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Marine Ecology Progress Series 584:45 Vol. 584: 45–65, 2017 MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES Published December 7 https://doi.org/10.3354/meps12347 Mar Ecol Prog Ser OPENPEN ACCESSCCESS Distributions of krill and Antarctic silverfish and correlations with environmental variables in the western Ross Sea, Antarctica L. Brynn Davis1,*, Eileen E. Hofmann1, John M. Klinck1, Andrea Piñones2,3,4, Michael S. Dinniman1 1Center for Coastal Physical Oceanography, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23508, USA 2Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdivia 5090000, Chile 3Centro de Investigación Dinámica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile 4COPAS Sur-Austral, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile ABSTRACT: Antarctic krill Euphausia superba, crystal krill E. crystallorophias, and Antarctic sil- verfish Pleuragramma antarctica are key mid-trophic level species in the Ross Sea, connecting pri- mary production to the upper trophic levels. Distributions of these species were constructed from observations made in the western Ross Sea from 1988 to 2004. Distributions of environmental con- ditions were obtained from a 5-km resolution circulation model (temperature, mixed layer depth, surface speed) and satellite-derived observations (chlorophyll, sea ice cover). A hierarchy of sta- tistical methods determined correlations and relationships between species and environmental conditions. Each species occupies a localized habitat defined by different environmental charac- teristics. Antarctic krill are concentrated along the northwestern shelf break in a habitat charac- terized by deep (>1000 m) bottom depth, warm temperature (1 to 1.25°C), decreased sea ice, and proximity to the shelf break. Crystal krill and Antarctic silverfish are concentrated in Terra Nova Bay. Common characteristics of the habitat for these species are southwesterly location, coastal proximity, and cold temperature (−1.75 to −2°C). The habitat characteristics obtained for the 3 spe- cies provide a basis for projecting potential distribution changes in response to environmental change and for delineating regions of the Ross Sea for focused management and selection of marine protected areas that support ecosystem-level conservation plans. KEY WORDS: Antarctic krill · Euphausia superba · Crystal krill · E. crystallorophias · Pleuragramma antarctica · Habitat characteristics · Ross Sea · Antarctic INTRODUCTION apex predators (Pinkerton et al. 2010, Ballard et al. 2012, Smith et al. 2012). Two species of krill (Ant arctic The Ross Sea is among the most biologically pro- Euphausia superba and crystal E. crystalloro phias) ductive regions within the Southern Ocean (Arrigo et and one fish species (Antarctic silverfish Pleura- al. 1998b, 2008), contributing about 35% (23.4 ± 9.98 gramma antarctica) account for the majority of the Tg C yr −1 [mean ± SD]) of the annual Southern Ocean mid-trophic level biomass in the Ross Sea and provide shelf production (66.1 Tg C yr−1; Arrigo et al. 2008). an important link between primary production and The primary production of the Ross Sea supports a upper trophic levels (Daly & Macaulay 1988, Ainley et complex and diverse food web that includes a suite of al. 2006, Smith et al. 2007, Pinkerton et al. 2010). © The authors 2017. Open Access under Creative Commons by *Corresponding author: [email protected] Attribution Licence. Use, distribution and reproduction are un - restricted. Authors and original publication must be credited. Publisher: Inter-Research · www.int-res.com 46 Mar Ecol Prog Ser 584: 45–65, 2017 Many of the apex predators (e.g. penguins, seals, are or are not randomly distributed. The second and cetaceans), fish, and other mid-trophic level spe- objective was addressed by using an empirical cies in the Ross Sea depend directly or indirectly on orthogonal function analysis to establish statistically krill and Antarctic silverfish as their primary food based quantitative relationships between species source (Pinkerton et al. 2010, Smith et al. 2012, and environmental variables that are associated with Pinkerton & Bradford-Grieve 2014). This dependency the krill and silverfish habitat. Addressing these on a few mid-trophic level species sets up a food web objectives provides guidance for understanding the structure in the Ross Sea in which these few species effects of changes in mid-trophic level species on link and control energy flow between low and high ecosystem processes and biogeochemical cycles in trophic levels (Ainley et al. 2015). As a result, changes the Ross Sea. in distribution, abundance, and relative availability of these 3 species affect all trophic levels. Crystal krill and Antarctic silverfish are associated METHODS with sea ice, which provides food and a nursery region for eggs and early life stages (Laws 1985, Kellermann Species’ data sources 1986b, Daly & Macaulay 1988), and these ice-oblig- ate species tend to be found in neritic, ice-covered The Italian Antarctic expeditions that took place in regions (Hubold 1984, Kellermann 1986a, Thomas & the western Ross Sea (Fig. 1A) between 1988 and Green 1988, Hosie 1991, Pakhomov & Perissinotto 2000 provided extensive surveys of the distribution of 1996). For Antarctic krill, the presence of warm Cir- Antarctic krill and crystal krill (Table 1, Fig. 1B). Krill cumpolar Deep Water (CDW) at depth is essential for sampling for juveniles and adults occurred during completion of their early life history (Hofmann et al. the austral summer (December to February) and late 1992, Hofmann & Hüsrevo˘glu 2003), and this species austral spring (November) and extended from 64° to tends to be found in regions where CDW is present 77.5° S and from 177° W to 165° E (Fig. 1B). Antarctic (Quetin & Ross 1984, Azzali & Kalinowski 2000, Sala silverfish surveys were made between 1988 to 2004 et al. 2002, Ashjian et al. 2004, Lawson et al. 2004). as part of cruises that extended from 67° to 78° S and These general distributions exhibit considerable from 175° W to 164° E during the austral late spring spatial variability between seasons and across the and summer (Table 2, Fig. 1C). The abundance data Southern Ocean (Azzali & Kalinowski 2000, Siegel for Antarctic silverfish include the larval, postlarval, 2005, Lawson et al. 2008, Murphy et al. 2017). Studies and juvenile early life history stages. The aggregated have considered relationships be tween krill abun- krill biomass and silverfish abundance distributions dance and different environmental variables such as reported from the cruises listed in Tables 1 & 2, re- temperature, oxygen concentration, sea ice, and salin- spectively, were digitized and converted to common ity (e.g. Witek et al. 1981, Weber et al. 1986, Siegel units of biomass (t km−2) and abundance (ind. 2005, Atkinson et al. 2008, Murphy et al. 2017). How- [1000 m3]–1), respectively. Details of how the biomass ever, predictable relationships that are stable between and abundance distributions were constructed from areas and years have yet to be determined, and the the acoustic and net-based observations are pro- extent to which the distributions of this organism are vided in the references listed in Tables 1 & 2. related to environmental conditions is unknown. Understanding the factors influencing current krill and Antarctic silverfish distributions will allow pro- Environmental data sources jections of distributional changes in response to changing environmental conditions in the Ross Sea The average maximum temperature below 300 m (e.g. Smith et al. 2014b). for the summer season of 2010 (Table 3, Fig. 2A) was The objectives of this study were to (1) construct extracted from simulated circulation distributions ob- distributions of the 3 key mid-trophic level species in tained from a 5-km horizontal resolution implemen- the western Ross Sea and (2) evaluate the extent to tation of the Regional Ocean Modeling System which the distributions of these species are corre- (ROMS) for the Ross Sea (Mack et al. 2017). The lated with environmental variables. The first objec- 300-m temperature distribution provides a tracer for tive was addressed by constructing distributions of CDW which does not exhibit seasonal variations Antarctic krill, crystal krill, and Antarctic silverfish (Dinniman et al. 2003). from historical literature. An optimized hot spot ana - Ocean color measurements (Table 3) from the Sea- lysis was used to test the hypothesis that the species viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) from Davis et al.: Krill, silverfish, and environmental correlations 47 A Bathymetry (m) Study >1000 Area 500–1000 <500 Land or ice 170°E 180° 170°E 180° B C 70° 70° S S 70° 70° S S A A Cape Cape I I D D Adare Adare R R N N O O Krill A Antarctic silverfish A T T L L C C Sampling by year Sampling by year I I V V 1988 1988 Terra Terra 75° Nova 75° 1989–1990 Nova 1989–1990 Bay Bay 75° 1994 75° 1994 1997 1996 2000 1997, 2000, Ross Ross & 2004 McMurdo Ice Shelllf McMurdo Ice Shelllf N Statiiion Statiiion 150°E 160° 170° 180° 170°W 150°E 160° 170° 180° 170°W Fig. 1. (A) Antarctica, showing the study region in the western Ross Sea and maps of the sampling distributions by year for (B) krill (Euphausia superba and E. crystallorophias) and (C) Antarctic silverfish Pleuragramma antarctica. Bottom bathymetry data are from NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information; International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean; General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans September 1997 to April 2002 were obtained as part construct an average growing season (December to of the Processes Controlling Iron Regulation at the February) climatology (Fig. 2B). Mesoscale (PRISM) project that focused on the Ross Mixed layer depth (MLD; Table 3) was extracted Sea (McGillicuddy et al. 2017). Chlorophyll concen- from simulated circulation distributions for September trations (mg m−3) estimated from SeaWiFS 8 d Level 3 2010 to February 2012 (Mack et al. 2017). The MLD, binned seasonal climatology files were used to defined as the depth where density (σt) differs from Table 1.
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