatica develop into metacestodes in normal and immunosuppressed mice. Journal of Helminthology 73, 183–186. 20. Pawlowski, Z.S. (1994) Taeniasis and cysticercosis. In: Hui, Y.H., Gorham, J.R., Murrel, K.D., et al. (eds) Foodborne Disease Handbook. Diseases Caused by Viruses, Parasites and Fungi. Marcel Dekker, New York, Vol. 2, pp. 199–254. 21. Prevot, R., Hornbostel, H., Dorken, H. (1952) Lokalisations-studien bei Taenia saginata. Klinische Wochenschrift 30, 78–80. 22. Yoshino, K. (1933) Studies on the postembryonal development of Taenia solium. Part I. On the hatch- ing of eggs of Taenia solium. Journal of Medical Association of Formosa 32, 139–141 (English summary). 23. Yoshino, K. (1933) Studies on the postembryonal development of Taenia solium. Part II. On the youngest form of cysticercus cellulosae and on the migratory course of the oncospheres of Taenia solium within the intermediate host. Journal of Medical Association of Formosa 32, 155–158 (English summary). 24. Yoshino, K. (1933) Studies on the postembryonal development of Taenia solium. Part III. On the development of cysticercus cellulosae within the definite intermediate host. Journal of Medical Association of Formosa 32, 166–169 (English summary). 25. Yoshino, K. (1933) Experimental studies on the formation of the scolex of Taenia solium. Journal of Medical Association of Formosa 32, 169–171 (English summary). 26. Yoshino, K. (1934) On the subjective symptoms caused by parasitism of Taenia solium and its devel- opment in man. Journal of Medical Association of Formosa 33, 183–194 (English summary). 27. Hornbostel, H. (1959) Bandwurmprobleme in neuer Sicht. Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany, pp. 1–59. 28. Laclette, J.P., Ornelas, Y., Merchant, M.T., et al. (1982) Ultrastructure of the surrounding envelopes of Taenia solium eggs. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 375–387. 29. Lawson, J.R., Gemmell, M.A. (1983) Hydatidosis and cysticercosis: the dynamics of transmission. In: Baker, J.R., Muller, R. (eds) Advances in Parasitology. Academic Press, London, Vol. 22, pp. 262–308. 30. Gemmell, M.A., Johnstone, P.D. (1976) Factors regulating tapeworm populations: dispersion of eggs of Taenia hydatigena on pasture. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 70, 431. 31. Gemmell, M, Lawson, J.R., Roberts, M.G. (1987) Population dynamics in echinococcosis and cys- ticercosis: evaluation of the biological parameters of Taenia hydatigena and T. ovis and comparison with those of Echinococcus granulosus. Parasitology 94, 161–180. 32. Gemmell, M.A., Lawson, J.R. (1989) The ovine cysticercosis as models for research into the epidemi- ology and control of the human and porcine cysticercosis Taenia solium. I. Epidemiological consider- ations. Acta Leidensia 57, 165–172. 33. Gemmell, M.A., Johnstone, P.D., Boswell, C.C. (1978) Factors regulating tapeworm population dis- persion patterns of Taenia hydatigena eggs on pasture. Research in Veterinary Science 24, 334–338. Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 13
Basic Biology and Transmission 13
34. Gemmel, M.A., Lawson, J.R. (1982) Ovine cysticercosis: an epidemiological model for the cysticer- cosies II. Host immunity and regulation of the parasite population. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 647–660. 35. Lonc, E. (1980) The possible role of the soil fauna in the epizootiology of cysticercosis in cattle. I. Earthworms, II. Dung beetles – the biotic factor in a transmission of Taenia saginata eggs. Angewandte Parasitologie 21, 133–138, and 139–144 36. Bon, E.R., Merchant, M.T., Gonzalez-del Pliego, M., et al. (1982) Ultrastructre of the bladder wall of the metacestode of Taenia solium. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 261–280. 37. Goennert, R., Meister, G., Strufe, R., et al. (1967) Biologische Probleme bei Taenia solium. Journal of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 18, 76–81. 38. Schantz, P.M., Wilkins, P.P., Tsang, V.C.W. (1998) Immigrants, imaging, and immunoblots: the emer- gence of neurocysticercosis as a significant public health problem. In: Scheld, W.M., Craig, W.A., Hughes, J.M. (eds) Emerging Infections. ASM Press, Washington, DC, pp. 213–242. 39. Pawlowski, Z., Schultz, M.G. (1972) Taeniasis and cysticercosis (Taenia saginata). Advances in Parasitology 10, 269–343. 40. Pawlowski, Z. (1991) Control of Taenia solium taeniasis and cysticercosis by focus oriented chemotherapy of taeniasis. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 22, 284–286. 41. The Cysticercosis Working Group in Peru (1993) The marketing of cysticercotic pigs in the Sierra of Peru. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 71, 223–228. 42. Pawlowski, Z.S. (1990) Perspectives on the control of Taenia solium. Parasitology Today 6, 371–373. 43. Cruz, M., Davis, A., Dixon, H., et al. (1989) Operational studies on the control of Taenia solium taenia- sis/cysticercosis in Ecuador. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 67, 401–407. 44. Craig, P.S., Rogan, M.T., Allan, J.C. (1996) Detection, screening and community epidemiology of taeniid cestode zoonoses: cystic echinococcosis, alveolar echinococcosis and neurocysticercosis. Advances in Parasitology 38, 169–250. 45. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1993) Recommendations of the International Task Force for Disease Eradication. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Report 42, 1–27. 46. Fan, P.C. (1988) Taiwan Taenia and taeniasis. Parasitology Today 4, 86–88. 47. Faust, E.C., Russell, P.F., Jung, R.C. (1974) Clinical Parasitology. Lea and Fibiger, Philadelphia, USA. Singh - Chap 01 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 14 Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 15
2 Taenia solium Cysticercosis: New and Revisited Immunological Aspects
Ana Flisser, Dolores Correa and Carlton A.W. Evans
Introduction with disease pathogenesis. Living cysticerci may cause an asymptomatic infection It has taken almost 25 years to unravel and through active evasion and suppression of understand some of the characteristics and immunity. Histological studies have shown mechanisms of the immune response elicited that both in humans and pigs, live, viable cys- against Taenia solium cysticercus within the ticerci have little or no surrounding inflam- human host. Some of these are presently quite mation. Cysticerci may persist in the human clear, for instance, the heterogeneity of the host for long periods of time, often for years humoral immune response, the existence of without eliciting surrounding host inflamma- immune evasive mechanisms and the fact tory reaction. In contrast, the immune medi- that the immune response can both protect ated inflammation around one or more and harm the host, as demonstrated in several degenerating cysts may precipitate sympto- studies performed in animals. Others are still matic disease. When the parasite begins to at the stage of requiring precise identification, involute, either naturally or after treatment such as the type and interactions of the com- with anticysticercal drugs, a surrounding ponents of the cellular immune response, granulomatous inflammatory response devel- with specific reference to cytokines that may ops both in human and porcine infections. play important roles in different stages of the Predominant components of this inflamma- host–parasite relationship. Four different tory response include plasma cells, lympho- aspects of the immunology of human T. cytes, eosinophils and macrophages. The solium cysticercosis are discussed in this chap- latter engulf parasite remnants, eventually ter: (i) components and characteristics of the leaving a gliotic scar with calcification. immune response; (ii) evasion of the host Several correlative clinical, neuroimaging, immune response by the parasites; (iii) neuro- immunological and histopathological studies cysticercosis (NC) and neoplasia; and (iv) pro- have amply demonstrated that symptomatic tective immunity induced against T. solium. human cysticercosis corresponds to the pres- ence of tissue inflammation around involut- ing cysticerci that are transiting between the Components and Characteristics of live, viable stage and the calcified stage1–5. the Immune Response to T. solium The host immunological response to cysticerci Cysticercosis is becoming more and more complicated as more knowledge is accumulating. Broadly it The immunology of NC is particularly impor- can be divided into humoral and cellular tant because of its paradoxical relationship components, outlined below.
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Humoral immune response be proportional to the intensity and dura- tion of infection. In human cysticercosis, dif- The humoral immune response is better ferences were also found between benign understood than the cellular one. The fact and malignant cysticercosis, for instance, that humans respond immunologically to cysticercotic encephalitis is very immuno- antigens of T. solium cysticerci is well evi- genic6,9,16. Thus, the humoral immune dent from the number of immunodiagnostic response in patients with NC is quite hetero- assays that have been developed using dif- geneous. Its heterogeneity is also evident ferent types of antigens6,7. Several from the number of antigens recognized: immunoglobulin (Ig) classes are produced patients’ antibodies may react with one to as specific antibodies against the parasite. eight antigens in immunoelectrophoresis The most frequent is IgG, which can be and up to 30 antigens in EITB3,22,23. detected in serum, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and saliva and suggests that infection is of long duration8–15. An interesting aspect of Cellular immune response the humoral immune response is its com- partmentalization; there is evidence for local Some of the earlier studies that evaluated synthesis of specific IgG antibodies within cellular immune responses in hospitalized the brain and the presence of a given anti- patients with NC under corticosteroid treat- body class in one compartment (i.e. CSF or ment reported low proliferation of periph- serum) and its absence in the other compart- eral blood mononuclear cells after ments11,16–21. Those cases where both CSF stimulation with mitogens and high propor- and serum samples were obtained from the tions of CD8+ cells22,24. These initial studies same patient and were positive only in one, generated the belief that cellular responses suggest that the blood–brain barrier is not were impaired in NC. On the contrary, a always damaged by the parasite. On the recent study that compared immune other hand, seemingly there is a correlation responses in individuals with active, between the presence of antibodies and the untreated NC with paired controls, showed intensity of infection1. Enzyme-linked that most patients responded adequately to immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) detected concanavalin A and to cysticercus antigens; only 28% of cases with a single cysticercus also, CD4+ and CD8+ counts were not signif- compared with 94% of those with two or icantly different from those of controls25. more cysts. Furthermore, antibodies were Precise patterns and pathways of the cellular found in most cases that had live or involut- responses in human NC are still under study ing parasites, but only in few cases with cal- and until recently, no clear hypothesis was cified cysts, thereby suggesting that the available before demonstration of the presence of antibodies is influenced by the Th1/Th2 duality of the T-helper-cell evolutionary stage of the parasite. Similarly, response (Fig. 2.1)26*. Precise molecular in pigs, antibody responses were found to mechanisms underlying Th1 and Th2
*T cells are of the following two types: helper (Th, CD3+/CD4+) and cytotoxic (CTL, CD3+/CD8+). The former produce molecules that regulate the immune response, while the latter lyse histocompatible infected or transformed cells (Fig. 2.1). The type of response elicited by Th cells depends on the subtype they transform themselves to after antigen priming, i.e. Th1 or Th2. The two responses are becoming increasingly difficult to understand as knowledge about them accumulates. Nevertheless, it can generally be said that Th1 cells produce cytokines [including tumour necrosis factor- (TNF- ) and interferon-gamma (IFN- )] that promote inflammation, macrophage activation, and intracellular destruction of infectious agents; they also stimulate proliferation of CD8+ cells. Thus, this response is primarily ‘cellular’. On the other hand, Th2 cells stimulate most of the antibody responses, as well as granulocyte proliferation, differentiation and chemotaxis. The major cytokines produced by the Th2 cells are interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-10 and IL-13. This type of response is primarily ‘humoral’. Each response reciprocally down-regulates the other, for instance, IFN- stimulates the Th1 response and inhibits Th2, while IL-4 promotes Th2 response and down-regulates Th1 response. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 17
New and Revisited Immunological Aspects 17 IgE IgA IgG activation Antibodies Macrophage IgM Plasma cell TNF- IL-15 IL-13 IL-6 IFN- IL-5 IL-4 B cell Th1 Th2 cell CD4+ CD8+ CD4+ cells T helper Cytotoxic CTL IL-12 IL-4 CD8+ Th0 CD4+ MHC class I MHC class II Antigens Antigen- cell (APC) presenting Diagrammatic overview of the Th1 and Th2 host immune responses. Th1 and Diagrammatic overview of the Fig. 2.1. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 18
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immune responses to natural and experi- anticysticercal treatment and after vaccina- mental cysticercosis are yet to be clarified. tion35,36. This suggests that eosinophils may Studies so far have addressed molecular play an important role in the degenerative components in the CSF, serum and the gran- phase in this parasitic infection. Another uloma itself. Increased levels of interleukin study showed that IL-2 was synthesized by (IL)-1 and IL-6 have been reported in CSF of the peripheral blood cells of 58% of individu- patients with inflammatory NC27. High lev- als with untreated, recently diagnosed NC, els of IL-6 in CSF of patients with subarach- while interferon- (IFN- ), IL-4 and IL-10, noid NC have also been reported; this were only found in 11%, 10% and 14%, possibly represents an acute phase response. respectively25. Interestingly, only IFN- was In addition, high levels of tumour necrosis increased in the group of patients as com- factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) have also been pared to controls. noted in CSF of children with active NC28. The macroscopic disappearance of killed TNF-alpha was undetectable in controls and cysticerci takes about 2 months, but the children with inactive NC. immunological processes that occur within In asymptomatic humans, a single low the involuting granulomas are poorly under- dose of the taeniacidal drug praziquantel, stood. Very few immunohistochemical stud- given to treat intestinal parasites may cause ies of the inflammatory response within sufficient damage to latent asymptomatic cysticercus granulomas located in the human cysticerci that inflammation and seizures central nervous system have been performed, result29. Similarly, full dose anticysticercal mainly due to limited specimen tissue37,38. therapy administered in heavy infections Available reports suggest an intermixture of has precipitated fatal cerebral inflamma- Th1 and Th2 responses in human brain cys- tion30,31. An immunological study of NC ticercus granulomas. Observations made in patients treated with praziquantel (without animals are of interest in understanding the major adverse effects) reported elevated sol- complex phenomena that occur in granulo- uble IL-2 in the CSF suggesting a Th1-type mas within the central nervous system. immune response to therapy, in contrast Destruction of parasites in the natural inter- with the Th2-type immune response found mediate host, the pig, is mediated by a gran- in animal models of viable cysticerci32. It ulomatous eosinophil-rich inflammation was therefore hypothesized that living cys- (driven by the Th2 response), followed by ticerci facilitate immune evasion by induc- macrophage/lymphocyte-driven resolution ing a Th2-type immune response until the (involving the Th1 response)35. In apparent death of the larval parasite allows a Th1- discordance, a Th1 response prevails in mediated inflammatory response to ‘early’ granulomas, that is, when metaces- develop. This model however, is not consis- todes are intact in a rodent model of cysticer- tent with some of the other findings listed cosis (T. crassiceps in mice)39. In the same above and it seems likely that the regulation model, ‘late’ granulomas, wherein parasite of immunity in T. solium cysticercosis is a destruction is complete, exhibit a mixture of complex phenomenon. Th1 and Th2 cytokines (IL-4). It would seem Increased levels of eotaxin and IL-5, both then that if the first antibody–complement eosinophil-selective mediators, have been phenomenon does not destroy the onco- found in the sera of patients with NC33. sphere, the latter develops into a metaces- These cytokines are involved in recruiting tode, giving rise to a host–parasite eosinophils locally as well as systemically. relationship that, while in equilibrium, has a Interestingly, in the mouse model of more ‘silent’ Th1-like pattern (i.e. IL-2), with Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection, abla- concomitant presence of antibodies mostly of tion of IL-5 activity with anti-IL-5 mono- the IgG class. When this equilibrium is bro- clonal antibody resulted in more severe ken, a pro-inflammatory granulomatous intracranial disease34. Furthermore, the pres- Th2-like process provokes parasite destruc- ence of eosinophils as the first attack cells tion. This would be followed by resolution of was reported in porcine cysticercosis after the inflammatory reaction induced by Th1 Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 19
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cytokines (i.e. macrophages/lymphocytes). Masking of cysticercal antigens by host The change from ‘equilibrium’ to ‘destruc- Igs tion’ has been demonstrated in cysticercal granulomas in naturally infected pigs35,36. Cysts obtained from brain, eye and muscle of patients with cysticercosis have demonstrable IgG, IgM, IgA and IgE on their surface, while Evasion of Host Immune Responses specific antibodies of these classes, except for by Parasites IgG, have not been detected in the surround- ing fluids45. Morphologically intact cysticerci One of the most interesting phenomena in excised from pigs also present host Ig on their immunoparasitology is the evasion of host surface46. These results suggest that living immune responses by the parasite. As parasites mask themselves with host Igs, alluded to earlier, cysticerci are capable of probably through Fc receptors on the surface surviving in the human host for several of the tegument, which could play a role in years before their degeneration sets in. Live, the process of Ig endocytosis47 50. viable cysticerci are associated with little sur- rounding inflammation. This allows for the maintenance of a host–parasite equilibrium Concomitant immunity as a result of which the parasite is able to survive in the host for long periods of time. Concomitant immunity refers to protection The mechanisms underlying this process are conferred by already established parasites complex and may involve the following40–42. against newly invading parasites of the same species in a given host. Concomitant immu- nity may result from ‘shifts’ in the expressed Survival of parasites lodged in antigens as parasites develop through their ‘immunologically privileged sites’ life cycle. Hence, during initial infection, cys- ticerci may be able to counteract immune After a brief period of migration, T. solium effector mechanisms that kill less developed oncospheres lodge in host tissues and trans- forms. Experimental studies in the porcine form into cysticerci. The site where they set- model of cysticercosis have shown that rein- tle and the nature of their relationship to the fection following a challenge with T. solium encapsulating host may contribute to seques- eggs results in the partial destruction of estab- tration of the parasites from immune attack. lished cysticerci rather than establishment of The unequal distribution of cysticerci additional tissue cysts51. This implies that throughout body tissues does not mirror prior infection protects against new infection. regional blood flow but may result from It may be surmised that this protective effect selective invasion by the parasite or differen- results from ‘shifts’ in the antigens expressed tial survival of larvae in ‘immunologically by parasites through different stages of their privileged sites’43. For example, an experi- development in the host. Hence, fully devel- mental model of intraocular T. crassiceps cys- oped cysticerci may express different antigens ticercosis, where the parasite is maintained that are able to withstand host immune with ease in the anterior chamber of the eye, responses more effectively than developing has demonstrated that there is little inflam- cysticerci. It is known that after 1 week of matory response to the parasite in that loca- infection, the surface of parasites, previously tion44. Similarly, experimental chemotherapy covered by microvilli, changes to studies in pigs showed that parasites lodged microtriches52 and that surface antigens within the brain remained alive longer after change during development in Hymenolepis anticysticercal treatment than those located nana53. Concomitant immunity may explain in the muscles35. These studies indicate that the lack of overwhelming cysticercosis in in naive hosts, cysticerci may develop or per- hyperendemic regions, since animals may sist better in the eye and the brain, as com- only be able to acquire cysticercosis for 1 or 2 pared to other tissues or organs. weeks after primary exposure54. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 20
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Molecular mimicry and in healthy controls69,70. Also, 17% of 43 patients with glioma but only 3% of 172 con- Parasites may evade immune recognition by trols had NC65. Whether these chromosomal synthesizing host-like antigenic determi- alterations in lymphocytes or increased nants. Immunoglobulin G on the surface of cytokine synthesis are responsible for the T. solium cysticerci does not show specificity establishment of neoplasia is not clear. Even for antigens on the cysticercus55. The possi- though, as mentioned in the earlier sections bility that it is synthesized by the parasite of this chapter, cysticerci do not seem to was tested in vitro by translation of parasite- induce a generalized immune suppression, derived messenger-RNA55. Though not ade- since patients produce antibodies, inflamma- quately proven, molecular mimicry, i.e. tory reaction, and cytokines, have normal synthesis of host-like antigens by the para- white cell counts and generally good state of site, may be one the mechanisms involved in health and their immune cells respond in immune evasion. vitro to parasite antigens and mitogens.
Suppression or deviation of the host Protective Mechanisms against responses T. solium Cysticercosis
The presence of anti-complementary activity Since there are many Taenia species that described long ago suggested that the classi- infect mammals, there are numerous studies cal and the alternative pathways of the com- in rodents, ovine and bovines which demon- plement cascade are inhibited by cysticerci56. strate that it is possible to acquire protection Paramyosin (previously known as antigen B) against cysticercosis by vaccination. In most was shown to bind and inhibit C1q, the first studies, crude antigens have been obtained component of the complement cascade57. from oncospheres, cysticerci or tape- Since this antigen is being released by cys- worms59,71. These studies have been rela- ticerci and due to the fact that it is recog- tively easy to perform since the different nized by antibodies of most patients with NC, it could have a dual role in immune eva- stages of the parasite (cysticerci and tape- sion: inhibition of C1q and deviation of anti- worms) can develop in animals. Various bodies to host tissues7,11,57,58. There are degrees of protection have been reported, several reports of the presence of immuno- living oncospheres and oncospheral antigens 59,71 suppressive factors in extracts prepared from being the most effective immunogens . metacestodes of various Taenia species, Recombinant proteins and DNA vaccines 72–78 which inhibit proliferation of lymphocytes have yielded high degrees of immunity . against mitogens, or the synthesis of IL- The reader is referred to a detailed discus- 259–64, that are reviewed by Molinari and Tato sion of this aspect in Chapter 42. in Chapter 3.
Conclusions NC and Neoplasia It is known that antibodies and complement A recent analysis of autopsy files suggested are protective against T. solium oncospheres that NC might be a risk factor for human (Fig. 2.2), but if the pace of the host immune cancer, specifically of the lymphoid response is slow, then the parasites develop tissues65–68. Several data support this mechanisms to evade the latter. As a result, hypothesis. Chromosome aberrations in metacestodes establish and antibodies and peripheral blood lymphocytes are more com- complement are no longer effective in mon in patients with NC and in cysticercotic destroying them. Thus, a race between pigs as compared to those observed in the development of protective immune mecha- same cases after anticysticercal treatment nisms by the host and evasive mechanisms Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 21
New and Revisited Immunological Aspects 21
Phase II. Viable cysticerci and concomitant IR. 5 Immune evasion?
4
3 Phase III. Resolution.
IR Phase I: Oncosphere and Immunotherapy? developing immune 2 response (IR). Vaccination?
1
0 0 5 10 15 20 Infection time Fig. 2.2. Phases of cysticercosis in relation to immune response. The initial Phase I is characterized by the development of immune mediated protective mechanisms in the host and the differentiation of the oncosphere into a metacestode. Phase II is a period during which the parasite and the host coexist due to the development of immune evasive mechanisms by the parasite. Finally, in Phase III, the hostÐparasite equilibrium is broken and the parasite is destroyed by an immune reaction that sometimes even damages the host. This final phase leads to resolution of the infection.
by the parasite occurs during the initial probably chemo-attracted to the site by period of infection. Subsequently, an equili- lymphoid cells. It is surmised that this spe- brated host–parasite relationship develops cific response is mediated by Th2 cytokines. that may last for long periods of time and Finally, an intense granulomatous type of maintains concomitant immunity. The inflammatory reaction occurs that leads to immune response against T. solium cys- complete parasite destruction and resolu- ticerci appears to have both Th1 and Th2 tion with fibrosis. This last mechanism is components, although their precise roles probably of the Th1-type. Thus, it seems remain controversial. Through not yet that the Th1 and Th2 cytokines play differ- understood mechanisms, the parasite is ent roles during various stages of the killed primarily by eosinophils, which are host–parasite relationship.
References
1. Correa, D., Medina-Escutia, E. (1999) Host–parasite immune relationship in Taenia solium taeniosis and cysticercosis. In: García, H.H., Martínez, S.M. (eds) Taenia solium Taeniasis/Cisticercosis, 2nd edn. Editorial Universo, Lima, Perú, pp. 15–24. 2. de Aluja, A., Vargas, G. (1988) The histopathology of porcine cysticercosis. Veterinary Parasitology 28, 65–77. 3. Flisser, A. (1994) Taeniasis and cysticercosis due to Taenia solium. In: Sun, T. (ed) Progress in Clinical Parasitology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 77–116. 4. Sciutto, E., Fragoso, G., Fleury, A., et al. (2000) Taenia solium disease in humans and pigs: an ancient parasitosis disease rooted in developing countries and emerging as a major health problem of global dimensions. Microbes and Infection 2, 1875–1890. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 22
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5. Willms, K., Sotelo, J. (2001) Cestodes. In: Gillespie, S., Pearson R.D. (eds) Principles and Practice of Clinical Parasitology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 613–633. 6. Flisser, A., Larralde, C. (1986) Cysticercosis. In: Walls, K.W., Schantz, P.M. (eds) Immunodiagnosis of Parasitic Diseases. Academic Press, New York, pp. 109–161. 7. Flisser, A., Woodhouse, E., Larralde, C. (1980) Human cysticercosis: antigens, antibodies and non- responders. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 39, 27–37. 8. Grogl, M., Estrada, J.J., MacDonald, G., et al. (1985) Antigen–antibody analyses in neurocysticerco- sis. Journal of Parasitology 71, 433–442. 9. Cho, S.Y., Kim, S.I., Kang, S.Y., et al. (1986) Evaluation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in serological diagnosis of human neurocysticercosis using paired samples of serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Korean Journal of Parasitology 24, 25–41. 10. Corona, T., Pascoe, D., Gonzalez-Barranco, D., et al. (1986) Anticysticercus antibodies in serum and cerebrospinal fluid in patients with cerebral cysticercosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 49, 1044–1049. 11. Espinoza, B., Ruiz-Palacios, G., Tovar, A., et al. (1986) Characterization by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay of the humoral immune response in patients with neurocysticercosis and its application in immunodiagnosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 24, 536–541. 12. Feldman, M., Plancarte, A., Sandoval, M., et al. (1990) Comparison of two assays (EIA and EITB) and two samples (saliva and serum) for the diagnosis of neurocysticercosis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84, 559–562. 13. Zini, D., Farrell, V.J.R., Wadee, A.A. (1990) The relationship of antibody levels to the clinical spec- trum of human neurocysticercosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 53, 656–661. 14. Short, J.A., Heiner, D.C., Hsiao, R.L., et al. (1991) Immunoglobulin E and G4 antibodies in cysticerco- sis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 28, 1635–1639. 15. Spina-Franca, A., Livramento, J.A. (1982) Cerebrospinal fluid immunology in neurocysticercosis. European Review of Medicine and Pharmacological Science 4, 385–388. 16. Miller, B.L., Heiner, D., Golderg, M.A. (1983) The immunology of cerebral cysticercosis. Bulletin of Clinical Neurosciences 48, 18–23. 17. Pammenter, M.D., Rossouw, E.J., Epstein, S.R. (1987) Diagnosis of neurocysticercosis by enzyme- linked immunosorbent assay. South African Medical Journal 71, 512–514. 18. Cho, S.Y., Kim, S.I., Kang, S.Y., et al. (1988) Intracranial synthesis of specific IgG antibody in cere- brospinal fluid of neurocysticercosis patients. Korean Journal of Parasitology 26, 15–26. 19. Correa, D., Plancarte, A., Sandoval, M.A., et al. (1989) Immunodiagnosis of human and porcine cys- ticercosis. Detection of antibodies and parasite products. Acta Leidensia 57, 93–100. 20. Estañol, B., Juarez, H., Irigoyen, M.C., et al. (1989) Humoral immune response in patients with cere- bral parenchymal cysticercosis treated with praziquantel. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 52, 254–257. 21. Bueno, E.C., Vaz, A.J., Machado, L.R., et al. (2000) Total IgE detection in paired cerebrospinal fluid and serum samples from patients with neurocysticercosis. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo (Sao Pãulo) 42, 67–70. 22. Flisser, A., Rivera, L., Trueba, J., et al. (1982) Immunology of human neurocysticercosis. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 549–563. 23. Larralde, C., Montoya, R.M., Sciutto, E., et al. (1989) Deciphering western blots of tapeworm in anti- gens. Taenia solium, Echinococcus granulosus and Taenia crassiceps resolving with sera from neurocys- ticercosis and hydatid disease patients. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 40, 282–290. 24. Correa, D., Tovar, A., Espinoza, B., et al. (1989) Cisticercosis humana: relación inmunológica huésped-parásito. In: Flisser, A., Malagon, F. (eds) Cisticercosis Humana y Porcina. Su Conocimiento e Investigacion en Mexico. Limusa-Noriega, Mexico DF, Mexico, pp. 31–43. 25. Medina-Escutia, E., Morales-López, Z., Proaño, J.V., et al. (2001) Cellular immune response and Th1/Th2 cytokines in human neurocysticercosis: lack of immune suppression. Parasitology 87, 587–590. 26. Mosmann, T.R., Coffman, R.L. (1989) Th1 and Th2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annual Review of Immunology 7, 145–173. 27. Ostrosky-Zeichner, L., García-Mendoza, E., Ríos, C., et al. (1996) Humoral and cellular immune response within the subarachnoid space of patients with neurocysticercosis. Archives of Medical Research 27, 513–517. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 23
New and Revisited Immunological Aspects 23
28. Aguilar-Robolledo, F., Cedillo-Rivera, R., Llaguno-Violante, P., et al. (2001) Interleukin levels in cere- brospinal fluid from children with neurocysticercosis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 64, 35–40. 29. Flisser, A., Madrazo, I., Plancarte, A., et al. (1993) Neurological symptoms in occult neurocysticerco- sis after a single taeniacidal dose of praziquantel. Lancet 342, 748. 30. Wadia, N., Desai, S., Bhatt, M. (1988) Disseminated cysticercosis: new observations, including CT scan findings and experience with treatment by praziquantel. Brain 111, 597–614. 31. Takayanagui, O.M., Chimelli, L.L. (1998) Disseminated muscular cysticercosis with myositis induced by praziquantel therapy. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 59, 1002–1003. 32. Cruz-Revilla, C., Rosas, G., Fragoso, G., et al. (2000) Taenia crassiceps cysticercosis: protective effect and immune response elicited by DNA immunization. Journal of Parasitology 86, 67–74. 33. Evans, C.A.W., García, H.H., Hartnell, A., et al. (1998) Elevated concentration of eotaxin and inter- leukin-5 in human neurocysticercosis. Infections and Immunity 66, 4522–4525. 34. Sasaki, O., Suguya, H., Ishida, K., et al. (1993) Ablation of eosinophils with anti IL-5 antibody enhances the survival of intracranial worms of Angiostrongylus cantonensis in the mouse. Parasite Immunology 15, 349–354. 35. Flisser, A., Gonzalez, D., Skhurovich, M., et al. (1990) Praziquantel treatment of porcine brain and muscle Taenia solium cysticercosis. 1. Radiological, physiological and histopathological studies. Parasitology Research 76, 263–269. 36. Molinari, J.L., Meza, R., Suarez, B., et al. (1983) Taenia solium: immunity in hogs to the cysticercus. Experimental Parasitology 55, 340–357. 37. Restrepo, B., Llaguno, P., Sandoval, M.A., et al. (1998) Analysis of immune lesions in neurocysticer- cosis patients: central nervous system response to helminth appears Th1-like instead of Th2. Journal of Neuroimmunology 89, 64–72. 38. Restrepo, B.I., Alvarez, J.I., Castano, L.F., et al. (2001) Brain granulomas in neurocysticercosis are associated with a Th1 and Th2 profile. Infections and Immunity 69, 4554–4560. 39. Robinson, P., Altamar, R., Lewis, D., et al. (1997) Granuloma cytokines in murine cysticercosis. Infections and Immunity 65, 2925–2931. 40. Mitchell, G.F. (1982) Genetic variation in resistance of mice to Taenia taeniaeformis: analysis of host- protective immunity and immune evasion. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 575–584. 41. Flisser, A. (1989) Taenia solium cysticercosis: some mechanisms of parasite survival in immunocom- petent hosts. Acta Leidensia 57, 259–263. 42. White, A.C. Jr, Robinson, P., Kuhn, R. (1997) Taenia solium cysticercosis: host–parasite interaction and the immune response. Clinical Immunology 66, 209–230. 43. Barker, C.F., Billingham, R.E. (1977) Immunologically privileged sites. In: Kunkel, H.G., Dixon, F.J. (eds) Advances in Immunology, Vol. 25. Academic Press, New York, pp. 1–54. 44. Cárdenas, F., Plancarte, A., Quiroz, H., et al. (1989) Taenia crassiceps: experimental model of intraocu- lar cysticercosis. Experimental Parasitology 69, 324–329. 45. Correa, D., Dalma, D., Espinoza, B., et al. (1985) Heterogeneity of humoral immune components in human cysticercosis. Journal of Parasitology 71, 535–541. 46. Willms, K., Arcos, L. (1977) Taenia solium: host serum proteins on the cysticercus surface identified by an ultrastructural immuno-enzyme technique. Experimental Parasitology 43, 396–401. 47. Mandujano, A., Vela, M., Alcántara, P., et al. (1990) Presence of a receptor for the Fc fraction of IgG in Taenia solium (Abstract). Bulletin de la Societie de la Socièté Française Parasitologie 8 (Suppl. 1), 578. 48. Kalinna, B., MacManus, D.P. (1993) An IgG (Fc gamma)-binding protein of Taenia crassiceps (Cestoda) exhibits sequence homology and antigenic similarity with schistosome paramyosin. Parasitology 106, 289–296. 49. Hayunga, E.G., Sumner, M.P., Letonja, T. (1989) Evidence of selective incorporation of host immunoglobulin by strobilocerci of Taenia taeniaeformis. Journal of Parasitology 75, 638–642. 50. Ambrosio, J., Landa, A., Merchant, M.T., et al. (1994) Protein uptake by cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps. Archives of Medical Research 25, 325–330. 51. Herbert, I.V., Oberg, C. (1974) Cysticercosis in pigs due to infection with Taenia solium Linnaeus, 1758. In: Soulsby, E.J.L. (ed.) Parasitic Zoonosis. Academic Press, New York, pp. 199–211. 52. Williams, J.F., Engelkirk, P.G., Lindsay, M.C. (1982) Mechanisms of immunity in rodent cysticercosis. In: Flisser, A., Willms, K., Laclette, J.P., et al. (eds) Cysticercosis: Present State of Knowledge and Perspectives. Academic Press, New York, pp. 621–631. 53. Ito, A., Onitake, K. (1987) Changes in surface antigens of Hymenolepis nana during differentiation and maturation in mice. Journal of Helminthology 61, 129–136. Singh - Chap 02 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 24
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54. Gemmell, M.A. (1972) Hydatidosis and cysticercosis 4. Acquired resistance to Taenia hydatigena under conditions of a strong infection pressure. Australian Veterinary Journal 48, 26–28. 55. Willms, K., Arcos, L. (1997) Taenia solium cysticercosis: host–parasite interactions and the immune response. Clinical Immunology 66, 209–230. 56. Hammemberg, B., Williams, J.F. (1978) Physico-chemical characterization of complement-interacting factors from Taenia taeniaeformis. Journal of Immunology 120, 1039–1045. 57. Laclette, J.P., Shoemaker, C., Richter, D., et al. (1992) Paramyosin inhibits complement C1. Journal of Immunology 148, 124–128. 58. Laclette, J.P., Merchant, M.T., Willms, K. (1987) Histological and ultrastructural localization of anti- gen B in the metacestode of Taenia solium. Journal of Parasitology 73, 121–125. 59. Flisser, A., Pérez-Montford, R., Larralde, C. (1979) The immunology of human and animal cysticer- cosis: a review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 57, 839–856. 60. Burger, C.J., Rikihisa, Y., Lin, Y.C. (1986) Taenia taeniaeformis inhibition of mitogen induced prolifera- tion and interleukin-2 production in rat splenocytes by larval in vitro products. Experimental Parasitology 62, 216–222. 61. Molinari, J.L., Tato, P., Reynoso, O.A., et al. (1990) Depressive effect of a Taenia solium cysticercus fac- tor on cultured human lymphocytes stimulated with phytohemaglutinin. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 84, 205–208. 62. Sciutto, E., Fragoso, G., Baca, M., et al. (1995) Depressed T cell proliferation associated with suscepti- bility to experimental infection with Taenia crassiceps infection. Infections and Immunology 63, 2277–2281. 63. Tato, P., Castro, A.M., Rodríguez, D., et al. (1995) Suppression of murine lymphocyte proliferation induced by a small RNA purified from the Taenia solium metacestode. Parasitology Research 81, 181–187. 64. Arechavaleta, F., Molinari, J.L., Tato, P. (1998) A Taenia solium metacestode factor non-specifically inhibits cytokine production. Parasitology Research 84, 117–122. 65. Del Brutto, O.H., Castillo, P.R., Mena, I.X., et al. (1997) Neurocysticercosis among patients with cere- bral glioma. Archives of Neurology 54, 1125–1128. 66. Herrera, L.A., Benita-Bordes, A., Sotelo, J., et al. (1999) Possible relationship between neurocysticer- cosis and hematological malignancies. Archives of Medical Research 30, 154–158. 67. Herrera, L.A., Ostrosky-Wegman, P. (2001) Do helminths play a role in carcinogenesis? Trends in Parasitology 17, 172–175. 68. Herrera, L.A., Ramírez, T., Rodríguez, U., et al. (2000) Possible association between Taenia solium cys- ticercosis and cancer: increased frequency of DNA damage in peripheral lymphocytes from neuro- cysticercosis patients. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 94, 1–5. 69. Montero, R., Flisser, A., Madrazo, I., et al. (1994) Mutation at the HPRT locus in patients with neuro- cysticercosis treated with praziquantel. Mutation Research 305, 181–188. 70. Flisser, A., González, D., Plancarte, A., et al. (1990) Praziquantel treatment of brain and muscle porcine Taenia solium cysticercosis. 2. Immunological and cytogenetic studies. Parasitology Research 76, 640–642. 71. Lightowlers, M.W. (1994) Vaccination against animal parasites. Veterinary Parasitology 54, 177–204. 72. Johnson, K.S., Harrison, G.B.L., Lightowlers, M.W., et al. (1989) Vaccination against ovine cysticerco- sis using a defined recombinant antigen. Nature 338, 585–587. 73. Mitchel, G.F. (1990) Vaccines and vaccination strategies against helminths. In: Agabian, N., Cerami, A. (eds) Parasites. Molecular Biology, Drug and Vaccine Design, Wiley-Liss Publications, New York, pp. 349–363. 74. Harrison, G.B.L., Heath, D.D., Dempster, R.P., et al. (1996) Identification and cDNA cloning of two novel low molecular weight host-protective antigens from Taenia ovis oncospheres. International Journal of Parasitology 26, 195–204. 75. Lightowlers, M.W., Rolfe, R., Gaucci, C.G. (1996) Taenia saginata: vaccination against cysticercosis in cattle with recombinant oncosphere antigens. Experimental Parasitology 84, 330–338. 76. Rosas, G., Cruz-Revilla, G., Fragoso, G., et al. (1998) Taenia crassiceps cysticercosis: humoral immune response and protection elicited by DNA immunization. Journal of Parasitology 84, 516–523. 77. Plancarte, A., Flisser, A., Gaucci, C.G., Lightowlers, M.W. (1999) Vaccination against Taenia solium cysticercosis in pigs using native and recombinant oncosphere antigens. International Journal for Parasitology 29, 643–647. 78. Flisser, A., Lightowlers, M.W. (2000) Vaccination against Taenia solium cysticercosis. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 96, 353–356. Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 25
3 Molecular Determinants of HostÐParasite Interactions: Focus on Parasite
José L. Molinari and Patricia Tato
Introduction been studied. An idea of the process can be obtained from studies involving other The relationship between helminths and their helminths. For instance, Hymenolepis nana hosts is complex and interesting. It is well oncospheres make use of certain proteases in known that parasites elicit immunological addition to three pairs of hooks in order to responses in their hosts. What is less well invade host tissues1. Similarly, serine pro- known and appreciated, is that parasites tease activity and excretory–secretory pepti- have evolved numerous ways of evading the dases have been isolated from penetration consequences of host immunological glands of oncospheres of H. diminuta and T. response. The net outcome is that parasites saginata, respectively2,3. It is held that these frequently survive for long periods in fully enzymes participate in tissue invasion in immunocompetent hosts. Host lymphocytes addition to performing nutritional functions. and their cytokines play a crucial role in Finally, T. solium egg infection induces determining the outcome of parasitic infec- humoral immunological responses in human tion (reviewed in Chapter 2). In this chapter, hosts. This assumption is based on evidence we review certain aspects of the host–parasite from in vitro studies, where serum from cys- interaction in Taenia solium cysticercosis with ticercotic individuals destroys oncospheres in special emphasis on parasite related factors. presence of complement4.
HostÐoncosphere interactions HostÐmetacestode interactions
Ingestion of food or water contaminated with Host inflammatory response directed against T. solium eggs is the most preliminary step in T. solium metacestodes is a major determinant the development of human cysticercosis. of clinical symptoms and signs of NC. There Hatched and activated oncospheres penetrate is great variability in its onset, duration and intestinal tissues, perforate small intestinal severity. The seminal study by Dixon and blood vessels, and reach the bloodstream. Lipscomb has established that metacestodes Here, they passively migrate and finally remain in host tissues in a viable, non-degen- lodge in target tissues and develop into erate state for variable and prolonged periods metacestodes. Specific mechanisms underly- of time5. Eventually, usually after 4–5 years, ing T. solium oncosphere penetration have not local and systemic immune responses against
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26 J.L. Molinari and P. Tato
metacestodes develop. As a result, metaces- natants of live T. solium metacestodes was todes pass through a series of degenerative- designed. The isolate was tested at different evolutionary stages that are described in doses in human lymphocyte cultures, stimu- detail in Chapters 30 and 32. Clinical symp- lated with phytohaemagglutinin and was toms and signs owe their appearance and found to suppress (3H) thymidine uptake by evolution to the host immune responses. lymphocytes. The suppression was fore- Furthermore, histological studies corroborate stalled by pre-digestion with ribonuclease the relationship between the evolutionary (RNase), suggesting that the active molecule stages of metacestodes and host immune may be a RNA fraction16. A suppression of response. In both humans and pigs, live and (3H) thymidine uptake has also been demon- viable metacestodes are surrounded by only strated in T lymphocytes from naturally discrete inflammatory reaction6,7. In compari- infected-cysticercotic pigs17. son, studies on pigs pre-immunized with cys- The material that suppresses (3H) thymi- ticercus antigens have revealed intense dine uptake was assigned the name, granulomatous inflammation surrounding metacestode factor (MF). We proceeded to the metacestodes8. These clinical, histological study its effects in vivo. Mice were inoculated and experimental observations have led sev- with MF (four doses of 100 g per mouse)
eral workers including ourselves, to postulate and challenged with one LD50 of Salmonella that live T. solium metacestodes are able to typhimurium virulent bacilli18. Mice were down-modulate host immune responses by either treated with S. typhimurium antigen virtue of producing certain specific mole- alone or MF alone, or with S. typhimurium cules. Several such molecules have been pre- antigens and MF in combination. A control viously described9–11. Taenia metacestodes group consisted of mice inoculated with modulate complement function by sulphated saline solution. We observed that mice polysaccharides that activate and consume treated with MF alone, or with both S. complement9. Among other molecules, taeni- typhimurium antigens and MF, died faster aestatin inhibits both classic and alternative and in greater number than control mice. In complement pathways and paramyosin contrast, all mice survived in the group that inhibits C1q activation10,11. was given S. typhimurium antigens alone. When batches of MF were filtered through a Bio-gel P-6 column, two peaks (F1 Metacestode Factor (MF) and F2) were obtained. Further, F1 and F2 were tested in proliferation assays19. While, Studies evaluating peripheral blood T cells F1 induced a dose-dependent suppressive in naturally and experimentally infected cys- effect, F2 induced an increase of the (3H) ticercotic pigs, have consistently revealed thymidine uptake elicited by mitogen. diminution of CD4+ cell counts in proportion Thereafter, an attempt was made to charac- to parasite loads12,13. We postulated that T- terize F1 by treating it with several inactivat- cell suppression in cysticercotic pigs might ing factors such as RNase, proteases and be related to substances secreted by T. solium heat. After treatment, F1 was tested again in metacestodes. Similarly, low molecular proliferation assays. RNase-treated F1 lost its weight isolates from Schistosoma mansoni and suppressive effect. In contrast, trypsin and Onchocerca gibsoni have previously been papain augmented (3H) thymidine uptake reported to induce depression of (3H) thymi- inhibition. Chymotrypsin or heat had no dine uptake by lymphocytes stimulated with effect. Finally, the effect of F1 was studied in Concanavalin-A (Con-A)14,15. co-cultures of murine macrophages and lym- phocytes. It was shown that macrophages pre-incubated with F1 and subsequently co- Isolation and preliminary characterization cultured with fresh lymphocytes did not affect (3H) thymidine uptake. In contrast, A method to isolate substances of molecular incorporation of (3H) thymidine by fresh weight less than 3500 Dalton from super- lymphocytes co-cultured with lymphocytes Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 27
Molecular Determinants of HostÐParasite Interactions 27
pre-incubated with F1 was inhibited. This parenchymal tissues and tegument; the study provided specific evidence for the hooks were dispersed in necrotic tissue.
probable existence of a RNA molecule, F1, Moderate inflammatory reaction sur- whose principal site of action was shown to rounded the metacestodes. be the lymphocyte. Local inflammatory responses were also evaluated using scanning electron microscopy in the experimental protocol out- Effect on local inflammatory reactions lined above21. Samples from metacestodes removed at 6 and 12 days post-implantation In vivo studies further examined the effects were studied. of MF on the inflammatory reaction around At 6 days post-implantation, it was 20 implanted metacestodes in mice . Female found that: BALB/c syngeneic mice were divided into four groups based upon the following 1. In control mice, metacestodes were disin- experimental protocol. One group of mice tegrated and covered by an intense inflam- was treated with 100 g of MF (one dose matory reaction (Fig. 3.1a). every 96 h for 12 days). A second group 2. Metacestodes removed from mice treated consisted of mice inoculated with metaces- with MF alone were intact and exhibited a tode antigens (100 g as a single dose) scarce inflammation on the bladder tegu- alone, while a third group was constituted ment (Fig. 3.1b). by mice that were first inoculated with 3. An evaginated metacestode removed metacestode antigens and then treated with from a mouse inoculated with metacestode MF. In the fourth (control) group, mice were antigen alone displayed inflammatory reac- inoculated with inert normal saline alone. tion on its scolex. Inflammatory cells were Subsequently, mice in all four groups were disseminated on the double crown of hooks, implanted with live T. solium metacestodes suckers and the neck tegument; whereas the (six metacestodes/mouse), obtained from bladder wall tegument was covered by a cysticercotic pig meat under sterile condi- dense net of fibrous material embedding tions. Twelve days after the metacestode numerous inflammatory cells. implantation, the mice were killed. 4. Metacestodes removed from mice immu- Histopathological studies revealed that: nized with metacestode antigens and subse- quently treated with MF exhibited few 1. Metacestodes implanted in control mice inflammatory cells on their bladder wall were completely destroyed and their rem- teguments. nants were surrounded by an intense inflam- matory reaction predominantly made up of At 12 days post-implantation: neutrophils and eosinophils. 1. Metacestodes removed from control mice 2. In metacestodes of mice that were treated were completely enmeshed in an intense with MF alone, there were clearly identifi- inflammatory reaction, with a dense colla- able and intact suckers, rostellum, tegument gen-like matrix embedding numerous and hooks. Few neutrophils, plasma cells, inflammatory cells and covering the whole lymphocytes and histiocytes were noted in bladder wall tegument. spiral canals; eosinophils were not observed. 2. The inflammatory reaction surrounding 3. Metacestodes implanted in mice immu- metacestodes removed from mice treated nized with metacestode antigens alone were with MF alone was more intense than that completely destroyed; their caseous rem- observed on day 6. In one partially evagi- nants were intensely surrounded and infil- nated metacestode, the scolex was apparently trated by neutrophils and eosinophils. intact, with minimal amount of inflammatory 4. Finally, in mice immunized with infiltrate in the folds of its neck. At higher metacestode antigens and subsequently magnification ( 1500), the microtriches were treated with MF, there were clearly identifi- visibly intact with scarce inflammatory cells able (albeit necrotic) rostellum, suckers, and eosinophil like-granules. Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 28
28 J.L. Molinari and P. Tato
Fig. 3.1a. Scanning electron micrograph of a Taenia solium metacestode removed from a control mouse at day 6. (Reproduced with permission from reference 21.) (ST, subtegument; T, tegument.)
Fig. 3.1b. Scanning electron micrograph of a metacestode removed from a MF-treated mouse at day 6. (Reproduced with permission from reference 21.)
3. Metacestodes from mice immunized with different kinds of white cells, cell debris and metacestode antigens exhibited much fibrinoid material was apparent. stronger inflammatory reactions on the 4. In mice immunized with metacestode anti- scolex tegument in comparison to day-6. gen and treated subsequently with MF, the Copious inflammatory infiltrate was visible inflammatory reaction on the bladder wall surrounding the tegument of an evaginated tegument was less extensive in comparison to scolex (Fig. 3.2). Ruptures of different size immunized (with metacestode antigens) or and depth were evident in the tegument and control groups. Very few inflammatory cells, sub-tegumental suckers. At higher magnifi- cell debris and fibrous material were found cation ( 1500), an intense accumulation of adherent to intact microtriches. Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 29
Molecular Determinants of HostÐParasite Interactions 29
Fig. 3.2. Scanning electron micrograph of an evaginated scolex removed from an immunized mouse at day 12. An intense inflammatory reaction completely covers the scolex tegument. Note the large cell aggregates and several ruptures of the sucker and rostellum teguments. (Reproduced with permission from reference 21.)
Effects on humoral and cellular immune were measured in culture supernatants in responses order to study the effects of MF on cytokine production22. When cultured with MF, cells Humoral and cellular immune responses to showed significantly decreased production inoculation with metacestode antigens, treat- of interleukin 2 (IL-2), interferon- (IFN- ), ment with MF and metacestode implantation and interleukin 4 (IL-4) as compared to mito- were also studied in the experimental model gen alone. Exogenous recombinant IL-2 and outlined above. Sera from mice immunized recombinant IL-4 largely restored prolifera- with metacestode antigens and treated with tion responses (85% and 71% of control cells, MF showed a significant decrease in antibody respectively). MF also inhibited the produc- titres compared with those of mice treated tion of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF- with metacestode antigens alone. Metacestode alpha) by macrophages stimulated with implantation further suppressed antibody lipopolysaccharide and IFN- . The results of responses to metacestode antigens. Antibody the above study provide additional evidence titres were least in sera of implanted mice of an inhibitory effect of MF upon cytokine treated with MF alone (Fig. 3.3). A suppressive production, regardless of the cell type or effect of MF was also noted on cellular cytokine (Fig. 3.5). It may be surmised that immune functions. Splenic lymphocytes from impairment, specifically of IL-2 and IFN- mice immunized with metacestode antigens production may underlie modulatory influ- and treated with MF exhibited a significant ences of MF of the nature noted in experi- decrease in (3H) thymidine uptake in compari- ments with metacestodes implanted in mice. son with lymphocytes from mice inoculated with metacestode antigens alone (Fig. 3.4)20. Metacestode Proteases
Effects on cytokines There is sufficient evidence for the existence of several parasitic secretory proteases. The Murine spleen cells were stimulated in vitro latter are believed to be involved in invasion, with Con-A and cytokine concentrations nutrition and immune evasion23–25. White et Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 30
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1.4
1.2
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0.8
A (492) A 0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 Dilutions I IF IM IFM C
Fig. 3.3. Antibody titres determined by ELISA in sera from mice inoculated with Taenia solium metacestode antigens (I), inoculated with metacestode antigens plus MF (IF), inoculated with metacestode antigens and implanted with six metacestodes (IM), inoculated with metacestode antigens plus MF and implanted with six metacestodes (IFM), and inoculated with saline (C). Data are expressed as mean values SE for each treatment (n = 4) (P 0.05 for I versus IF, IM or IFM). (Reproduced with permission from reference 20.)
10,000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000 H) Thymidine uptake cpm H) 3
( 2000
1000
0 C CM I IF F IM IMF MF Fig. 3.4. Effect of Taenia solium metacestode antigens on the proliferation of murine splenic lymphocytes from the following groups of mice: (C) control; (CM) implanted with six metacestodes; (I) inoculated with metacestode antigens; (IF) inoculated with metacestode antigens plus MF; (F) inoculated with MF; (IM) inoculated with metacestode antigens and implanted with six metacestodes; (IMF) inoculated with metacestode antigens plus MF and implanted with six metacestodes; and (MF) inoculated with MF and implanted with six metacestodes. Bars represent mean values SE for thymidine uptake by cells stimulated with 1 g of metacestode antigens (P 0.05 for I and IM versus IF, IMF, CM or C). (Reproduced with permission from reference 20.) Singh - Chap 03 4/9/02 4:37 pm Page 31
Molecular Determinants of HostÐParasite Interactions 31
(a) (b) 150 25 ) ) Ð1 Ð1
100 15
50 concentration (ng ml