Chiang Kai-Shek 蒋介石

Forthcoming 2013

Berkshire Volumes Dictionary 1–3 of Chinese Biography 宝库山中华传记字典

Editor in Chief: Kerry Brown, University of Sydney Brochure Contents 目录

June 2012

Volumes 1-3: List of Entries ...... v Publisher’s Note ...... viii

About the Editor ...... ix Introduction ...... x

Sample Articles

Volume 1: Xia/Shang Dynasty–Sui Dynasty (2100 bce–618 ce)

Volume 2: Tang Dynasty–Yuan Dynasty (618 ce–1368)

Batu Khan 拔都汗 ...... 1 Franck BILLÉ, University of Cambridge Volume 3: Ming Dynasty–Peoples Republic of China (1368–1979)

Matteo Ricci 利玛窦 ...... 11 Frances WOOD, British Library

Chiang Kai-Shek 蒋介石 ...... 18 Jonathan FENBY, British journalist and author UncorrectedDIAN Qu, Oxford University galley pages Chieh-Ju LIAO, University of Cambridge Characters & Glossary ...... 30 Geographical Locations ...... 32 Uncorrected galley pages Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography 宝库山中华传记字典

Volumes 1–3 Uncorrected galley pages Kerry Brown Editor in Chief

Berkshire Publishing Group Great Barrington, Massachusetts Editor in Chief Kerry Brown, University of Sydney

Editorial Advisory Board Christopher Cullen, Needham Research Institute, Cambridge University Julia Lovell, University of London Peng Guoxiang, Peking University Chloe Starr, Yale University Jan Stuart, The British Museum John Wills, Jr., University of Southern California Frances Wood, British Library

Associate Editors Patrick Boehler, University of Hong Kong Winnie Tsui, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

UncorrectedBerkshire Publishing galley Group pages Marjolijn Kaiser, [email protected] Karen Christensen, [email protected] Volumes 1-3: List of Entries 第一-三卷：条目表

VOLUME 1: Xia/Shang Dynasty–Sui Dynasty

Xia and Shang 夏商 (2100–1045 bce) Han 汉 (206 bce–220 ce)

Fu Hao 妇好 Ban Gu 班固 Yu the Great 大禹 Ban Zhao 班昭 Cao Cao 曹操周 Zhou (1045–256 bce) Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 Li Guang 李廣 Confucius 孔子 Liu Xiang 刘向 • Volumes 1-3: List of Entries • Laozi 老子 Sima Qian 司马迁 QU Yuan 屈原 Sima Xiangru 司马相如 Zhou, Duke of 周公 Wang Chong 王充 Wang Mang 王莽 Warring States period 战国 (770–221 bce) Wang Xizhi 王羲之公孙龙 Gongsun Long Wu, Emperor (Liu Zhi) 漢武帝韩非 Han Fei Xu Shen 許慎孟子 Mencius Xuan, Emperor (Liu Bingji) 宣帝墨子 Mozi Yang Xiong 揚雄孙子 Sunzi Zhang Heng 张衡荀子 Xunzi Zhang Jue 張角庄子 Zhuangzi Zhao, Emperor (Liu Fuling) 昭帝邹衍 Zou Yan Zhuge Liang 诸葛亮

Southern and Northern Dynasties 南北朝 Qin 秦 (221–206 bce) (220–589 ce) LiUncorrected Si 李斯 galley pages Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 LÜ Buwei 吕不韦 Qin Shi Huangdi 秦始皇帝 Sui 随 (581–618 ce)

Yan Zhitui 顏之推 Wen, Emperor (Yang Jian) 文帝

List in progress – additions may be made • v • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Volume 1 •

VOLUME 2: Tang Dynasty–Yuan Dynasty

Tang 唐 (618–907 ce) Zhu Xi 朱熹

An Lushan 安禄山 Jurchen Jin 女真金 (1125–1234) Bai Juyi 白居易完颜阿骨打 Du Fu 杜甫 Wanyan Aguda 拔都汗 Han Gan 韩干 Batu Khan 成吉思汗 Han Yu 韩愈 Chinggis Khan Huineng 惠能元 Li Bai 李白 Yuan (1279–1368) 太宗 Taizong, Emperor (Li Shimin) Guan Yunshi 贯云石王维 Wang Wei Guo Shoujing 郭守敬武则天 Wu Zetian Khubilai Khan 忽必烈汗玄宗 Xuanzong, Emperor (Li Longji) Luo Guanzhong 罗贯中周昉 Zhou Fang Wu Chengen 吴承恩 Zhao Mengfu 赵孟頫 Liao 辽 (907–1125 ce)

Taizu, Emperor (Abaoji) 太祖

Song 宋 (960–1279 ce)

• 第一-三卷：条目表 Bi Sheng 毕升 Cheng Hao 程颢 Cheng Yi 程颐 Huang Tingjian 黄庭堅 Huizong, Emperor (Zhao Ji) 徽宗 Li Qingzhao 李清照 Ouyang Xiu 欧阳修 Sima Guang 司马光 Su Shi 苏轼 Taizong,Uncorrected Emperor (Zhao Kuangyi) 太宗 galley pages Wang Anshi 王安石 Yingzong, Emperor (Zhao Shu) 英宗 Yue Fei 岳飞

List in progress – additions may be made • vi • • Volumes 1-3: List of Entries • 第一-三卷：条目表 •

VOLUME 3: Ming Dynasty–PRC 1976

Ming 明 (1368–1644) Liang Qichao 梁启超 Qianlong, Emperor (Aixin-Jueluo Altan Khan Hongli) 乾隆帝 Dong Qichang 董其昌 Yongzheng, Emperor (Aixin-Jueluo Hongwu, Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang) Yinzhen) 雍正帝洪武帝 Yuan Mei 袁枚 Jin Shengtan 金圣叹 Zeng Guofan 曾國藩 Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) 鄭成功 Li Shizhen 李时珍 Republican China 中华民国 (1911/1912– 李贽 Li Zhi 1949) Lin Zexu 林则徐陈独秀 Matteo Ricci 利玛窦 Chen Duxiu 蒋介石 Nurhaci 努尔哈赤 Chiang Kai-shek 胡适 • Volumes 1-3: List of Entries • Qiu Ying 仇英 Hu Shi 康有为 Tang Xianzu 汤显祖 Kang Youwei 宋美龄 Wang Yangming 王陽明 Soong Mei-ling 孫逸仙 Wanli, Emperor (Zhu Yijun) 万历 Sun Yat-sen 汪精卫 Xu Guangqi 徐光启 Wang Jingwei 袁世凯 Xu Xiake 徐霞客 Yuan Shikai Yongle, Emperor (Zhu Di) 永乐帝 People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国 Yuan Chonghuan 袁崇焕 Part I (1949–1979) Zheng He 郑和 Chen Yun 陈云 Deng Xiaoping 邓小平 Qing 清 (1644–1911/1912) Hua Guofeng 华国锋曹雪芹 Cao Xueqin Jiang Qing 江青慈禧 Cixi, Empress Dowager Lin Biao 林彪 Guangxu, Emperor (Aixin-Jueluo Liu Shaoqi 刘少奇光绪帝 Zaitian) Lu Xun 鲁迅洪秀全 HongUncorrected Xiuquan galleyMao Zedong 毛泽东 pages 黃遵憲 Huang Zunxian Peng Dehuai 彭德怀 Kangxi, Emperor (Aixin-Jueluo Qian Zhongshu 钱锺书康熙帝 Xuanye) Zhou Enlai 周恩来李大钊 Li Dazhao Zhu De 朱德 Li Hongzhang 李鸿章

List in progress – additions may be made • vii • Publisher’s Note 出版人前言

journey of a thousand miles, the Chinese phi- life of its own . It continues to have its own dy- losopher Laozi (Lao-tzu) 老子 said, begins namic direction—thanks to the growing number Awith a single step, and the Berkshire Dictionary of of experts who are sharing their passionate de- Chinese Biography is the first step in what will be sire to explain China to the students, citizens, a long journey: bringing the stories of China to and leaders of the twenty-first century . Berkshire a global audience . We are deeply grateful to the Publishing is already collaborating with other scholars who have guided us and shared their biographical projects and will be expanding this excitement about the stories of China . I am par- collection into a comprehensive but accessible ticularly grateful to Kerry Brown and wonder if online resource, as well as an ebook collection either of us will ever remember exactly how this available in different formats . We will be develop- project got started . Somehow, over the course ing tools for using these biographies in teaching, of a conversation when we first met in London, too—sign up for free samples and updates at the idea of a major biographical work took on a www .ChinaConnectU .com .

Karen Christensen 沈凯伦 Founder and CEO, Berkshire Publishing Group 宝库山, • 出版人前言 Great Barrington, Massachusetts

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• viii • About the Editor 编辑介绍

Professor and Executive Director of the China Studies Centre, University of Sydney

erry Brown is professor and executive di- and African Studies, an associate of the China rector of the China Studies Centre at the Policy Institute at Nottingham University and at UniversityK of Sydney . Before moving to Australia, the London School of Economics and Political Sci- he was head of the Asia Programme at Chatham ence IDEAS Institute, and an affiliated researcher

House, an independent policy institute based in at the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the • About the Editor • London, and led the Europe China Research and University of Cambridge . Advice Network (ECRAN) funded by the Euro- He is the author of Hu Jintao, China’s Silent pean Commission . Educated at the University of Leader (2012), Ballot Box China (2011) and the edited Cambridge, University of London, and University collection China 2020 (2011), Friends and Enemies: of Leeds, he worked in Japan and the Inner Mon- The Past, Present and Future of the Communist Party golian region of China before joining the Foreign of China (2009), The Rise of the Dragon—Chinese and Commonwealth Office . He worked in the Chi- Investment Flows in the Reform Period (2008), Strug- na Section and served as First Secretary in Beijing gling Giant: China in the 21st Century (2007), and from 2000 to 2003, and was head of the Indone- The Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia (2006) . sia East Timor Section from 2003 to 2005 . He is a He was a coeditor of the Berkshire Encyclopedia of research associate of the Centre for International China and contributed a number of articles includ- Studies and Diplomacy at the School of Oriental ing “Beijing Consensus .”

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• ix • Introduction 序言

ven to the most fervent observer of Chinese China of great unity and considerable extent . Its affairs, the great sweep of China’s past is over- borders are nowhere near as extensive as at the time Ewhelming . Chinese history is long, indeed very long, of the Yuan, 800 years ago, when the China of the and as the centuries—and millennia—have passed Mongols reached deep into central Asia, and even “China” has taken one shape after another, with crept to the borders of what is now Europe . But they different boundaries, different leaders, and differ- are approximately the same as they were at the end ent guiding principles . There has been splitting up, of the period of Qing expansionism in the eight- reuniting in different forms, and fragmenting again . eenth century . But today’s China understands that But there is continuity, too, and at the heart of its history has been marked by disunity, and this lies this new encyclopedia is a belief that in understand- behind the current Chinese government’s constant ing the stories of over 100 remarkable and significant emphasis on the importance of unity and stability . individuals, we can come to understand, and make This is only one of the ways in which China’s past comprehensible and manageable, the vast sweep of informs and influences its present, and is one of the Chinese history . stories to be told and explained in the DCB . No expert expects to master more than a small Whatever the multiple histories of China have fragment of Chinese history . There are experts on been, however, and whatever differences have specific reigns, events, and regions . Editor in Chief existed, at heart it has been like the history of the • 序言 Kerry Brown’s academic work, for example, focused West, and the history of other continents and coun- on Inner Mongolia during the two-year period from tries by being one of humans, developing, evolving, 1967 to 1969 . But by bringing together a large group and setting up institutions, traditions, and stories . of scholars and writers, from the UK, the US, China, This history has been recorded, for some of the time and other countries, we have found a way to look at (the richness of this documented history in China China’s long past and, by seeing how the country is unparalleled by any other culture), and marked and its people have developed and changed we can by material deposits, buildings, and artifacts . These understand much better where, and why, China is are the things through which people come to under- as it is today . stand Chinese history, either at museums, or in the Few cultures have such an awareness of the landscapes that they pass through when they are in importance of their own history as China . Trying China . to survey this vast intellectual territory through The fact that much of this vast history was understandingUncorrected the story of the humans who have writtengalley in a language, or languages,pages wholly differ- made it at least helps . It gives an often generalized ent from that of the West, and that, at least until the and abstract historic narrative—focused on reigns sixteenth century and the first real engagement with and invasions—a familiar human face . the West through Jesuit and other Christian mission- The China we know today as the People’s Re- aries that went to China, there was very little mutual public of China has been, for a mere 60 years, a engagement, and next to no understanding, does

• x • • Introduction • 序言 • not help outsiders either . For centuries, Marco Polo’s figures, and developments, a realm that was largely highly fragmented memoirs of his travels were the inaccessible to most women, although of course one only real record that existed . Chinese history and can argue that women en masse have indeed held language did not become a part of the Western aca- up half the sky . demic landscape until the nineteenth century, with The ambition for this work when it has been the Sorbonne university in Paris being the first to set published is to make the stories of many of these up a department studying what was then quaintly figures, too little known in the West, much more called “oriental” languages . Today, even with the widely available . Through this means, we hope vast increase in the study of Chinese, it sometimes that some of the richness and complexity of China’s still feels like we are all playing catch up . multiple histories can be captured in a way that is The principles for inclusion in the DCB were neither daunting nor off putting . Perhaps also some deceptively simple: each of the individuals here of the common misconceptions or misunderstand- was important when he or she lived and has had ings of China’s past can be put right . Confucianism, an influence on China, and sometimes on the world, for all its renaissance in central state rhetoric now, both during and after their death . In fact the selec- was only one of many competing belief systems for tion was difficult, and at times frustrating, because the first two millennia of Chinese dynastic history . figures have been chosen from very diverse fields, This work will present some of the other systems including Chinese political, cultural, business, and that laid claim to Chinese belief through their scientific history . Founders of dynasties, writers founders or chief promoters . Passionate debates of poems and epic novels, statesmen and women, about political reform and the existence of “loyal and philosophers and theorizers have all been in- opposition,” opposed to the autocracy of the em- • Introduction • cluded . This helps shift away from perhaps the peror, were happening a thousand years ago in the predominantly political shine of most general his- Song period . China’s contribution to our scientific tories of China . The dynastic pattern of China’s past and mathematical heritage is captured in the stories is reflected here, from the Shang dynasty onwards . of key scientific figures from the Tang, Song, and Some periods of great activity like the Tang and Han dynasties . And in covering the empire-build- Song dynasties, and, of course, contemporary Chi- ing Chinggis Khan, to the great conquerors and na, from the Republican Period onwards, have more consolidators of the Qing dynasty, to the highly con- representatives than other, more obscure periods . troversial figures that created the China we know Mythical figures are not covered Not many mythi- today—Mao Zedong and his successors, we unlock cal figures or foreigners have been included, though and assess changes that have taken place over the there might be compelling arguments to make them centuries . In making the stories of these individual part of the story of China . figures vivid and concrete, we allow readers to step Our list includes only a few women . This re- into times past and to see the way these remarkable flects both the reality of Chinese history in terms characters shaped their own times, and contributed of individual influence, and the focus of tradition- to a country that is already one of the major powers al historiographyUncorrected on political and public events, ofgalley the twenty-first century . pages

Kerry Brown Professor and Executive Director of the China Studies Centre, University of Sydney

• xi • Jurchen Jin dynasty 女真金 (1125–1234)

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A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th century ink and color painting on silk . Batu Khan Bádūhán 拔都汗 c . 1205–1255—Mongol ruler

Batu Khan on the throne, from Rashid-al-Din’s History of the World

Franck BILLÉ 蒙哥) (1209–1259), the fourth Great Khan of the University of Cambridge Mongol Empire, from 1 July 1251 until Batu Khan’s death in 1255 . Möngke remained Great Khan for Batu Khan (c. 1205–1255), a grandson of another 4 years until he died on 11 August 1259 . Chinggis Khan, was a major figure in the In fact, at the time of Möngke’s accession to the Mongol world whose ruthless conquests in Great Khanate, Batu was a virtual kingmaker . Eurasia allowed him to control a vast territory Batu founded the Golden Horde (Jīnzhàng • Batu Khan that stretched from present-day Kazakhstan Hàngu ó 金帐汗国) (1227–1255), a sub-khanate to the Danube. Although his joint reign (with and one of the successor states of the Mongol Möngke) of the Mongol Empire was brutal, Empire; the name comes from the Mongolian the empire connected East and West through word ordon (palace) . Under its auspices Batu commerce, setting the stage for China’s Yuan launched numerous campaigns against the me- dynasty, which saw the development of rich dieval powers of Poland, Kiev, Hungary, and cultural diversity. miscellaneous tribes of more loosely organized peoples . As a result, he came to rule over a he Mongol ruler Batu (Bádū 拔都, sometimes vast territory which at its apex stretched from given as Bádūhán 拔都汗, or Bádūkèhán 拔都 today’s Kazakhstan to the Danube . Batu’s rule 可汗T ), whose name literally means “firm” in Mon- corresponded with the westernmost extension golian, was born circa 1205 and died in 1255 . He was of the Mongol Empire, which in 1242 reached the second son of Jochi (Zhúchì 朮赤) (1185–1225), the outskirts of Vienna . himself the eldest son of *Chinggis Khan (Chéngjísī Extremely violent and merciless, Batu’s as- hàn 成吉思汗) (1162–1227, and often spelled Geng- sault on Europe was unanimously described by his Khan)Uncorrected . When Jochi died in 1227, Chinggis made thegalley peoples conquered as pagesan absolute disaster . In Batu, the younger of his grandsons, his successor, to retrospect, however, scholars acknowledge that the inherit the lands to the west, “as far in that direction Mongol Empire at the time of his rule connected as the hoof of the Tartar horse had penetrated .” East and West, facilitating commerce and admin- Batu was a major figure in the Mongol world . istration across Eurasia, and bringing a period of He ruled the empire jointly with Möngke (Měnggē relative peace .

• 1 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Jurchen Jin dynasty •

契丹 Background Inner Mongolian Khitan (Qìdān ) . In 1153 the Jurchens renamed the city Zhongdu, or “Central Capital ”. In 1215 the Mongols besieged, sacked, After the collapse of the Táng 唐 dynasty (618–907 and burnt the city to the ground . An eyewitness ce), anarchy was prevalent in China . A number reported several months later that the bones of of ephemeral imperial dynasties succeeded one the slaughtered formed white mountains and that another in northern China, while southern China the soil was still greasy with human fat . Later, in was broken up into several provincial ruling hous- 1264, in preparation for the conquest of all of Chi- es . Eventually a great national dynasty, the Sòng na to establish the Yuan dynasty, *Khubilai Khan 宋 dynasty (960–1279 ce), ascended the impe- ( hàn 忽必烈汗) decided to rebuild the city rial throne . Batu lived during the Song, which was slightly north to the center of the Jin capital, and Hūbìliè later followed by the Yuán 元 dynasty (1271–1368 in 1272, he made it his capital, renaming it Dadu . ce), the only dynasty established by the Mongols For the Mongols, this city was known as Khanbalik and considered both as a division of the Mongol (spelled as Cambaluc in Marco Polo’s accounts) . Empire and as an imperial dynasty of China . Prior to that date, Karakorum (Kharkhorin in Mon- During the twelfth century, after fighting a long golian), had served as the capital of the empire . war against the Song dynasty, a group called the When Dadu became the new capital, Karakorum Jurchens (Nǚzhēn 女真) captured Kaifeng from remained the administrative center for Mongolia the Song . From this time on, Song hegemony was for a further hundred years . confined to the area south of the Yangzi (Chang) The Song was the first government in world 长江 River, and the dynasty became known as history to issue paper money, and the first Chinese Southern Song . North of the river, the Jurchens government to establish a permanent standing founded a new dynasty, the Jīn 金 (1115–1234 ce) . navy . Social life during the Song was vibrant and In northwest China, however, there was another cities had lively entertainment quarters . The spread

• 拔都汗 state called the Western Xia, or Xī Xià 西夏, ruled of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the by the Tangut (Dǎngxiàng 党项), a north Asian earlier invention of woodblock printing and the ethnic group most likely related to Tibetans . Ch- eleventh-century invention of movable-type print- inggis Khan understood that Xi Xia had to be his ing . Premodern technology, science, philosophy, first objective because the Tangut could threaten mathematics, engineering, and other intellectual his flank when he moved against the Jin . The battle pursuits flourished over the course of the Song . against them was the Mongols’ first victory against Philosophers such as *Chéng Yí 程颐 and *Zhū a sedentary state . Xī 朱熹 reinvigorated Confucianism (rúxué 儒学) The Mongol invasion of China lasted over six with new commentary infused with Buddhist ide- decades and particularly involved the defeat of the als, and they emphasized a new organization of Jin dynasty, Western Xia, the Dali Kingdom, and classic texts that brought out the core doctrine of the Southern Song, which finally fell in 1276 . The Neo-Confucianism . Mongol-JinUncorrected Dynasty War (Měng-Jīn zhànzhēng 蒙 galleyThe later part of the Songpages dynasty, however, 金战争) lasted over twenty-three years and the Jin was dominated by war against northern nomadic dynasty fell in the year 1234 . tribes . To repel the Jurchens, and later the Mongols The Jin Empire had its capital at Zhongdu, (Měnggǔ 蒙古), the Song developed revolutionary the site of present-day Beijing . Previously named new military technology supplemented by the use Yanjing, the town had been a secondary capital of gunpowder . Gunpowder would later be used by of the Liáo 辽 dynasty (907–1125) founded by the Batu’s army in his campaigns against Europe .

• 2 • • Batu Khan • 拔都汗 •

The legacy of Chinggis Khan, particularly with Xinjiang, it took two years after the death of Ch- regard to military organization, had turned the inggis Khan before Ögedei assumed power as new Mongols from a group of warring tribes into a suc- khan . In 1229, a compromise was reached, which cessful war machine . The army was organized into eventually resulted in the first territorial division arvans (interethnic groups of ten), and the members of the Mongol domains . Following nomadic Mon- of an arvan were loyal to one another regardless of golian tradition, the youngest son, Tolui, received ethnic origin . Ten arvans made a zuun, or a company; northern China as well as the home territory of ten zuuns made a myangan, or a battalion; and ten Mongolia as ochigin, “prince of the hearth,” while myangans formed a tümen (wànhùzhì 万户制), or Chagatai received Central Asia . The eldest son, an army of ten thousand . Tümens were considered Jochi, was given the lands furthest away from the a practical size, neither too small for an effective homeland, in accordance with nomadic Mongol campaign nor too big for efficient transport and tradition . supply . Indeed, this decimal-system organization Chinggis’s wife Börte had been abducted by of Chinggis Khan’s military would prove very ef- the Merged (Miè’érqǐ 蔑儿乞) tribe and liberated fective in conquering, by persuasion or force, the shortly before giving birth to Jochi, a situation that many tribes of the central Asian steppe . caused lingering uncertainty about whether Ch- These troops were made especially effective inggis was his real father . Nonetheless, Chinggis by a large supply of sturdy and robust horses . Of always accepted Jochi as his first-born son . Jochi smaller stature than European horses, the Mon- was thus favored as rightful heir to the Mongolian golian horses were able to cover vast distances in empire, but when Chinggis named Ögedei as his difficult conditions and with very little food . Such rightful successor, Jochi rebelled against his father . • Batu Khan an advantage, combined with expert archers capa- Chagatai and Ögedei were sent against Jochi, who ble of shooting arrows while galloping at full speed, died in February 1227 before any physical hos- meant that the Mongols were capable of crushing tilities occurred, and only several months before the enemy despite being frequently outnumbered . Chinggis died . By the time of his death, Chinggis’s armies had Because Jochi had passed away before the conquered northern China, part of Siberia, and death of his father, his appanage was transmit- Central Asia . His successors were to continue his ted to his two sons, Orda (Wò’érdā 斡儿答, c . campaigns, notably to Europe . Before he died, Ch- 1204–1280) and Batu . The traditional steppe no- inggis Khan prepared his succession and divided mad practice of granting the grazing lands furthest his patrimony between the four sons borne to him away from the home camp to the eldest son was by his principal wife Börte Üjin (Bèi’értiē 孛兒帖, thus upheld, though in this instance the pastures c . 1162–1230): Jochi (Zhúchì 朮赤, c . 1180–1227), available would prove to be unusually extensive . Chagatai (Chágětái 察合台, c . 1185–1241/42), Orda, the eldest, received western Siberia from the Ögedei (Wōkuòtái 窝阔台, c . 1186–1241), and To- River Irtysh to the River Ural, and Batu, the sec- lui (Tuōléi 拖雷, 1192–1232) . ond, was given the territories west of there . The An Uncorrected assembly, or quriltai (kùlìtái dàhuì 库力 factgalley that the territories given pages to Batu still remained 台大会), was convened for the most prominent to be conquered reveals the supreme confidence of Mongol nobles to elect the new khan on the basis the Mongols that he and his generals and troops of collective judgment that the candidate was the would prove equal to the task . most talented or competent . Although Chinggis The territories in question, geographically Khan had designated Ögedei as his successor and corresponding to western Kazakhstan, southern left him the territory of central Siberia and eastern Russia, and southern Ukraine, had already been

• 3 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Jurchen Jin dynasty •

reconnoitered by the Mongols in 1223 . But it was Crossing the Urals, Batu’s army swept over not until 1238–1240 that Batu carried out the real the plains of southern Russia, crushing resistance conquest, valiantly supported by such command- so mercilessly that, as a Russian chronicler put it, ers as Subotai (Sùbùtái 速不台; in Mongolian, “No eye remained open to weep for the dead .” Sübedei, 1176–1248) . If Batu was nominally in In November of the same year, the Mongols charge of the westward conquest, the actual leader launched an attack against the Russian principali- was in fact Subotai, then around sixty years old . ties . The fact that these territories were parceled Subotai had been the primary military strategist into small principalities and dukedoms made and general of Chinggis Khan and Ögedei Khan . it easier for Mongols to conquer them . Further- He had directed more than twenty campaigns in more, throughout the campaign Russians princes which he conquered thirty-two nations and won showed neither unity of purpose nor any sense of sixty-five battles, and during which he conquered the enemy they were facing . None of them sur- or overran more territory than any other com- rendered to the Mongols, and they frequently fled mander in history . He gained victory by means of when it became clear resistance was futile . The imaginative and sophisticated strategies and rou- main Mongol force, headed by the Jochid princes tinely coordinated movements of armies that were Batu and Hordu—the future great khans Güyüg hundreds of kilometers away from each other . The and Möngke—and several others, arrived at Ry- campaigns against Russia were extremely success- azan’ in December 1237 . Once Ryazan’ refused to ful, despite dissension and hostilities between Batu surrender, the Mongols sacked it and massacred and Tolui’s son Möngke, on the one hand, and the whole population . In February 1238, Mos- Ögedei’s son Güyüg (Guìyóu 贵由) (c . 1206–1248) cow, then a small town, was sacked . Suzdal and and Chagatai’s son Büri (Bùlǐ 不里) (d . 1252), on Vladimir were next . Vladimir in particular was the other . the scene of terrible events . The population was massacred in the churches where they had sought

• 拔都汗 refuge . Other Mongolian detachments attacked Moving Westward and sacked Yaroslav and Tver’ . It was only thanks to the spring thaws that Novgorod managed to es- As early as 1223, Subotai had led a reconnaissance cape the same fate . force of three tümens through Qipchaq (Qīnchá 欽 The siege of Kiev, in December 1240, repre- 察) territory, a confederation of pastoralists and sented the final blow in the Mongol conquest of warriors who occupied a vast territory in the Eur- Russia . The entire Mongol army camped outside asian steppe, stretching from north of the Aral Sea the city, under Batu’s command . Catapults were westward to the region north of the Black Sea (now used against the city and after eight days of relent- in Ukraine and southwestern Russia) . The election less bombardment the walls were finally breached . of Ögedei as Great Khan in 1235 led to the decision The whole city was destroyed and the population to renew the war against them and against the Rus- butchered . John of Plano Carpini (Bóláng jiābīn 柏 sian principalitiesUncorrected that lay beyond . The year 1236 郎嘉宾galley) (1180－1252), one pages of the first Europeans saw a successful attack against the Volga Bulghars to enter the court of the Great Khan of the Mon- (Fúěrjiā Bǎojiālìyà 伏尔加保加利亚), a historic gol Empire, visited the town in 1246 . He described Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and how the entire countryside around the city was lit- thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the tered with skulls and bones, while the whole town Volga and Kama rivers in today’s southern Russia . was reduced to rubble with scarcely two hundred The following year, the Qipchaqs were conquered . houses left standing .

• 4 • • Batu Khan • 拔都汗 •

Encounter with Europe their circle open to allow Béla’s soldiers to escape . As the whole Hungarian troops fled westward, Mongolian soldiers hunted them down as they ran . In 1241 the Mongols launched attacks on both Despite some heavy losses, the Mongols emerged Poland and Hungary . A detachment of Mongo- successful and crushed the Hungarian armies . lian troops, under the commandment of Baidar Batu’s share of the booty included Béla’s magnifi- (Bàidā’ér 拜答儿) and Qaidu (Hǎidū 海都) (1230– cent golden tent . It became the symbol of Batu’s 1301) attacked Poland . In March, Krakow was prowess, and when he eventually settled down attacked and burnt . On 9 April, the town of Leg- in southern Russia at Sarai, on the Caspian Sea, nica, in Silesia, southern Poland, was raided . The his Qipchaq-Mongol state was named the Golden town was the scene of untold massacres: European Horde after Béla’s golden tent . chroniclers recorded that the Mongols cut off an If Batu went down in history as victor of the ear from each slain soldier and sent them to Batu battle of Muhi, the real champion was his com- Khan, filling nine sacks with the grisly proof of vic- mander Subotai . In fact, Batu was later criticized tory . After Moravia, that part of the troops joined for the irresolution he showed at Muhi, and he the rest of the Mongolian army, under Batu’s com- also had to live down the embarrassment of hav- mand and Ögedei’s directions, which gathered in ing struggled for two months against the Russian Pest on 2–5 April . On 7 April, greatly outnumbered, town of Kozel’sk which his cousins Qadan (Hādān the Mongolian troops feigned retreat, thereby lur- 哈丹) and Büri stormed in merely three days . ing the Hungarian troops out of the city . This was After the battle of Muhi, the Mongolian troops a common tactic of the Mongols to achieve deci- continued their assault on Hungary . They burnt • Batu Khan sive victory: they would lure the enemy away from Pest, where in order to frighten into submission the their base by a brief attack, followed by a feigned people living on the other side of the Danube, they retreat of several days’ duration . If the enemy fol- heaped the bodies of the butchered multitudes on lowed, the Mongols, after giving battle at a place of the embankment while others skewered little chil- their own choosing, were then able to wipe out the dren on their lances and carried them along the defeated soldiers as they fled back to their base . Af- dykes . In Esztergom, the Mongols bombarded the ter two days of such pretense, the Mongols camped city’s wooden fortifications with thirty catapults to at Muhi, downstream from today’s Miskolc . The make a breach, and filled in the ditch using sacks of battle that took place there on 11 April 1241 ended earth . When the city was entered on Christmas Day in total victory for the Mongols over the Hungar- 1241 the inhabitants set fire to their own homes and ian army, led by King Béla IV (1235–1270) . As the buried their valuables so that the Mongols would Hungarian troops crowded together at night in a not have them . Many people were roasted over laager (an encampment circled by wagons), Batu slow fires to make them disclose where they had and Subotai, Batu’s primary military strategist and hidden their treasures . general, encircled them . In the ensuing months the whole Hungar- ComparingUncorrected the Hungarian troops to sheep in iangalley population was subjected pages to extreme violence . a pen, Batu and Subotai attacked with giant cata- When a few months later King Béla succeeded in pults and fire-belching war machines . It was the returning to his country, he was met by scenes of first recorded use of gunpowder in Europe, and death and destruction of such vast proportions that this new weaponry contributed significantly to the he despaired of his country . In regions which previ- Mongols’ shock tactics and psychological warfare . ously had been densely populated, he rode for days Eventually, the Mongolian army deliberately left on end without seeing a living soul . Everywhere

• 5 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Jurchen Jin dynasty •

he saw hideously mutilated and half-decomposed Ögedei, and Büri, Chagatai’s grandson, were jeal- bodies lying by the thousands, slowly disposed of ous of Batu’s prominence and dissension rose in by packs of wolves and other wild animals . the Mongolian army . As Batu and his commanders After Hungarian cities all fell one by one, there sat down to enjoy a banquet after a victory against were no more barriers between the Mongols and a Russian principality, Batu took a drink before the Western Europe . Batu’s army was poised to con- others . Güyüg and Büri begrudged this and left the tinue its assault on Europe when news arrived of feast without sharing it . As Büri rode away he is re- Ögedei’s death . ported to have said: “Batu is our equal, how dared he drink first? He is just like an old woman with a beard .” Möngke, Tolui’s son, also left Batu’s army Death of Ögedei and Return to but he remained in good terms with Batu, and this friendship was to have significant consequences Mongolia for the history of the Mongols . After Ögedei’s death in 1241, the regency The news of Ögedei’s death reached Batu at the was entrusted to his widow, Töregene Khatun end of June 1241 . As Batu was literally about to un- (Zhāocí huánghòu 昭慈皇后) . Eager to have her leash his horsemen for the final assault on Western son Güyüg elected as Great Khan, she extended Europe, an imperial messenger arrived from Kara- the regency period for several years . Güyüg was korum, bringing across two continents the news elected Khan in August 1246, but his reign was to that the Great Khan Ögedei had died in December . be short-lived . Early 1248, Güyüg started to move Eager to compete for the throne, he knew that his west, allegedly for health reasons . But Sorghagh- presence in Karakorum was vital but, with the en- tani (Suōlǔhétiění 唆鲁禾帖尼), Tolui’s widow, tire European continent virtually within his grasp, suspected his real intention was to attack Batu, he hesitated . Having quarreled with his cousins and she sent him a warning . This cemented the

• 拔都汗 Güyüg and Büri during the European campaign, Jochid-Toluid alliance against the Ögedei and he knew that he could not afford to be away from Chagatai lines . The showdown never happened, Karakorum if he was to stand a chance . Güyüg and since Güyüg died en route suddenly, possibly of Möngke had already gone back to Mongolia . The poisoning . A number of historians have disputed Yasaq, the body of laws and practices decreed by this, however, some believing he died of natural Chinggis Khan and his successors, which gradual- causes, and others believing he died a result of a ly came to form a sort of constitution of the Mongol violent brawl . His widow Oghul Qaimish (Qīnshū Empire, required that every member of Chinggis’s huánghòu 欽淑皇后) took over as regent but was clan must attend the quriltai that elected the new ultimately unable to keep the succession within Khan . The importance of the quriltai unequivocally her branch of the family . After Güyüg’s death in trumped his quest for glory, and Batu decided to April 1248, Batu became the clear leader among interrupt his campaign . the Mongol princes, despite the gout that kept him TheUncorrected campaigns of 1236–1242 increased sig- bedriddengalley . pages nificantly the territories of the House of Jochi . As commander of these campaigns, at least nominally, Batu was the legitimate ruler of this vast domain . Möngke’s Reign Nevertheless, important tensions between Güyüg and Batu had emerged during the conquest of the In July 1251 Batu called a quriltai in his own terri- Russian principalities . Güyüg, the eldest son of tory in a place called Ala-Qamaq, in the mountains

• 6 • • Batu Khan • 拔都汗 • south of the Ili River . Sorghaghtani sent Möngke, entity . The family’s early separatist tendency re- while other attendees included leaders of the fami- flected Jochi’s alienation from his father, Chinggis lies of Chinggis Khan’s brothers as well as several Khan . Furthermore, Jochi’s son and successor, important generals . Güyüg’s sons attended briefly Batu, was an immense distance from Mongolia but then left, and the only remaining representa- and his suffering from gout reinforced his repu- tives of the Ögedei and Chagatai families were tation as a coward . As a result, he preferred to outsiders with little influence in their families . The defend his autonomy rather than compete for quriltai rejected the idea that only descendants of rule in Mongolia . Ögedei could be khan and first offered the throne Batu is said to have had twenty-six wives to Batu . Rejecting it, Batu instead nominated and four sons . Of the latter, two were to play a Möngke . Despite vehement objections from Oghul historic role: Sartaq (Sǎlǐdā 撒里答) (d . 1256), Qaimish’s delegate, a Uygur scribe called Bala, who succeeded Batu as Khan of the Golden the quriltai approved Möngke . One supporter of Horde, and Toqoqan (Tūhǎn 秃罕) (c . 1220–c . Möngke even threatened to execute anyone who 1256), whose son Möngke Timur (Mánggē opposed Batu’s choice . Tiēmù’ér 忙哥帖木儿) (d . 1280), was khan of Undoubtedly this was nothing less than a coup the Golden Horde from 1267 to 1280 . Both Sartaq d’état, organized by Batu (who himself declined and his son Ulaghchi (Wūláhēichì 乌剌黑赤) election) in collaboration with the Toluids . An (died 1257), Batu’s successors, died in quick suc- extensive purge of the families of Ögedei and Cha- cession, possibly through poisoning, and were gatai ensued, and from that date the Great Khanate succeeded by Batu’s brother Berke (Bié’érgē 别 remained a perquisite of the house of Tolui . All of 儿哥) (d . 1266) . • Batu Khan Batu’s surviving tormentors, such as Yesü Möngke Batu is also credited with the foundation of (Yěsù Ménggē 也速蒙哥), son and first successor the town of Sarai (Sàlái 萨莱), on the Volga, near of Chagatai, who had publicly ridiculed his battle- today’s village of Selitrennoye in Russia, about field ineptitude, were executed . 120 kilometers north of Astrakhan . Its construc- In return for his support of Möngke, Batu was tion did not, however, imply that he took to a conceded virtual autonomy in his own territory of settled existence or abandoned the characteristic the Golden Horde . Möngke became Great Khan Mongol preference for living in tents, or ger (in but Batu remained in charge of the Golden Horde . Chinese, měnggǔbāo 蒙古包) . Sarai was the capi- Moreover, as kingmaker and supporter of Möngke, tal of the Golden Horde and was a prosperous Batu enjoyed great prestige . As quoted by William and cosmopolitan city . When Ibn Batutta (Yīběn of Rubruck (Lǔbùlǔqǐ 鲁不鲁乞) (c . 1220–c . 1293), Báitútài 伊本白图泰) (1304–1368 or 1369), an a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer, Islamic scholar and traveler, visited in 1323, nu- Möngke is reported saying, “As the sun sends its merous ethnic groups resided in Sarai: Mongols, rays everywhere, likewise my sway and that of Russians, Qipchaqs, Circassians, and Greeks, Batu reach everywhere ”. as well as Egyptian, Iraqi, Iranian, and Italian A vUncorrectedast territory, the Golden Horde stretched merchantsgalley . He noted in particularpages the peaceful from the Irtysh in the east to the Danube in the coexistence of various religious practices . The west . Jochi’s fourteen sons divided the steppe capital was later relocated to a second town of into longitudinal strips, nomadizing north to Sarai, New Sarai (Xīn Sàlái 新萨莱), 65 kilome- south along the main rivers . Of all the successor ters east of today’s Volgograd, which flourished states of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde until 1395 when it was sacked and effectively was the first territory to emerge as a separate disappeared .

• 7 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Jurchen Jin dynasty •

Batu’s Influence China, decided to massacre them all, obliterate their towns, and turn their well-tended fields into grazing land for the Mongol horses right down Batu’s Mongol contemporaries praised him as a to the Huang (Yellow) River, Yēlǜ Chǔcái 耶律 just and sagacious ruler, bestowing upon him the 楚材, adviser and administrator during the reign posthumous title of Sayin Khan (i e. ,. the Good of Chinggis Khan and that of his successor Öge- Khan) . According to Ala ad-Din Ata-Malik Juvayni dei, successfully convinced the Khan that it was (1226–1283), a Persian historian who wrote an ac- in his own interest to use the industrious Chinese count of the Mongol Empire, Batu did not subscribe as a source of regular tax revenue rather than as to a particular faith or religion, but he recognized fertilizer . a belief in God, namely Tengriism (ténggélǐ 腾格里), the worship of the sky traditionally practiced by Mongols . Not all his contemporaries, however, Pax Mongolica saw him in such a positive way, and because of his performance at the Battle of Muhi and especially If, undeniably, the Mongol assaults on Eurasia at Kozel’sk, he earned the reputation of coward were extremely destructive, later generations among some of the Mongol army commanders . of historians have sought to highlight its more This contrasted drastically with the percep- beneficial outcomes . The conquests of Chinggis tion Russians and other vanquished peoples had Khan and his successors effectively connected the of him . They unanimously viewed him as a cruel Eastern world with the Western world, ruling a ter- and ruthless conqueror . In fact, because of his cam- ritory from Korea to Eastern Europe and Siberia to paigns, the Mongols were destined to be a synonym Southeast Asia . The Silk Roads, linking trade cen- of terror to most of the inhabitants of Eurasia for ters across Asia and Europe, came under the sole hundreds of years . In Europe, they were also com- rule of the Mongol Empire . That “a maiden bearing monly known as Tartar, which was a deformation a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely • 拔都汗 of the ethnonym “Tatar,” a group of Mongolized throughout the realm” was a common aphorism Turks, which recalled for Europeans the name of the time . In fact, the phrase “Pax Mongolica” “Tartarus” (i .e ., the “hell” in Greek mythology) . was coined by Western scholars to describe the Undoubtedly, the European experience of the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Mongol army was traumatic . In battles, Mongols Empire on the social, cultural, and economic life of showed no mercy, massacring the whole popula- the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that tion of any town that had refused to submit to the the Mongols conquered in the thirteenth and four- khan . Even after a victory, the Mongolian army teenth centuries . The term is used to describe the would frequently carry out wholesale massacre eased communication and commerce the unified and indiscriminate destruction in order to ensure administration helped to create, and the period complete security . As Chinggis Khan had warned, of relative peace that followed the Mongol’s vast “when the enemy is vanquished, it does not mean conquests . The Mongols are also credited with set- that he Uncorrectedis pacified .” Characteristically, the Mongols tinggalley up a postal system andpages stimulating cultural systematically devastated vast tracts of land on the exchanges throughout Eurasia and beyond . Fur- Hungarian plains following their victory in Muhi thermore, if the period of the Mongol conquests and Esztergom . China narrowly escaped the same had been merciless and brutal, the Mongol Empire fate . When Chinggis’s generals, not knowing what itself was comparatively tolerant and liberal . While to do with the vast urban population of conquered Europe was in the throes of religious persecution,

• 8 • • Batu Khan • 拔都汗 • complete freedom of religion reigned in the Golden development of a rich cultural diversity, notably Horde and the rest of the Mongol Empire . the development of drama and the novel, as well In China as well, initial negative evaluations as an increased use of the written vernacular . were later reassessed . Chinggis Khan and his successors are recognized by a number of twenty-first century scholars as Chinese heroes who conquered Further References: Europe and unified China by founding a new dynasty . In 1272 Khubilai Khan (23 September Allsen, Thomas T . (2001) . Culture and conquest in Mongol 1215—18 February 1294), the fifth Great Khan of Eurasia . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press . the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294, issued an edict posthumously pronouncing his grandfather Atwood, Christopher P . (2004) . Encyclopedia of Mongolia Chinggis Khan founder, or Tàizǔ 太祖, of the new and the Mongol Empire . New York: Facts On File, Inc . dynasty which he called the Yuán 元 (i e. ,. “the Grousset, René . (1941) . Histoire de l’Asie. Que sais-je? origin”) . The title is said to have been suggested to Série [Asian history . What do I know? Series] . Paris: Khubilai by his Chinese adviser Liú Bǐngzhōng 劉 Presses Universitaires de France . 秉忠 (1216–1274), and it marked a departure from Khrustalëv, D . G . (2008) . Rus’ ot nashestvia do “iga” [Rus’ Chinese precedent in that previous dynastic titles from the invasion to the “yoke”] . Saint-Petersburg: had tended to have a geographical derivation, re- Evrazia . ferring to the dynasty’s own place of origin . As in Morgan, David . (1986) . The Mongols . Oxford, UK: Blackwell . the rest of the Eurasian landmass, the process of unification initiated by the Mongols brought peace Ronay, Gabriel . (2000) . The Tartar Khan’s Englishman . • Batu Khan in China, and led to the fostering of commercial London: Phoenix Press . and cultural contacts with Europe and the Islamic Soucek, Svatopluk . (2000) . A history of Inner Asia . world . As a result, the Yuan dynasty witnessed the Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press .

Uncorrected galley pages

• 9 • Ming dynasty 明 (1368–1644)

Uncorrected galley pages

Leaf album painting of flowers, a butterfly, and a twisted rock sculpture, by Chen Hongshou (1598–1652) . RICCI, Matteo Lì Mǎdòu 利玛窦

1552–1610—Jesuit missionary

Detail of Matteo Ricci from a 17th century text . Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Li- brary, Yale UNIVERSITY .

Frances WOOD teaching rhetoric there . When Ricci was ordained British Library in 1580, Father Alessandro Valignani (1538–1606) requested that Ricci and Ruggieri be transferred to Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) was an Italian-born Jesuit Macao and there, in 1582, Ricci began his study of priest credited with bringing Catholic missions Chinese .

to China. Arriving at a time when all foreigners The Jesuit mission to China was not the first • RICCI, Matteo where regarded with suspicion, Ricci gained Christian contact with China . Several missionaries access to the court by bestowing gifts of new were sent out from Europe in the mid-thirteenth technologies, such as chiming clocks, on Chinese century as Christian rulers sought Mongol sup- emperors. His contributions were thus valued port for their crusades in the Holy Land, but most more for their scientific practical applications, and got no further than the Mongol capital of Karako- he made less progress in religion conversion. rum . In 1291, the Franciscan John of Montecorvino (1247–1328) arrived in Beijing and built a church, he Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) complete with spire, in 1299, but no lasting mission is generally described as the founder of the was established . Impetus was given to Catholic TCatholic missions in China . He was born in Italy, missionary work by the pioneering sea voyages of in Macerata in the Marche, into a family of phar- Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, which macists . Educated at first in Macerata, where he made possible the foundation of the trading es- studied at a new Jesuit college for seven years, he tablishments of the Dutch in the East Indies and was then sent to Rome in 1568 where he studied the Portuguese in Goa (a small state in western In- law for two years before applying to enter the So- dia) and Macao In addition, the Catholic Church, ciety of Jesus . He was accepted into the noviciate hard-pressed by opposition from the Protestant in 1571 Uncorrected. In 1577, he applied to join a Jesuit mission Reformationgalley in Europe, feltpages the need to go out to India . Preparation for the mission took place to the rest of the world and convert . In this, the in Lisbon, where Ricci was ordained in 1578 . He Catholic Church led the way for, despite the Dutch arrived in Goa in the company of Fathers Rudol- presence in the East Indies, the Protestant Church phe Aquaviva, Michele Ruggieri, Nichola Spinola, did not begin to send missionaries to the Far East and Francisco Pasio in September 1578 and began until the beginning of the nineteenth century .

• 11 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Ming dynasty •

The founder of the Society of Jesus (the term “Je- rather elevated merchants, without understanding suit” was first used in 1544) was St . Ignatius Loyola their desire to preach, not trade . In 1583, however, (1491–1556) . His religious order differed from oth- Ricci and Ruggieri returned with local government ers in that it did not have choirs, it did not require permission to build a house and a church . Though wearing a distinctive habit or uniform, it stood they managed to baptize two local literati in 1584, a aside from religious office, it increased the length new local governor seized their fine house in 1587, of probation or training, and it was the first order and Ricci was forced to move to Chaozhou, on the to undertake foreign missions, at the order of the Jiangxi border . In 1594, he was encouraged to travel Pope . It was also notable for a stress on education . to Beijing, which he did dressed in Chinese robes, St . Francis Xavier (1506–1552), who had met Loyola, a dress style approved by the pope . This adoption was sent eastward by King Joao III of Portugal and of Chinese clothing was part of Ricci’s grand plan spent ten years in India and Japan, always conscious for acceptance, although his first decision, to adopt of the need to establish a mission in China . In 1551, Buddhist dress, was perhaps a mistake since at the he was to join an embassy sent from the Viceroy of time Buddhism was a religion followed mainly by the Portuguese Estado da India to the Ming emper- the poor and many Buddhist monks were regarded or but the embassy was cancelled by the Admiral of with some suspicion . Ricci then chose to adopt the Malacca (Vasco da Gama’s son) and when, in 1552, robes normally worn by scholars or literati for he Xavier found a Portuguese merchant willing to drop felt these placed the Jesuits in a position of respect him on the Chinese coast, he died on a rocky out- in the Chinese social context, somewhere between crop near the mouth of the Pearl River . the educated literati and officials . On his way north, he stayed for some time in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province where, in 1595, Early Influences in Guangzhou and he published two works, Jiāoyǒu lùn 交友论 (On Beijing Friendship), and Xīguó Jìfǎ 西国记法 (The European

• 利玛窦 Art of Memory) . The first was an essay in imitation As can be seen from St . Francis Xavier’s failure, the of Cicero, setting out Western philosophical and re- Chinese authorities did not welcome outsiders dur- ligious views of friendship, the latter a description ing the sixteenth century . Portuguese traders were, of how to create hierarchies of objects and ideas however, beginning to arrive in the city of Guang- in order to retain information . The purpose of this zhou (Canton), in Guangdong Province . The local memory system was to master complex religious authorities allowed Portuguese residence on the texts and systems but it was of considerable inter- Macao peninsula, but access to the mainland was est to educated Chinese whose education system, severely restricted . Portuguese traders were per- designed to lead to official positions, was rooted in mitted to enter Guangdong twice a year for trade the memorization of vast reams of Confucian texts in tea, silks, and porcelain but were not allowed to needed to pass the examinations required of those spend a night on the mainland, and were forced who hoped to obtain official government positions . to returnUncorrected to their ships at dusk . Ruggieri went to Bothgalley Ricci’s works were greatly pages admired by the lo- Guangzhou and tried to persuade the local author- cal literati . One of his most significant converts was ities to allow priests greater latitude; in the winter *Xú Guāngqǐ 徐光启 (1562–1633), an official who of 1582 he received permission to travel to Zhaoq- eventually rose to the position of Grand Secretary ing (then the capital of Guangdong Province) with and whose memory is still preserved in the Catho- Father Pasio, but they were expelled shortly after . lic Church in Shanghai, built in Xujiahui on land The Chinese authorities seemed to treat them as donated by the Xu family .

• 12 • • RICCI, Matteo • 利玛窦 •

Despite his local success, Ricci was determined in Chinese that demonstrated their mastery of the to pursue his trip to Beijing and set out with the sup- language . Ruggieri’s Shèngjiào Shílù圣教实录 (True port of a local official who was going to the capital Record of the Sacred Teaching), printed in Guangzhou to take up an appointment as Head of the Lǐbù 礼 in 1584, was the first Chinese catechism and the first 部, or Bureau of Rites . Although an imperial eu- work written in Chinese by a European, composed nuch greeted Ricci upon arriving in Beijing in 1598, in the form of a dialogue between a European and threats of war with Japan exacerbated the suspicion a Chinese . Ricci’s earliest publications in Nanchang of foreigners and forced Ricci to leave almost imme- included On Friendship and The European Art of diately for Suzhou . In 1601, he returned to Beijing, Memory which were not exclusively religious in na- accompanied by the Spanish Jesuit Father Diego de ture, but he also published Tiānzhǔ Shíyì 天主实意 Pantoja (1571–1618) . While Ricci entertained visi- (The Truth of God) in Nanchang in 1595, which, like tors in his hope of getting to the court, de Pantoja Ruggieri’s Shengjiao Shilu, took the form of a dia- traveled through the surrounding countryside bap- logue between a European and a Chinese designed tizing converts (and after Ricci’s death, supervised to “refute the principal errors current in China .” the production of the imperial calendar in 1611) . In Beijing in 1604, he published Èrshíwǔ Yán Ricci’s return to Beijing was not without its 二十五言 (Twenty-Five Moral Maxims) on the es- difficulties . He and de Pantoja were held up for sentials of Christianity, in 1609 the Jīrén Shípiān畸 six months in Tianjin before they and the presents 人十篇 (The Ten Paradoxes), which sought to chal- they had brought for the emperor were allowed to lenge Buddhist ideas, and the Biànxué Yídú 辫学遗牍 Dispute with Idolatrous [Buddhist] Sects

proceed . Their gifts were taken to court where, ac- ( ) . • RICCI, Matteo cording to a Jesuit source, “the emperor admired Pursuing one of his principles, that the Jesu- the images of Our Lady but was above all capti- its could prove themselves useful to the Chinese vated by the clocks” (Pfister 1976, 29) . The emperor court because of their modern European scien- in question was the Wànlì 万丽 emperor of the tific skills, he was associated with several works Ming who reigned from 1573 to 1620 . Though he published by his Chinese disciples such as the never gained access to the court and never met the Tóngwén Suànzhǐ 同文算指 (Practical Math- emperor, Ricci remained in Beijing until his death ematics), 1614, Cèliáng Fǎyì测量法义(Practical in 1610 and he was buried in land given by the Geometry), Gougu yi 勾股义 (On the Triangle), emperor, which is now in the grounds of the city’s Huánróng Jiàoyì圜容较义 (On Isoperimetrical Communist Party School . Forms), 1614 and Húngài Tōngxiàn Túshuō 浑盖通宪 (On the Celestial Sphere) 1607 . He also produced a significant world map, Wànguó Yútú万 Ricci and His Legacy 国舆图, drawn in Zhaoqing in 1584, corrected and published in Nanjing in 1598 . With Ruggieri The Wanli emperor’s interest in Ricci’s chiming he compiled a Portuguese-Chinese dictionary, the clocks and in de Pantoja’s astronomical skills dem- first ever European-Chinese dictionary, probably onstrateUncorrected one of the great ambiguities of the Jesuit whengalley they were in Zhaoqing pages between 1583 and enterprise in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century 1588 . Deposited in the Jesuit Archive in Rome, the China, the problem of being accepted not for its dictionary was only rediscovered in 1934 and first faith but for its practical skills . Valignani, who had published in 2001 . called Ricci to China, recognized the enormous im- Ricci’s stress on scientific expertise as a way portance of learning Chinese in order to convert, into the Chinese court did not lead to more than and Ruggieri, de Pantoja, and Ricci left publications a handful of converts there but it had an effect on

• 13 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Ming dynasty •

the Jesuit mission in China that lasted for nearly They did have a greater effect on the late Ming and 150 years as both the Ming court and that of early Qing courts, but primarily as scientists and the conquering Qīng 请dynasty (1644–1911/12) experts along the lines pioneered by Matteo Ricci, used Jesuit experts as astronomers, mathemati- who thought that by ingratiating themselves with cians, map makers, clock repairers, painters, and the court the Jesuits could make converts at the top craftsmen . Johann Adam Schall von Bell 汤若望 of society and the populace would follow . Instead, (1591–1666) successfully predicted eclipses more success at court led to jealousy and was part of the accurately than the official court astronomers, reason for suppression . Nevertheless, the effect of and worked on the production of the official the Jesuits’ China mission on Europe was enor- imperial calendar as well as creating bronze as- mous . For from the early period, not only did they tronomical instruments . In 1645, he was made publish Christian and scientific works in China, Director of the Astronomical Bureau, the first but they began to publish very widely on China in of several Jesuits to hold the post, such as Fer- European languages . As one scholar put it: dinand Verbiest 南怀仁 (1623–1688) whose second set of instruments can still be seen on the One way to gauge the impact of observatory tower in Beijing . the Jesuits’ propaganda efforts is The *Qiánlóng 乾隆 emperor of the Qing (r . to imagine an empty European 1736–1795) was the last Chinese emperor to appre- bookcase from 1590 and watch it fill ciate Jesuit skills . His grandfather, the *Kāngxī 康 up with books large and small over 熙 emperor (r . 1662–1722) had studied mathematics the course of the following hundred and surveying with the Jesuit fathers Jean-Francois years . The firstworks on the Jesuits in Gerbillon 李明 (1654–1707) and Verbiest, and China would be the printed Annual had mathematical and astronomical instruments Letters from the East Indies, which constructed in the palace workshops under their contained sections on Macao and

• 利玛窦 supervision . The Qianlong emperor made some the Guangdong Province residences . use of Jesuit painters such as Guiseppe Castiglione These small books would be dwarfed 郎世宁 (1688–1766), who painted him on horse- by Nicholas Trigault’s account of the back as if he were a European king-emperor . heroic deeds of Matteo Ricci and his The *Yōngzhèng雍正 emperor temporarily colleagues, De Christiana Expeditione exiled the Jesuits in 1724 and though some, like apud Sinas (Augsberg 1615) . Seven Castiglione, returned to court, their dominance other editions of this work appeared was effectively over as court patronage declined in just over a decade in translations and serious problems developed back in Europe . into French, German, Spanish, Italian Dominicans and Franciscans, jealous of Jesuit suc- and English . . . By the middle of cess, stirred the controversy over the “Chinese the seventeenth century, the pace of rites,” accusing the Jesuits of excessive accommo- publication of Jesuit texts on China dation toUncorrected the Chinese and misrepresenting Chinese galleyquickened . (Brockey pages 2007, 152–153) practices in the argument over whether ancestor worship was permissible to Chinese Christian con- Ricci himself left some of the earliest European verts . The order was suppressed in 1773 . eyewitness descriptions of China in his letters, It can be argued that the Jesuits had very little the forerunners of the famous Lettres Edifiantes et effect on China as the number of converts was nev- Curieuses [Interesting and Uplifting Letters] first er large, and therefore that Ricci had little impact . published in 1704, in which Jesuit missionaries

• 14 • • RICCI, Matteo • 利玛窦 •

An historic print showing the • RICCI, Matteo Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci (left) and the Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi (right) . Ricci was the first Jesuit to reside in Beijing, and Xu Guangqi was among his first converts . To this day Ricci’s name stands for a cross-cultural dialogue based on mutual understanding and respect in both China and the West . Printed in 1669 by John Macock for Johannes Nieuhof (1618–1672), author of An embassy from the East- India Company of the United provinces, to the Grand Tartar Cham, emperour of China. Col- lection of the Bei- necke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale UNIVERSITY . described their places of work from all aspects, fruits, fights and balls of fire turning in the air . It providingUncorrected European readers with a very broad cov- seemedgalley to us when we lived pages in Nanking that on the erage of the history, politics, beliefs, and physical first day of the year which is their special celebra- aspects of India, China, and other far-flung plac- tion, they use as much gunpowder as in ten years es . Ricci wrote about tea, picked in spring, dried continuous warfare ”. in the shade and served throughout the day, not He wrote on printing, noting that printing in only with meals but whenever a visitor arrived . He China was “a little older” than in Europe, but very described Chinese fireworks, “representing trees, different, owing to the nature of the language . In

• 15 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Ming dynasty •

the earliest description of woodblock production, to wear a silk veil, which was greatly appreciated he noted that the woodblocks for printing were by the bearded European Jesuits who could walk made from pear, apple, or jujube wood and that through the streets unrecognized in their veils . the written text was placed face down on the block Ricci’s descriptions of the warm reception of and very gently rubbed so that only the characters European striking clocks in the imperial palace remained visible . The rest of the block was carved set the tone for imperial presents for hundreds of away so that only the characters stood out . They years, with succeeding embassies such as that of then print out their pages with great speed . “Some- Lord Macartney in 1792–1794 taking ornate clocks times, one printer could produce 1500 sheets in a and watches as gifts, items that can still be seen in day . And they also carve their blocks as fast as a the exhibition galleries of the Forbidden City . [European] printer could compose and correct a In his gifts, in his desire to explain China to page [of movable type]” (Boothroyd and Detrie Europe, in his translations of Western works into Chi- 1992, 117–119, author’s translation) . The work of nese and his promotion of the study of the Chinese Chinese printers was of interest to Ricci for the language and philosophy, Ricci set the style for much production of his own books and subsequently the subsequent contact and his legacy in Europe was the multitude of primers as well as the religious and foundation of the scholarly study of China, taken up scientific texts put out by the Jesuits . by European thinkers like Leibniz and Voltaire . Ricci approved of the use of fans made of reeds, wood, ivory, ebony, paper, silk, and sweet-smelling straw—round, oval, or pleated and folded and sometimes decorated with a painting or a line of cal- Further Reading ligraphic verse . Though he noted some differences between Chinese and Europeans, he concluded that Boothroyd, Ninette, & Détrie, Muriel . (1992) . Le voyage en they were very similar, despite the geographical sepa- Chine [Trip to China] . Paris: Robert Laffont .

• 利玛窦 ration, in their way of eating, sitting, and sleeping, for Brockey, Liam Matthew . (2007) . Journey to the East: The Jesuit they had tables, chairs, and beds, unlike the neighbor- mission to China, 1579–1724. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press . ing peoples [of Southeast Asia and India] who sat on mats on the ground, where they also ate and slept . Mungello, David E . (1989) . Curious land: Jesuit accommodations Ricci left a description of Beijing, “in the north and the origins of Sinology. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press . of the country, only 100 miles from the famous Mungello, David E . (1999) . The great encounter of China and walls built against the Tartars . In terms of size, the West, 1500–1800 . Lanham, MD: Rowan and Littlefield .

street layout, great buildings and defenses, it is in Krahl, Regina; Murck, Alfreda; Rawski, Evelyn S .; & truth, inferior to Nanking, although it has a great- Rawson, Jessica . (2006) . China: The three emperors 1662– er population and a greater number of officials 1795. London: Royal Academy of Arts . and soldiers . It is encircled by great walls, wide Spence, Jonathan D . (2008) . The memory palace of Matteo enough for 12 horses to ride comfortably abreast” Ricci. London: Quercus . (BoothroydUncorrected and Detrie 1992, 122–123) . As few galley pages streets were paved, Ricci described the difficulty of Ruggieri, Michele, & Ricci, Matteo . (2001) . Dicionário walking through mud in winter and dust in sum- Português-Chinês [Portuguese-Chinese dictionary] . Witek, mer, dust which got everywhere inside houses . He John W . (Ed .) . Lisbon, Portugal: Biblioteca Nacional . was pleased to note that the way to avoid the dust Wood, Frances . (1996) . Did Marco Polo go to China? hazard was, then as now, four hundred years later, Boulder, CO: Westview .

• 16 • Republican China 中华民国 (1911/12–1949)

Uncorrected galley pages

Advertisement for Nanyang Brothers Tobacco Company, 1920’s . CHIANG Kai-Shek Jiǎng Jièshí 蒋介石

1887–1975—Leader of mainland China 1927–1949 and of the Republic of China (Taiwan) 1949–1975 Alternative names: Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng 蒋中正

Photograph of Chiang Kai-Shek, 1945 . Library of CONGRESS .

Jonathan FENBY Because he was defeated by the Communists British journalist and author after a struggle lasting for more than two dec- DIAN Qu ades, and because he was not able to save much Oxford University of China from invasion by Japan (which began in Manchuria in 1931 and culminated in full- Chieh-Ju LIAO blown war from 1937 to 1945) Chiang has been University of Cambridge regarded as a loser, a transitional figure between the last imperial dynasty, the Qing, and the es- As leader of mainland China from 1927 to 1949 tablishment of the People’s Republic under Mao and of Taiwan from 1949 until his death in 1975, Zedong in 1949 . Unlike Mao, Chiang was not a Chiang Kai-shek played a major role in post- charismatic figure . Despite spending his adult • 蒋介石 imperial China. His failure to protect China from life in the army, he was a less-than-adequate field Japan (beginning in the early 1930s) as well as his commander who operated through trusted cro- defeat by Mao Zedong and the Communists in nies and family members, often prizing loyalty 1949, have resulted in varying assessments of his above competence . He never developed a coher- efficacy as a leader and of his legacy. ent political creed . His regime failed to evolve state institutions or democracy, and it was criti- hiang Kai-shek was, with Máo Zédōng 毛泽 cized for its conservatism and corruption, for its 东 and Dèng Xiǎopíng 邓小平, one of the lack of concern for the common Chinese people, threeC dominant figures of twentieth-century Chi- and for its inability to extend meaningful control nese history . After defeating the warlords who had beyond its heartland in the lower Yangzi (Chang) ruled China following the fall of the empire in 1912 River region . (See Eastman 1974 .) and the failure of the early republic, he presided But scholars such as Jay Taylor (2009) have over theUncorrected Guómíndǎng 国民党 (GMD, or Nation- begungalley to reevaluate Chiang pages and the Nationalist alist Party) and government until he lost the civil era, looking behind the blanket condemnation war with the Communists . He was then forced to that formerly held sway . To claim that Chi- flee the mainland in 1949 for Taiwan, where he re- ang was the precursor of the vast changes that mained in power until his death in 1975 at the age have taken place in China since the launch of of eighty-seven . market-led economic reform in 1978 might

• 18 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 • over-exaggerate his influence, although the Early Years: From Xikou to Shanghai evolution of the country’s major urban centers during his regime, particularly Shanghai in the Chiang Kai-shek was born on 31 October 1887, in 1930s, did point to a different kind of emerg- the village of Xikou in Zhejiang Province in eastern ing society . But Chiang managed to hold at least China . His family operated the local salt monop- a part of China together during the war with oly on behalf of the monarchy, and his father ran Japan, a fact that helps to establish him as a sig- a shop with a view of the river running through nificant historical figure . Xikou . They were not rich, however, having lost The two decades of Nationalist administra- much of their assets during the Taiping Rebellion tion based in Nanjing were an exceptionally of the mid-nineteenth century . When Chiang was testing time, marked by invasion, regional strife, seven, his father died; Chiang’s mother, a devout economic difficulties, and the challenges of Buddhist, instilled in him the virtues of hard work modernization . China was at the end of a long and obstinacy . downward spiral that began with a series of After local schooling, Chiang won a scholar- great regional revolts in the middle of the nine- ship to attend a military academy in Japan . In 1901, teenth century and the weakening of imperial at the age of fourteen, he entered into an arranged authority . After repeated incursions, European marriage with a village girl, Mao Fumei, who was powers increased their presence and influence seventeen . They did not get along . Before he left for by imposing “unequal treaties” (most notably Japan, however, his mother pressured the couple to • CHIANG Kai-Shek those of Nanjing in 1842 and Tianjin in 1858 that have a child, a son who was named Chiang Ching- opened certain ports to foreign trade and provid- kuo 蒋经国 . ed immunity from Chinese law for their citizens In Japan, Chiang underwent rigorous training residing in China . and developed respect for tough military meth- As a Nationalist, Chiang wanted China to mod- ods . He also met young Chinese revolutionaries ernize, grow stronger, and escape the humiliation who sought shelter there from imperial rule . He brought on it by its weakness and vulnerability, most likely encountered *Sun Yat-sen 孙逸仙, the but he was too steeped in tradition to break with Cantonese revolutionary leader in exile, in Tokyo . the past . An essentially cautious Confucian, he When the revolution broke out against the Qing would not take risks needed to achieve significant dynasty in October 1911, one of Chiang’s associ- progress, or relax his central system of control . He ates in Japan, Chén Qíměi 陈其美, who had gone proved to possess enormous survival skills, but back to China, asked Chiang to join him in Shang- these contributed to his downfall as he concen- hai, China’s most important international trading trated on short-term measures and maneuvers that center . From there Chiang led a rebel guerrilla unit could not withstand the military challenge when southward to the city of Hangzhou to storm the the Communists gained full force in 1948 . He has headquarters of the highest-ranking local imperial to be seen in the context of his times: as a cunning, official . manipulativeUncorrected political general who was unable to galleyAfter this successful campaign,pages he returned to rise above the circumstances of the transitional pe- Shanghai to work with Chen, who became military riod surrounding him, a man who reacted to events governor of the city after the revolution prevailed . instead of dictating them, but still the essential fig- Chiang and Chen had links with progressive Shanghai ure of China’s history between the empire and the merchants and with members of secret societies (triads); People’s Republic . Chiang probably became a member of one called Qīng

• 19 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Republican China •

清帮 bāng (Green Gang) . He was also reported to have Whampoa and the Northern killed one of Chen’s opponents in his hospital bed . Expedition But the revolution soon went sour . Sun Yat-sen, who had been elected as provisional president of the republic by an assembly of the rebels in Nan- Chiang became commandant of the Whampoa 黄埔军校 jing, stepped down in 1912 and handed over power Military Academy founded outside to Yuán Shìkǎi 袁世凯 with the understanding Guangzhou in 1924 with the help of Soviet advis- that Yuan would support the republic. But Yuan, ers who had been sent by Moscow to give their the military strongman who’d been in charge of service to Sun’s administration and build up a re- Qing imperial troops in 1911 and had negotiated gime that might spread revolution in China . The terms of the dynasty’s defeat with the provisional head of the mission, known as Mikhail Borodin, re- government, soon outlawed the Nationalist Party, structured the Nationalist Party as a Leninist party dissolved the parliament, and by 1915 attained while Red Army instructors formed the nucleus dictatorial control . (Rebellious southern provinces, of a New Revolution Army (NRA) at Whampoa . however, thwarted Yuan’s attempt to declare him- The academy’s graduates fought in an army Chi- self emperor on 1 January 1916) . Chen Qimei was ang led in successful expeditions against regional ousted in Shanghai . Chiang went into hiding and, rivals including Chen Jiongming . At the same time, with Chen, made a number of visits to Japan and the Nationalists worked with the small Chinese staged bomb attacks in Shanghai . When Yuan’s Communist Party (CCP), some of whose members, agents assassinated Chen in 1916, Chiang retreated including Mao Zedong, ran administrative depart- from political activities, dabbled unsuccessfully in ments while others, such as the future premier of 周恩 the stock market, and appears to have lived quite the People’s Republic of China, *Zhōu Ēnái 来 a dissolute life, unsure of where he was heading , became political commissars at Whampoa . as China was divided among competing warlords When Sun died of cancer on a visit to Bei-

• 蒋介石 after Yuan died in June 1916 . jing in 1925, Chiang became an important figure Chiang’s contacts with the revolutionaries in in Guangzhou, but few thought he would take Shanghai then led him to travel south to Guangzhou over as head of the Nationalists, who were led at (Canton) to join Sun Yat-sen, who made several at- the time by the Soviet-backed politician *Wāng 汪精卫 tempts to found a republic of his own there based Jīngwèi . But Chiang quickly outsmarted on the Nationalist Party . Chiang helped Sun in a the civilian leaders and wrong-footed the Russians running battle with a forward-thinking regional with his forceful reaction to a murky leftist plot to general, Chen Jiongming; after one of Chen’s lieu- kidnap him, about which controversy continues, tenants bombarded Sun’s house, Sun and Chiang some seeing it as a put-up job . Establishing himself spent several weeks together on a gunboat in the as the man in charge and claiming Sun’s legacy, he Pearl River, sometimes under fire from gunners on launched the Northern Expedition to defeat the the shore . A bond formed between the two men . warlords and unify China through the national SeekingUncorrected Soviet help for the military expedition crusadegalley that Sun, as the Nationalist pages Party founder, he wanted to launch in the north to unify China, had never been able to mount . Sun sent Chiang on a mission to Moscow, but he This seemed a foolhardy undertaking at the returned home without a commitment . Chiang de- time . The major warlords in central and northern nounced the Russians as untrustworthy, and spent China had much larger forces than the GMD could some time sulking in Shanghai before returning to muster . But the Whampoa troops displayed cohe- Sun’s side in the south . sion, bravery, and political conviction; they were

• 20 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 • aided by Chiang’s skill in recruiting allies, by per- council), Chiang’s agents enlisted the leader of the suasion or bribery, as well as by excellent advice Green Gang, Dù Yuèshēng 杜月笙, known as “Big from another of the Soviet advisers, a veteran of Eared Du .” Du was the leading figure in the city’s the Russian civil war who operated under the ps- narcotics and vice business . The chief of police in yeudonym of Galen . All this enabled the NRA to the French concession (a settlement that gave the carve its way up to the Yangzi to take the three big French special trade privileges, and which resulted cities grouped under the name of Wuhan . There from the unequal treaties), and the US chairman was a setback when Chiang launched an offensive of the Anglo-American international settlement of his own into Jiangxi Province, and he had to call also rallied to the anti-Communist side . On 12 in the Russians to get him out of trouble . April 1927, armed men working for Du attacked Even normally hostile Western observers left-wing strongholds, joined by Nationalist troops acknowledged that the new army was very dif- who opened fire on a protest demonstration . The ferent from the larger but ragged forces of the number killed has been estimated as between five major warlords, and that advancing troops were thousand and ten thousand . welcomed by the people along their route . But As the “White Terror” (i .e ., the term given to as a result of Chiang’s alliances with lesser local the attacks on and attempted purge of the Com- barons, the campaign launched in the cause of munists) spread to other cities under the control of eliminating the warlords soon included an array Chiang’s forces, his opponents in Wuhan reacted of petty generals with semi-independent forces— angrily . But they were in a weak position and were • CHIANG Kai-Shek a factor that was to be an important element in the caught up in a costly campaign on the Huang (Yel- following years . low) River with forces sent by the Manchurian After the Nationalist army reached the Yangzi, warlord Zhāng Zuòlín 张作霖, who controlled there was a disagreement between Chiang and the much of northern China including Beijing . A se- left-wing GMD politicians, led by Wang Jingwei, ries of adroit political moves enabled Chiang to who were backed by Borodin . They wanted to get the better of his political adversaries—he won push north to take Beijing and establish the capital over a progressive warlord, Féng Yùxiáng 冯玉祥 of their regime there . Chiang, on the other hand, (known as the Christian General), who had allied was keen to advance east along the river to Nan- with the leftists and then obtained the expulsion jing, which had symbolic importance as the place of the Soviets’ advisers . Meanwhile, Du’s thugs where Sun Yat-sen had been elected as president of extorted money from the wealthy classes of Shang- the Republic in 1912, and Shanghai, China’s lead- hai, some of which found its way to the right wing ing commercial city and a major source of finance . of the GMD under Chiang that had established its The GMD left-wingers, headed by Wang Jingwei, base in Nanjing . The Wuhan regime collapsed, and established themselves in Wuhan while Chiang the Soviet advisers went home, accompanied by launched his army on the Lower Yangzi region and Sun Yat-sen’s widow, Soong Qingling 宋庆龄 . drove warlord troops out of both Shanghai and At an elaborate ceremony in a Shanghai ho- Nanjing,Uncorrected where there was a serious incident after telgalley on 1 December, 1927, Chiangpages married *Soong foreigners had been attacked . Meiling 宋美龄, the younger daughter of the late Chiang papered over that as he prepared for Shanghai tycoon Charlie Soong 宋耀如 / 宋耀 a showdown with the GMD left and, in particu- 如. (Meiling was the sister of Qingling, who had lar, its Communist allies . In Shanghai, where the been Sun Yat-sen’s wife ). Charlie Soong’s widow, Communist-led trade unions staged strikes and an ardent Methodist, was not sure about her fu- prepared to declare a soviet (an elected government ture son-in-law but did not prevent the marriage .

• 21 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Republican China •

Another problem was the presence of a woman, treaties” that had given the foreigners trading and Chen Jieru (Jennie Chen), with whom the Chiang legal privileges . Ambitious programs of financial had been living for some years and who said that and economic reform were announced along with they had been married . The general denied this, extensive plans to develop China’s infrastructure claimed that she was only a mistress, and sent her and transport system . to America to study . Kai-shek and Meiling both Progress was made, particularly in the more insisted that theirs was a marriage of love, rather developed area around Shanghai and Nanjing (see than a political arrangement . Dikötter 2008) . But it applied only to the small por- But it was quite a social triumph for the coun- tion of the country that enjoyed a concentration of try boy from Xikou who spoke with a rural accent, wealth, international links, and the advanced con- and it brought him into valuable contact with a ditions prevailing in the foreign concessions . In family that included two of China’s leading politi- keeping with Sun’s nationalism, however, the GMD cal and business figures . Meiling’s brother, Soong denounced the privileges granted to Westerners, Tzu-wen 宋子文 (T . V . Soong), and her brother- and to the Japanese, rich Chinese, and the writers, in-law, Kǒng Xiángxī 孔祥熙 (H . H . Kung), were artists, and intellectuals who chose to live in the con- both wealthy bankers and businessmen and would cessions, with their modern urban facilities, legal each become prime minister and finance minister protection, department stores, and cinema . Chiang in turn . Though Qingling, who belonged to the left and the Soongs all had houses in the settlements . of the GMD and is alleged to have been a Soviet agent, disliked Chiang intensely, the marriage so- lidified his position in the Soong-Sun galaxy . China’s Warlord Legacy On 4 January 1928, a new Nationalist government was installed in Nanjing, with Chiang as The warlord era had not been entirely regressive, chairman of the political council . In alliance with but it left a difficult legacy . The new regime con-

• 蒋介石 Feng Yuxiang and the warlord governor of Shanxi fronted a huge problem of backwardness in the Province, Yán Xīshān 阎锡山 (the “Model Gover- country as a whole stretching back to imperial days . nor”), the GMD defeated the Manchurian warlord Institutions of state, including a legislature, were Zhang Zuolin, who fled from Beijing to his north- established, but they were kept under strict GMD eastern homeland . When his train rolled into the control . The government was always short of cash . Manchurian capital of Mukden, Japanese officers It faced recurrent major natural disasters . Corrup- based in their country’s concession in the north- tion was rife, and the opium trade flourished, often east, set off an explosion that killed him—they with the complicity of officials, epitomized by the hoped that his son, Zhāng Xuéliáng 张学良 (the way in which Big Eared Du continued to run his “Young Marshal”), a morphine addict and play- narcotics trade while presenting himself as a bank- boy, would prove more pliable to Japan’s designs er and philanthropist . to turn Manchuria into a virtual colony . Nanjing’s control was quite limited as Chiang AfteUncorrectedr celebrating the final victory of the dependedgalley on the alliances withpages regional militarists Northern Expedition by prostrating himself at built up during the Northern Expedition . Their Sun Yat-sen’s tomb in Beijing, and telling in- loyalty was limited . Intent on retaining their local habitants of the imperial city that the national power, they repelled attempts at centralization, and, capital was moving to Nanjing, Chiang got to when they saw the chance of gaining advantages work launching the new regime, which promised through revolt, did not hesitate . (For a contempora- to modernize China and to reverse the “unequal neous account of China see Abend 1932, 1943 .)

• 22 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 •

The trio of generals who ran Guangxi Province dubbed the first China’s malady of the skin, the in the south, and who had been early members of second the malady of its heart . When the “Young the Northern Expedition, were the first to act, defy- Marshal” Zhang Xueliang proved less pliant than ing Nanjing by trying to extend their authority to the they had hoped, officers of Japan’s Kwantung Yangzi in the spring of 1929; Chiang defeated them Army based in northeast China staged a pretext with advice from Max Bauer, one of a string of Ger- to take action in September 1931 and occupied the man advisers who filled the role once taken by the whole of Manchuria—Zhang was in Beijing at the Russian, Galen . A more serious revolt soon erupted time undergoing medical treatment for his drug in the north where Feng and Yan Xishan, the two habit . Chiang decided that his forces could not get warlords who had allied with the Nationalists to take the better of the well-equipped and efficient Japa- Beijing, associated with his perennial rival, Wang Jin- nese imperial forces in the north though they put gwei, to form a breakaway administration in the old up strong resistance to a simultaneous Japanese imperial capital . This provoked a lengthy war that attack on Shanghai, which ended in a cease fire ended in Chiang’s victory after Zhang Xueliang from that demilitarized the city; estimates of the death Manchuria lined up behind him . At one point, Chi- toll varied wildly, with an account by the New York ang had found himself cut off by enemy troops and Times correspondent speaking of 35,000 military threatened with defeat . By his account, he prayed to and civilian killed . (See Abend 1932, 1943 .) the Christian God for rescue and snow promptly fell . The loss of Manchuria was followed by Japa- On his return to Shanghai, he converted to Method- nese invasion of the province of Jehol immediately • CHIANG Kai-Shek ism, to the pleasure of his mother-in-law . to the south . Zhang, who had been put in charge Despite their defeat, Feng and Yan were soon of the defense of northern China, was sacked—he back . This was part of the pattern of Chiang’s rule . took a cure for his addiction in Shanghai and then He won victories, in the field or by bribery, but went on a lengthy visit to Europe . The Japanese was unable to consolidate his success because he then extended their reach south of the Great Wall, lacked the forces and administrative machinery forcing the Nationalists to sign the Tangku Truce, required . So he was unable to lay the long-term which recognized their influence over territory foundations for a new state . His disinclination to containing 6 million people and requiring govern- delegate to colleagues meant that he tried to do ment forces to leave Beijing . too much himself, working with a small clique If Chiang had decided that he could not con- of advisers who often fought among themselves . front the Japanese, this was not the case for his The development of a democratic system was “enemy of the heart .” After the purge of 1927, the postponed as the GMD retained its “tutelage” of surviving Communists had retreated to the coun- the nation while the regime’s political police chief, tryside to set up a series of bases . At first, these Dai Li, expanded his power as the most devoted resisted attacks by the Nationalist army, but en- and ruthless of followers . (See Wakeman 2003 re- circlement tactics and weight of numbers led to garding Dai Li .) most of them being rolled up in due course . By Uncorrected 1934,galley the only substantial pages base left in its original location was in the southeast in Jiangxi Province . Challenges: Japan and the Communists It resisted several attacks by the Nationalists, using guerrilla tactics to ambush and defeat the govern- Chiang, who took the titles of Director General of ment forces . the GMD and Generalissimo, faced two persistent But Mao Zedong, who had been the principal challenges from Japan and the Communists; he figure at the base as he preached peasant rebellion,

• 23 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Republican China •

championed guerrilla warfare, and instituted a who had returned from Europe, in charge of the of- reign of terror, was sidelined by the Moscow- fensive in Shaanxi, with his headquarters in Xi’an . backed leadership in Shanghai . Prompted by a But the “Young Marshal” came to feel that the Chi- German adviser, Otto Braun, the new chiefs of the nese should join forces against the Japanese rather Jiangxi base engaged in frontal encounters with than fight among themselves . He reached a non- GMD troops, which ringed their enclave with aggression agreement with Zhou Enlai and then, pillboxes and inflicted heavy losses . When the in association with a local general, Yang Hucheng, Nationalists launched another campaign in the au- kidnapped Chiang when he visited Xi’an to su- tumn of 1934, the Communists decided to abandon pervise the campaign in December 1936 . The the base . Chiang, who had personally directed a Generalissimo was held for two weeks and then previous offensive, was far away on a trip to Mon- released without having given any formal under- golia and northern China, during which he went taking to agree to Zhang’s demands (see sidebar to Beijing for treatment of his chronically bad teeth “The Xi’an Incident”) . and was prescribed with eyeglasses to cope with Despite this, the national mood revealed by astigmatism . the Xi’an Incident called for a united front against Forces from his on–off ally, the Guangxi Clique, the Japanese, which was then put together but not staged a devastating attack on the Red Army without many reservations on both sides . Chiang from Jiangxi at the start of its twelve-month trek, pursued a military build up in the Shanghai region the Long March, which saw Mao maneuvering with the help of his new German adviser, General his way back to the top . Mao’s biographers, Jung Alexander von Falkenhausen, but kept this secret Chang and Jon Halliday, claimed that the Gener- so as not to give Tokyo a reason for further action . alissimo let the Red Army escape in a deal with On 7 July 1937, however, a clash between Chinese the Kremlin to allow his son, Ching-kuo, who had and Japanese soldiers at the Lukou Bridge (known gone to Moscow in the mid-1920s, to go back to to foreigners as the Marco Polo Bridge) outside

• 蒋介石 China . This seems unlikely given the way in which Beijing escalated into major fighting in the north, the Red Army was hounded by government troops followed by hostilities in Shanghai in mid-August . along its route; though some provincial warlords Wold War II had erupted in Asia . held back from attacking it, this was because they Though the Nationalist troops were routed in wanted the Communists to leave as quickly as pos- the north, they put up stiff resistance in Shanghai sible so as not to give Chiang the pretext to send in but were overwhelmed after a ninety-day battle . his troops and undermine their authority . In addi- Estimates of their losses ranged from 180,000 to tion he had already turned down a deal for his son 300,000 compared with 70,000 Japanese . After the to leave the Soviet Union in return for the freeing battle ended, the invaders swept forward through of two Polish Communist spies in Shanghai, which the lower Yangzi Delta, killing and destroying at would have been a far lesser price to pay than per- will . Chiang abandoned Nanjing, which was sub- miting the Red Army to survive . jected to a huge massacre of civilians as well as Uncorrected remaininggalley soldiers; the number pages of dead is a mat- ter of controversy, put at anywhere from 80,000 by Beyond Xi’an foreign historians to 300,000 by the Chinese, while some Japanese right-wingers maintain that hardly When the Communists reached their new base at anybody died . Yenan in Shaanxi Province, Chiang continued to The Generalissimo made the urban center of seek their destruction . He put Zhang Xueliang, Wuhan his next base . A united front came into

• 24 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 • being in the Yangzi city as Communists joined in marked the end of the collaboration laid out after the resistance there, a political council was set up, the Xi’an Incident . and freedom of expression reigned . Chiang ordered the breaching of dykes on the Huang River to halt a Japanese force moving down from the north . This caused major devastation through flooding, and The XI’AN INCIDENT did stop the enemy for a while . The Chinese won a notable victory in the walled town of Tai’erzhuang On 12 December 1936, elite soldiers from on the Grand Canal after luring Japanese units in- the forces of Zhang Xueliang, the “Young side . But they failed to capitalize, and the invaders Marshal” of Manchuria, crossed the resumed their advance . Wuhan was abandoned snow-strewn courtyard of a hot springs at the end of October, Chiang moving his capital resort outside the ancient imperial capi- to the Sichuan city of Chongqing, safe behind the tal of Xi’an to kidnap the ruler of China . Yangzi Gorges . Zhang had been driven from the his He remained there until 1945 . The bleak city homeland in the northeast by the Japa- became a strange mixture of backward Sichuan nese in 1931 and, after a lengthy visit to people and traditions with newcomers from Europe, had returned to China where he coastal cities who brought with them modern life- was put in charge of what Chiang Kai- styles and their dismantled factories painstakingly shek intended to be the final Nationalist • CHIANG Kai-Shek moved far inland from coastal areas . The GMD push to defeat the Communists in their armies launched occasional offensives, some suc- base in Yenan in northwest China . But, cessful as in three battles at the Hunan capital of coming to believe that Chinese should Changsha . But the Japanese controlled most of unite against the Japanese, Zhang kid- southern, eastern, and northern China, holding the napped his commander-in-chief to try to cities and ports, the roads and railways as their ad- get him to agree to a united front with vances produced a huge wave of refugees . the Communists against the invaders . A collaborationist regime was established un- Wearing only his nightshirt, Chiang der Wang Jingwei in Nanjing though its influence scrambled out the back window of his room, was limited . The united front between the Nation- leaving behind his false teeth . He injured alists and the Communists, meanwhile, became his back falling into a moat before climbing increasingly strained . Though it launched one a snow-covered hillside where he hid in a major campaign in 1940, the Eighth Red Army in cave before giving himself up . Taken to the north avoided major encounters with the Japa- military headquarters, he lay on a camp nese, harboring its strength for the future while bed and refused to speak except to tell his the leadership consolidated its hold of the area captors either to obey him or to shoot him . round Yenan, using opium as one means of rais- Zhang did not know what to do next . ing revenueUncorrected . In the lower Yangzi the other main galleyOther regional leaders pages whose support he Communist force, the New Fourth Army, came had hoped to obtain remained silent . The into growing conflict with local Nationalist com- Communists, who had initially rejoiced at manders; that led to a battle in early 1941 in which the news from Xi’an, were instructed by the Communists thought they had been allowed to Moscow to work for Chiang’s release since retreat from their positions but were attacked and he was Stalin’s preferred Chinese leader— overcome by larger GMD forces . This, in effect, Zhou Enlai flew in from the base to help

• 25 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Republican China •

negotiate . So did Chiang’s wife, Soong of Pearl Harbor, he is said to have put on a Meiling, her brother T . V . Soong, and their gramophone recording of Ave Maria . Frank- Australian adviser, W . H . Donald . (See Selle lin Roosevelt wanted to make sure that China 1948 regarding Donald’s extraordinary stayed in the war—it was tying down a million career in China .) Japanese troops . He saw China as one of the Moved to more comfortable quarters, Four Policemen of the world after the conflict, Chiang remained intransigent . Eventually, together with the United States, the Soviet Un- Zhang gave way . On 25 December, Chiang ion, and Britain, and promised it a permanent was released . The “Young Marshal” flew seat on the United Nations Security Council . with him to the capital of Nanjing where the But he did not want to commit US forces to fight former ruler of Manchuria was sentenced for Chiang . So he adopted the expedient of giv- to be held prisoner indefinitely—twelve ing the Nationalists large loans under the Lend years later, he was taken with Chiang to Lease program while sending a highly regarded Taiwan, where he was released only in general, Joseph Stillwell, to an ambiguous post 1991; he went to live in Hawaii and died as chief of staff in China . at the age of a hundred in 2001, twenty-six Stillwell was at loggerheads with Chiang, years after Chiang . whom he called “the peanut,” from the moment Though the Xi’an Incident fizzled out, he arrived in China . The two men fell out over it was important in that Zhang’s action the campaign in Burma (Thailand) in which Stil- stopped a major attack by the Nationalists well nominally commanded Chinese troops in the on the Communists . If this had succeeded, field but found that their generals were taking it could have devastated their forces . If they instructions from Chiang as they were routed by had survived in weakened shape, Mao and the Japanese . Subsequently, Stilwell’s obsession his colleagues would been driven further with erasing that defeat caused further trouble

• 蒋介石 west to the periphery of China from which it between the two men while his plan to reform the would have been more difficult for them to Chinese army would have struck at the base of the stage a comeback . Little wonder then, that Generalissimo’s power . In addition, the National- Zhang recalled late in his life that Chiang ists pressed continually for more supplies of US “absolutely detested him” and that the later arms and money, causing Chiang to acquire the Communist leader, Jiang Zemin, hailed the nickname in the West of “Cash My Cheque .” (For Young Marshal as a “hero for eternity .” Stilwell and the war period, see Tuchman, Van de ven, White, and Jacoby in Further Reading) . Stilwell received strong backing from the US chief of staff, George Marshall, and from the China and World War II US press corps in Chongqing . He was subsequently the subject of an admiring biography by The NationalistsUncorrected did more fighting than sup- Pulitzergalley Prize winner Barbara pages Tuchman, which posed by some subsequent historians who contrasted his straightforward Yankee style repeated the Communist line that only the Red with that of the devious Generalissimo . But the Army engaged the Japanese . (For a balanced Stilwell’s intransigence, acerbic personality, and view see Van de Ven 2003 .) But, in Chongqing, short temper, which earned him the nickname Chiang could do little except wait for another “Vinegar Joe,” made him a poor choice to work power to defeat Japan—when he heard news with a man like Chiang . His attempts to dictate

• 26 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 • to the Chinese to get them to reform their armed Postwar Tactics and Taiwan forces raised their hackles . In addition, the Yan- kee Stillwell was on bad terms with the “good ole boy” Southerner, Claire Chennault, who had Reverting to guerrilla tactics, Mao’s forces scored a been taken on by the Nationalists as their air number of victories and were aided by well-placed force adviser . agents of influence in the opposing high command . Matters were exacerbated by suspicions But the overwhelming strength of the Nationalists, that Stillwell wanted to work with the Commu- with US arms and transport, steadily pushed them nists . But despite some strong messages he sent back . In an effort to stop the fighting, Marshall to Chiang, Roosevelt had no alternative . The forced a second cease-fire on Chiang by threaten- Nationalist leader represented his best hope of ing to suspend arms deliveries . That enabled the keeping China in the war, and he confirmed Chi- Communist forces, now renamed the People’s ang’s status by inviting him to a summit meeting Liberation Army (PLA), to regroup . In 1947, they in Cairo with the British in November 1943 . launched successful attacks on Manchurian cities, Eventually, in the middle of a major Japanese at- helped by inept tactics on Chiang’s part . Then they tack from north to south China in 1944, known moved down toward Beijing while other armies as Operation Ichigo, Roosevelt recalled Stillwell staged offensives in central and eastern China . and replaced him with a more emollient general, During this period, Chiang tried to rally sup- Albert Wedemeyer . port with promises of political reform . A new • CHIANG Kai-Shek As World War II neared its close the fol- constitution was promulgated in 1947 under lowing year, Chiang came under increasing which he was elected as president of the Repub- 李宗仁 US pressure to reach an agreement with the lic of China . But Lǐ Zōngrén of Guangxi Communists, which led him to invite Mao for mounted a significant challenge and won the vice discussions in Chongqing . Roosevelt had com- presidency . To try to bolster the military effort, pared the Communists to agrarian socialists and Chiang regularly shuffled his commanders, and a US mission sent to Yan’an played back positive issued personal orders to the generals on the bat- reports of the discipline and integrity it found tlefield—but since these were often out of date by there—the darker elements of repression were the time they arrived, they were usually counter- kept well hidden . To try to get a coalition agree- productive . The regime remained divided by the ment, Marshall was sent to China on a year-long old rivalries and the country was exhausted . It effort at mediation . had gone through a decade of war . The social fab- But both Chiang and Mao were intent on re- ric had been ripped apart . Inflation was soaring . suming their battle for control of China . Though Confidence in the regime was low . In addition, the US envoy achieved an initial ceasefire agree- the Nationalists faced a well organized foe whose ment, this never held, and fighting broke out as the armies, far from being the peasant force of Com- Nationalists moved into Manchuria—with US help munist mythology, was well armed with tanks that underminedUncorrected the impartiality of Marshall’s andgalley heavy weapons, many pages of them US supplies mission . The USSR, which had invaded Manchuria captured on the battlefield . just before Tokyo ceased fighting, veered between After the PLA had won a major victory in the helping the Red Army and siding with Chiang, Huai-Hai battle of eastern China at the turn of whom Stalin saw as the kind of weak leader he 1948-1949, Chiang resigned as president, handing wanted in China so that he could promote Soviet over to Li . But he continued to play politics behind interests in East Asia . the scenes as his successor tried unsuccessfully to

• 27 • • Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography • Republican China •

reach an agreement with the Communists or to statesman who acted as a counterweight to the in- enlist Washington’s military support . On the first creasingly willful Mao . Still, though it backed the issue, Mao and his colleagues were unyielding, regime in Taipei in periodic clashes over small is- drawing up a list of “war criminals” headed by lands in the Taiwan Straits, Washington held back Chiang . On the second, Harry Truman had been from supporting schemes by Chiang to stage a alienated by links between the Nationalist regime landing on the mainland . and rightwing Republicans in the China lobby dur- US friendship ensured that there was no ing the 1948 presidential election while Marshall, Communist attempt to invade the island while who had become secretary of state, could only the Republic of China (RoC) retained permanent have bitter memories of his time in China . The US membership of the UN Security Council . Equally president refused to let Madame Chiang stay at important to the development of Taiwan was the the White House when she visited the capital and economic aid that Chiang’s regime received as it later told an interviewer that the Nationalists had developed the island, in particular with land re- stolen a billion dollars from US loans—“they’re all form . The generalissimo again took up the position thieves, every damn one of them,” he added of president of the RoC in 1950 and was re-elected As the PLA took Nanjing and Shanghai and to the post by the National Assembly in 1960, 1966, crossed the Yangzi, Chiang shuttled between loyal and 1972 . He and the GMD ran the island as a one- generals and visited Taiwan, where he had built party state under martial law . Chinese who had up an offshore base . The Nationalists had imposed crossed from the mainland dominated politics and themselves on the island after regaining it from the the economy, and the GMD profited by amassing Japanese in 1945—their repression included a massa- “black money” from corruption . cre of members of the native population in February Opposition was repressed, in particular among 1947 . After Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic the indigenous Taiwanese whose language was in Beijing on 1 October 1949, the generalissimo tried banned from use in schools and the media . Arrests

• 蒋介石 to organize resistance in Guangzhou but then flew ran into hundreds of thousands, and many alleged to Sichuan for a last stand . The Communists were Communists were executed . Gradually, however, on his heels, however, and on 10 December, Chiang the nature of the regime altered, though the GMD took a small plane from the provincial capital of made sure it kept the upper hand . Figures from the Chengdu to go to Taiwan, abandoning China to his past, such as Soong family members, left to live in enemy of more than twenty years . the United States . Chiang’s son, Ching-kuo, took The island, 145 kilometers from the Fujian an increasingly important role . As the economy coast, was protected by the Nationalist navy and evolved with the growth of basic manufacturing as air force . Chiang hoped to be able to use it as a well as agriculture, he laid the seeds for the move springboard to stage a return to the mainland but, toward democracy and enfranchisement of the na- for that, he would need US help, and the Truman tive Taiwanese that led to the GMD’s eventual loss administration remained unenthusiastic . But his of the presidency in 2000 . positionUncorrected was greatly strengthened by the outbreak galleyChiang still insisted thatpages there was only one of the Korean War in June 1950 . After Mao sent the China, which he represented; legislators in the PLA to support Pyongyang, Communist China parliament in Taipei sat for provinces lost by the became a major Cold War foe for Washington and Nationalists in 1949 . But there was a major set- Taiwan a valuable ally . US support for the Repub- back when the RoC lost its UN seat and Richard lic of China strengthened during the Eisenhower Nixon visited Beijing in 1972 for talks with Mao . administration when Chiang was seen as an elder Four years later, the Generalissimo died at the age

• 28 • • CHIANG Kai-Shek • 蒋介石 • of eighty-seven from renal failure after suffering a Further Reading major heart attack and pneumonia . His body was not buried but laid in a tomb Abend, Hallett . (1932) . Tortured China . New York: at one of his former residences in the hope that it Washburn . might eventually be taken back to be buried on the mainland . He was honored with the building Abend, Hallett . (1943) . My life in China, 1926–1941 . New York: Harcourt Brace and Company . on a huge memorial hall in Taipei as his son took over the leadership of the RoC . But, after the op- Bertram, James . (1938) . First act in China: The story of the position Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won Sian Mutiny . New York: Viking . the presidency in 2000, his reputation suffered a re- Dikötter, Frank . (2008) . The age of openness: China before verse as statues of him were removed from public Mao . Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press . places and his face was taken off banknotes . When Eastman, Lloyd . (1974) . The abortive revolution: China un- the GMD won back the presidency in 2008, Chiang der nationalist rule, 1927-1937 . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kai-shek’s name was not mentioned . University Press .

Fenby, Jonathan . (2003) . Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek Posthumous Legacy and the China he lost . London: Free Press . Lary, Diana . (2007) . China’s Republic . Cambridge, UK: After his death, Chiang was widely regarded as a Cambridge University Press . • CHIANG Kai-Shek figure from the past, one who had failed to move Selle, Early Albert . (1948) . Donald of China . New York: China into the post-imperial age . More recently, the Harper . huge odds he faced have been taken into account Taylor, Jay . (2009) . The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the modernization plans of the 1930s have been and the struggle for modern China. Cambridge MA: The regarded as a precursor to the evolution that the Belknap of Harvard University Press . mainland has undergone since the launch of economic reform in 1978 . The truth lies in the middle . Tuchman, Barbara . (1970) . Stilwell and the American expe- He was a clever politician with great endurance rience in China. New York: Macmillan . who was never able to engage with the scale of the Wakeman, Frederic . (2003) . Spymaster: Dai Li. Berkeley: task that confronted him . Essentially conservative University of California Press . in outlook, he was primarily a short-term opera- White, Theodore, & Jacoby, Annalee . (1980) . Thunder out tor . He was ruthless but not as murderous as Mao . of China, New York: Da Capo Press . By 1949, the regime he headed was crumbling beyond salvation . But, given what followed, Chiang Van de Ven, Hans . (2003) . Nationalism in China 1925-1945 . London: Routledge . emerges as a man who deserves to be understood rather than relegated to the dustbin of history . Uncorrected galley pages

• 29 • Characters & Glossary 汉字与注释词表

The following character lists and glossaries are organized alphabetically according to Pinyin translit- eration. Alternative spellings are mentioned in parenthesis, and both simplified and traditional characters are included. Bold names indicate that this individual has a separate entry in the Dictionary. Titles of books and documents are in italics, all other names and terms are roman.

Bádū/Bádūhán/Bádūkèhán (Batu Gōugǔ Yì (On the Triangle) 勾股义/勾 Khan) 拔都/拔都汗/拔都可汗股義 Bèi’értiē (Üjin) 孛兒帖 Guómíndǎng (W-G: Kuomintang) 国民党國民黨 Biànxué Yídú (Dispute with Idolatrous / [Buddhist] Sects) 辨学遗牍/辨學遺牘 Huángpǔ jūnxiào (Whampoa Military 黄埔军校黃埔軍校 Cèliáng Fǎyì (Practical Geometry) 测量法 Academy) / 义/測量法義 Huánróng Jiàoyì (On Isoperimetrical

• 汉字与注释词表圜容较义圜容較義 Chágětái (Chagatai) 察合台 Forms) / 忽必烈汗 Chen Qimei 陈其美/陳其美 Hūbìlièhàn (Khubilai Khan) Chéng Yí 程颐/程頤 Húngài Tōngxiàn Túshuō (On the Celestial Sphere) 浑盖通宪图说 Chéngjísīhàn (Chinggis Khan) 成吉思汗 Jiǎng Jièshí (Chiang Kai-shek) 蒋介石/蔣介石 Dǎngxiàng (Tangut) 党项/黨項 Jiǎng Jīngguó (Chiang Ching-kuo) 蒋 Dèng Xiǎopíng 邓小平/鄧小平经国/蔣經國 Dù Yuèshēng 杜月笙 Uncorrected galleyJiāoyǒu lùn (On Friendship pages) 交友论/交 Èrshíwǔ Yán (Twenty-Five Moral 友論 Maxims) 二十五言 Jīnzhàng Hànguó (Golden Horde) 金冯玉祥 Féng Yùxiáng 帐汗国/金帳汗國

• 30 • • Characters & Glossary • 汉字与注释词表 •

Jīrén Shípiān (The Ten Paradoxes) 畸人 Sòng Zǐwén (Soong Tzu-wen) 宋子文十篇 Sùbùtái (Subotai) 速不台康熙 Kāngxī, Emperor (of Ming) Sūn Yìxiān (Sun Yat-sen) 孙逸仙/孫逸仙孔祥熙孔祥熙 Kǒng Xiángxī / Tiānzhǔ shíyì (The Truth of God) 天主实 kùlìtái dàhuì (quriltai) 库力台大会/庫意/天主實意力台大會: An assembly attended Tóngwén suànzhǐ (Practical Mathematics) by the most prominent Mongol 同文算指 nobles, usually held to elect a new Tuōléi (Tolui) 拖雷 ruler (or khan) . Wāng Jīngwèi 汪精卫/汪精衛 Lì Mǎdòu (Matteo Ricci) 利马窦/利馬竇 Wànguó Yútú 万国舆图/萬國輿圖 Lǐ Zōngrén 李宗仁 wànhùzhì (tümen) 万户制/萬戶制: A Lǐbù (Bureau of rites) 礼部/禮部 military unit (an army of ten thousand) 毛泽东毛澤東 Máo Zédōng / used in the Mongolian army. 蒙哥 • Characters & Glossary Měnggē (Möngke) Wò’érdā (Orda) 斡兒答 ( Měng-Jīn zhànzhēng Mongol-Jin Wōkuòtái (Ögedei) 窝阔台 Dynasty War) 蒙金战争/蒙金戰爭 Xīguó Jìfǎ (The European Art of Memory) Miè’érqǐ (Merged) 蔑儿乞/蔑兒乞西国记法/西國記法女真 Nǚzhēn (Jurchens) Yán Xīshān 阎锡山/閻錫山乾隆帝 Qiánlóng, Emperor (of Ming) Yōngzhèng, Emperor (of Ming) 雍正清帮清幫 Qīng bāng (Green Gang) / Yuán Shìkǎi 袁世凯/袁世凱 Shèngjiào Shílù (True Record of the Zhāng Xuéliáng 张学良/張學良 Sacred Teaching) 圣教实录/聖教實錄 Zhāng Zuòlín 张作霖/張作霖 Sòng Měilíng (Soong Meiling) 宋美 Zhōu Ēnlái 周恩来/周恩來龄/宋美齡 Zhū Xī 朱熹 Sòng Qìnglíng (Soong Qingling) 宋庆朮赤龄/宋慶齡 Zhúchì (Jochi) SòngUncorrected Yàorú (Charlie Soong) 宋耀如 galley pages

• 31 • Geographical Locations 地理名词

This list of geographical locations includes names Húnán Province 湖南省 HN of cities, towns, villages, regions, rivers, and mountains, in both simplified and traditional characters. Inner Mongolia (Nèiměnggǔ) A list of all (contemporary) provinces is included Autonomous Region NM at the top, and the (present-day) location of each 內蒙古自治区蒙 entry is indicated by a two letter abbreviation in Jiāngsū Province 江苏省 JS parenthesis. Alternative spellings are mentioned in parenthesis when appropriate. Jiāngxī Province 江西省 JX Jílín Province 吉林省 JL rovinces of the P PRC Liáoníng Province 辽宁省 LN Macau (Àomén) Special Administra- Ānhuī Province 安徽省 AH MC tive Region 澳门特别行政区 Běijīng Municipality 北京市 BJ Níngxià (Huí) Autonomous Region NX Chóngqìng Municipality 重庆市 CQ 宁夏回族自治区 Fújiàn Province 福建省 FJ Qīnghǎi Province 青海省 QH • 地理名词 Gānsù Province甘肃省 GS Shǎnxī (Shaanxi) Province 陕西省 SN Guǎngdōng Province 广东省 GD Shāndōng Province 山东省 SD Guǎngxī Zhuàng Autonomous Shànghǎi Minicipality 上海市 SH GX Region 广西壮族自治区 Shānxī Province 山西省 SX Guìzhōu Province 贵州省 GZ Sìchuān Province 四川省 SC Hǎinán Province 海南省 HI Tiānjīn Municipality 天津市 TJ Héběi Province 河北省 HE Tibet (Xīzàng) Autonomous Region 西 XZ Hēilóngjiāng Province 黑龙江省 HL 藏自治区 Hénán Province 河南省 HA Xīnjiāng (Uyghur) Autonomous Re- Uncorrected galley pages XJ gion 新疆维吾尔自治区 Hong Kong (Xiǎnggāng) Special HK Administrative Region 香港特别行政区 Yúnnán Province 云南省 YN Húběi Province 湖北省 HB Zhèjiāng Province 浙江省 ZJ

• 32 • • Geographical Locations • 地理名词 •

Geographical names

Běijīng (Peking) (BJ) 北京

Cháng Jiāng (Yangzi River) 长江/長江

Cháng’ān (present-day Xi’an) (SN) 长安

Cháozhōu (GD) 潮州

Dàdū (Khanbalik or Hànbālǐ 汗八里) (BJ) 大都

Guǎngzhōu (Canton) (GD) 广州/廣州

Hālāhélín (Karakorum or Kharkhorin) 哈拉和林

Hángzhōu (ZJ) 杭州

Kāifēng (HA) 开封/開封

Kuízhōu (SC) 夔州 For information about the project, contact: • Geographical Locations Lěiyáng (HN) 耒阳/耒陽

Nánchāng (JX) 南昌 Marjolijn (Mar) Kaiser

Sàlái (Sarai, Russia) 萨莱/薩莱 mar@berkshirepublishing .com Skype: marjolijn .berkshire Sūzhōu (JS) 苏州/蘇州天津 Tiānjīn (TJ) Further sample material is available at: Xī’ān (SN) 西安 http://bit.ly/chinesebiography

Xīkǒu (ZJ) 溪口

Xújiāhuì (SH) 徐家汇

Yānjīng (present-day Beijing) (BJ) 燕京

Zhàoqìng (GD) 肇庆 /肇慶 ZhèjiāngUncorrected province (ZJ) 浙江 galley pages Zhōngdū (present-day Beijing) (BJ) 中都

• 33 • What is the Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography? Includes these notable The Dictionary of Chinese Biography (DCB) will use the life stories of 150 key individuals, authors writing: selected from the earliest dynasties to the present day, to tell the story of China itself over Ezra Vogel on Deng Xiaoping the entire span of its history. It is a companion to the Berkshire Encyclopediof China (2009). Frances Wood on Matteo Ricci Who is in it? Grant Hardy on Sima Qian Remarkable people in any walk of life whose actions, ideas, and inventions shaped John Minford on Cao Xueqin Chinese history and the China we know today, including emperors, politicians, poets, Kerry Brown on Zhao Ziyang writers, artists, scientists, explorers, and philosophers. Livia Kohn on Laozi Lowell Dittmer on Liu Shaoqi Who is it for? Mark Strange on Sima Guang The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography is a treasury of information for a diverse Michael Dillon on Peng range of readers—researchers and scholars, school students, writers, biography readers, Dehuai librarians, archivists, and curators. It is the essential starting point for those who seek how China has become what it is today. And more: Editorial excellence Chiang Kai-shek The Berkshire DCB is led by Editor in Chief Kerry Brown (University of Sydney), and Confucius overseen by an advisory board including Christopher Cullen (University of Cambridge), Jiang Zemin Chloe Starr (University of Oxford), PENG Guoxiang (Peking University), Jan Stuart Khubilai Khan (British Museum), John Wills, Jr., (University of Southern California), and Frances Li Bai Wood (British Library). There are over 100 contributors to the Berkshire Dictionary Mao Zedong of Chinese Biography from countries around the world. Mencius Qin Shi Huangdi Sun Tzu Wu Zetian

“Alas! Alas! What a gentleman dreads is to die before his name is known. My way is not popular. How shall I make myself known to later ages?” 《弗乎弗乎，君子病没世而名不称焉。吾道不行矣，吾何以自见于后世哉？》 —from the Biography of Confucius in Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian.

Editor in Chief: Kerry Brown, University of Sydney Editorial Advisory Board: Christopher Cullen, Needham Research Institute, Cambridge University; Julia Lovell, UniversityUncorrected of London; PENG Guoxiang, Peking Universitygalley; Chloe Starr, Yale pages University; Jan Stuart, The British Museum; John Wills, Jr., University of Southern California; Frances Wood, British Library Associate Editors: Patrick Boehler, University of Hong Kong; Winnie Tsui, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

宝库山 Berkshire Publishing Group | www.berkshirepublishing.com | [email protected] | Tel +1 413 528 0206

20 June, 2012 The Dicitonary of Chinese Biography tells the story of China through the life stories of several hundred important individuals, from the legendary figures in the earliest dynasties to the great leaders of recent centuries. they include emperors, politicians, poets, writers, artists, scientists, explorers, and philosophers who have shaped, influenced, and transformed China. The wide-ranging biographical essays in the Berkshire Dicitonary of Chinese Biography have been written by China scholars from around the world. Together, they offer a new window into China, with broader biographical coverage than has ever before been available to a Western audience. Volumes 1–3 run through 1979. Volume 4 contains shorter entries on contemporary figures. The collection presents the rich and fascinating history of China to students and scholars and also to the general reader--to journalists, business people, policy makers who want to understand Chinese culture and perspectives at a deeper level. Engaging background history, dramatic storytelling, and thought-provoking analysis make this work a unique resource for the twenty-first century reader, and designed to satisfy the growing thirst for knowledge about China. Contributors include Lowell Dittmer, Jonathan Fenby, and Ezra Vogel, among many other leading China scholars. Berkshire published the award-winning five-volumeEncyclopedia of China in 2009 and more recently Jonathan Spence commented on Berkshire’s 120-page paperback, This Is China: The First 5,000 Years: “It is hard to imagine that such a short book can cover such a vast span of time and space. [This book] will help teachers, students, and general readers alike, as they seek for a preliminary guide to the contexts and complexities of Chinese culture.”

Kerry Brown is professor and executive director of the China Studies Centre at the University of Sydney. Before moving to Australia, he was head of the Asia Programme at Chatham House, an independent policy institute based in London, and led the Europe China Research and Advice Network (ECRAN) funded by the European Commission. Educated at the University of Cambridge, University of London, and University of Leeds, he worked in Japan and the Inner Mongolian region of China before joining the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. He worked in the China Section and served as First Secretary in Beijing from 2000 to 2003, and was head of the Indonesia East Timor Section from 2003 to 2005. He is a research associate of the Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy at the School of Oriental and African Studies, an associate of the China Policy Institute at Nottingham University and at the London School of Economics and Political Science IDEAS Institute, and an affiliated researcher at the Mongolia and Inner Asia Studies Unit at the University of Cambridge. He is the author of Hu Jintao, China’s Silent Leader (2012), Ballot Box China (2011) and the edited collection China 2020 (2011), Friends and Enemies: The Past, Present and Future of the Communist Party of China (2009), The Rise of the Dragon—Chinese Investment Flows in the Reform Period (2008), Struggling Giant: China in the 21st Century (2007), and The Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia (2006). He was a coeditor of the Berkshire Encyclopedia of China and contributed a number of articles including “Beijing Consensus.”

Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography Berkshire Publishing http://bit.ly/chinesebiography 122 Castle Street List price $779 Great Barrington, MA 01230-1506, U.S.A. Pre-publication discount price $729 Tel +1 413 528 0206 • Fax +1 413 541 0076 Pre-paid SPECIAL OFFER price $679 [email protected]