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Home , Adamussium, Antarctic fishes, Antarctic krill, Antarctic petrel, Antarctic silverfish, Antarctic toothfish

thirty three

(*and whose homes must be protected)

www.antarcticocean.org Image by John B. Weller

introduction

Simply put, the are our life support system. unusual that thrive in this harsh but beautiful They are the blue heart of the planet. But despite environment. Protecting these magnifcent creatures and this, we have witnessed the undergo massive their home is critical for the knowledge base we need. changes in just the last 50 years. Overfshing has reduced thriving populations of big fsh to tiny The 33 species profled here are a small sample of remnants of their formerly prosperous masses. the many that live in the . Each one Dead zones incapable of supporting have matters, whether beautiful or ugly, large or small, arisen in some places around the world and climate predator or prey. is known for its iconic change is placing ever increasing stresses on marine , seals, and , but its other species species and habitats. It is not only marine life that are just as interesting. From that can pick itself has been affected: even the water itself has begun up and move across the ocean foor in search of to acidify because of rising dioxide levels in food to a that has the largest of any known the atmosphere. , Antarctica’s have a richness and complexity that we are only beginning to appreciate. Despite these and other problems, there is still hope New species are discovered regularly. Perhaps most that we can restore and protect the health of the ocean. important, some areas of the Southern Ocean, like This hope led to the identifcation of a global network the and the , have been found of Hope Spots, special places that can help restore to have some of the lowest levels of disturbance the ocean we depend on for our survival. Two of those of any marine ecosystems. These areas serve as Hope Spots, the Ross Sea and East Antarctica, are in natural laboratories where we can learn how healthy the Southern Ocean. This is a special area of the world, ecosystems function, and how species within them where the continent is protected, but the surrounding interact, without human interference – something that ocean is not. Nevertheless, the remains a is sadly no longer possible in most of the world. This place of vibrant marine life, and every year scientists is one of the best areas for us to continue to learn the learn more fascinating details about the diverse and of nature.

Page 2 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) We therefore have an important opportunity to resilience to a changing climate. MPAs can also serve protect these ecosystems while they are healthy. a very important function as reference areas where Antarctica has some of the largest marine mammal we can measure impacts without the and populations left on the planet. Some of infuence of other human activities, such as pollution those species are at serious risk from climate change, and overfshing. as warming temperatures reduce the availability of food and change their habitat. Others may have The organisation that has authority over the Southern trouble surviving as ocean acidifcation, which will Ocean, the Commission for the Conservation of affect the polar regions frst, takes hold in large areas. Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) has While we know little about many Antarctic , taken a bold step in ocean conservation by declaring we do know that they have often evolved to be slow- its intent to create the world’s frst high-seas MPA growing, with that suit them for extreme system around Antarctica. Most of the ocean is cold conditions. Many may not be able to tolerate beyond national borders, and if the nations that make warmer temperatures and increased human impacts. up CCAMLR succeed in designating a full system If we don’t want to lose these creatures before we of MPAs, they will have accomplished something even have the chance to study them, we must take extraordinary and leave a lasting legacy for our action now. grandchildren and beyond. Years ago when CCAMLR was created, its members These areas serve as natural declared that it would manage fsheries with a laboratories where we can precautionary, -based approach. The MPA learn how healthy ecosystems network is entirely consistent with this approach and the next logical step in protecting Antarctica’s diverse function, and how species within and irreplaceable ecosystems for future generations. them interact, without human CCAMLR has been debating proposals for MPAs in the Ross Sea and East Antarctica for several interference – something that is years now. sadly no longer possible in most This report underpins the urgency for these nations to of the world. This is one of the live up to their commitments and demonstrate their best areas for us to continue to global leadership by designating the proposed MPAs at their 2014 meeting. Doing so would show the world learn the nature of nature. that it is possible for nations to come together, put aside their individual issues and do the right thing Climate change is likely to be the main threat to for the ocean and all the people who depend on it Antarctic species over the next century, but as for survival. other human activities such as tourism, shipping, bioprospecting, and fshing increase, additional strain will be placed on these ecosystems. Fishing lines, trash and plastic can inadvertently damage delicate seafoor creatures. Invasive species may take advantage of warmer temperatures and crowd out native species unable to adapt quickly. Oil degrades much slower under cold temperatures. Singularly and collectively, these threats are placing increased stress on the marine life of the Southern Ocean. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and no-take marine reserves cannot stop climate change, but they can help limit the number of stressors in a given area. In addition to protecting unique areas that may not be found anywhere else in the world and increasing their

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 3 19 Areas of Proposed Protection

In 2011, the Antarctic Ocean Alliance (AOA) on the unique ecological balance found in the identifed 19 areas that should be included in a beautiful yet harsh Southern Ocean environment. It representative system of marine protected areas is CCAMLR’s mission to ensure that this balance is and marine reserves. As CCAMLR meets for its 33rd maintained. For some of the species in the report, meeting, the 33 species presented in this report where appropriate, we have provided information broadly represent those that should be protected. about the relevant taxonomic group to which they Many species have extensive, even circumpolar belong rather than just information on the individual distributions, while others can only be found within species. While mammals and have been fairly a limited geographic range and nowhere else in the well studied, many fsh and have not. world. The adaptations that allow these species to By profling an entire group of related species, we survive and thrive are as varied and different as their can provide more fascinating facts and information survival strategies, size and appearance. However, and further understanding of some of the less well- what these species all share, from the giant blue known groups. to miniscule , is a dependence

1 4 South Georgia 8 Ob & Lena Banks t Antarctic are considered t Members of the icefsh t Skates are common central to the functioning of the are almost entirely lacking in species listed as near Southern Ocean food-web but haemoglobin in their threatened by the IUCN may be particularly sensitive to t ’ faeces may play an t Blue Whales are recovering a changing climate important role in transporting from hunting much more slowly t Bone worms have only been to the deep sea than other whale species known in the Southern Ocean since 2012 5 South Sandwich Island Arc 9 Del Cano Region High Seas t Climate change reference area t The Yeti is a common t Wandering has the species around hydrothermal largest wingspan of any 2 Weddell Sea vent communities in volcanically t High levels of land-based t Leopard seals are one of active zones predators Southern Ocean’s most t More species of sea t Benthic environment including fearsome predators may exist in the Southern and canyons t Glass have quickly Ocean than warmer oceans colonised areas following ice 10 Kerguelen Plateau High 6 Maud Rise shelf collapse Seas Area t Antarctic are the most t Lanternfsh use 3 South Orkney Islands southerly breeding bird in to t populations the world communicate and confuse have still not recovered from t could be the most predators overfshing in the 1970’s numerous type of zooplankton t Orcas are the highest predator t High benthic biodiversity in the Southern Ocean on the Southern Ocean t The around the foodchain 7 Bouvetøya South Orkneys have some t Recovering toothfsh t Chinstrap numbers of the highest numbers of populations appear to be declining Echinoderm species t Vulnerable marine ecosystems t resemble but and canyons have antifreeze proteins in their blood like toothfsh

Page 4 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Namibia

South Africa

11 BANZARE Bank t Grenediers are common Bouvetøya bycatch in toothfsh fsheries Brazil 7 Prince Edward Island 5 t Recovering toothfsh South Georgia 9 Uruguay populations 4 8 6 3 t Vulnerable marine ecosystems South Orkney Islands and canyons Kerguelen South 13 10 Island Shetland Islands Wedell Sea Heard and Mcdonald 12 Kerguelen Production Zone 2 Islands 1 12 t Antarctic primarily hunt Prydz Bay 11 Antarctica krill and fsh 13 14 t Rugose seabed habitats 19 t Area of high productivity 14 18 13 13 E astern Antarctic Shelf 15 Ross Sea t Emperors are the most ice 14 dependent penguin species 16 17 Balleny Islands t Snow are one of the 14 most southerly breeding birds t Climate change reference areas 14 IO Deep Sea t Unique benthic habitats including troughs, shelf commencing canyons, ridges and thermohaline current formed sediments t Anemones can be found in the deepest parts of the 16 N orthern Ross Sea 18 Amundsen & Bellingshausen Southern Ocean Seamounts Seas (West Antarctic Shelf) t The is the largest t 195 species of Antarctic mollusks 15 Ross Sea know have been found since 2007 t Intact top predator assemblage t Toothfsh breeding habitat t Antarctic mollusks are t Silverfsh are highly important particularly vulnerable to ocean prey for top predators 17 Balleny Islands acidifcation t Antarctic toothfsh fll a - t Land-based predator foraging t Recognised vulnerable marine like top fsh predator role in the ranges ecosystems Southern Ocean t Adélie penguin are seen as t Bending coral (Alcyonacean, a bellweather species for 19 Gersemia antarctica) continually environmental change t Area of high productivity bends itself over to locate food t Antarctic Minke whales feed t Weddell seals dive to in seafoor sediments mainly on krill 600 metres to feed on deep t Least disturbed oceanic t Rare benthic habitat dwelling toothfsh ecosystem t Antarctic breed later t Climate change reference area due to climate change

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 5 Image by John B. Weller

Page 6 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) facing increasing threats totheirexistence. have beenabletoadapt theharshAntarctic climate, butare aboutthesmallcommunityofmammals who Read ontolearn will determinewhetherornot theysurviveatall. eating mammalswillmate and breed. Butmostimportantly, it affectsabundance andlocationof krill,whichinturn where krill- Ocean mayalreadychanges intheSouthern beaffecting the not solelydependentonkrillasafoodsource. Temperature mammals. Allexceptkillerwhalesare atleastpartiallyif Food supplyisalsoanissueformostoftheAntarctic it istrulysurvivalofthefttestinAntarctica. hunting prowess in the icy waters is surpassed only by the orca, ice, tothelithe-bodied,massive-jawedleopard seal,whose pointing incisorsthatallowthemtobiteandcarveholes inthe From theWeddell seal,whoseteethhaveevolvedinto forward- Special adaptationsare foundinmanyAntarctic mammals. climate onearth. that enablethemtosurviveinwhatispossiblythemostbrutal marine mammalsdisplayawonderfularrayofadaptations home are (seals)andcetaceans(whales)these The twogroups ofmammalsthathavemadeAntarctica their

mAmmAls Image by David Neilson 1 Leptonychotes weddellii

eddell seals have a reputation for being easy Weddell Seals are distinguished for humans to approach and study on the ice W or on land, but in the water they are skilled by their extraordinary ability to predators with an unusual hunting strategy. They are dive to depths of 600 m for more rather large, with a length of about 3 m and a weight 2 of 400 to 450 kg1. They are distinguished by their than an hour . extraordinary ability to dive to depths of 600 m for more than an hour2. This allows the Weddell seal to feed on deep-dwelling fsh such as the Antarctic toothfsh and Scientist David Ainley connects Weller’s experience with other fsh in the family . They also feed an unexplained Weddell seal behaviour. Some seals have on invertebrates such as krill and they occasionally been observed bringing large Antarctic toothfsh up to hunt penguins3,4. the surface. These fsh don’t have any injuries and are still alive, and it was unknown how the seals manage to Photographer John B. Weller relates an extraordinary capture such large prey alive without biting it. Weller and experience while diving in the vicinity of these Ainley hypothesise that the seals likely use “sonic bursts” amazing pinnipeds: to stun and thus easily capture their prey6.

“The blast was so loud that I didn’t recognise it as a noise. It seemed as though a jet engine had started in my head, a shockwave of buzzing bees exploding through my body. I couldn’t see! My defocused. My entire body felt numb and unresponsive. I had no idea if I was breathing or not.5”

Page 8 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Liam Quinn 2 Hydruga leptonyx

eopard seals are at the top of the in East This seal is not easily disturbed by Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, and are only l preyed on by killer whales. They have large heads humans but is quite curious and with massive jaws, big eyes and lithe bodies, making known to stalk, approach, and them well adapted for stalking, hunting and grabbing 10 prey. They feed on a variety of species, including fsh, even grasp people . krill, penguins and other seals, often feeding on whatever species is most abundant nearby7. Leopard seals are an ice-loving species and regularly haul out onto pack ice or National Geographic photographer Paul Nicklen seasonal ice8. Males are about 3 m long and females are encountered one of these curious leopard seals while typically a little larger. They can live for 20 to 40 years9. diving in Antarctica. The seal, a female, appeared to be trying to nurture Nicklen, bringing him penguins she had As very solitary animals, they do not leave the water to caught. When he didn’t eat the live penguins, she tried court or mate and only females and pups are seen in dead ones11. This ferce predator could just as easily pairs. This seal is not easily disturbed by humans but is have decided to turn him into dinner instead of feeding quite curious and known to stalk, approach, and even him dinner, but fortunately didn’t identify Nicklen as food. grasp people10. Despite their excellent skills, their association with ice (and the association of some of their prey species with ice) may put them at risk from changes in ice extent and location due to climate change12.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 9 Image by Lara Asato 3 Arctocephalus gazella

ntarctic fur seals are one of the most numerous Although sealing once came close seal species in the Antarctic. Throughout most of A the year, they are dispersed at sea but aggregate to wiping them out, Antarctic fur in colonies in October and November during their seals have staged a comeback breeding season. Males arrive before females to claim a territory, which they defend aggressively with loud noise even more impressive than and physical fghting. Although their territories might be Elvis Presley’s15. small, they are necessary for males to monopolise the affections of multiple female seals at once. Once females arrive, they pup, mate after about a week, and then leave in the South Georgia Islands, which is an incredibly large for hunting trips. Males are much larger than females, aggregation of mammals. Though we don’t exactly and can be more than three times their weight and know how fur seals have recovered from exploitation so 13 almost half a metre longer . quickly, their growing numbers represent a conservation success story. In the rest of the world, many large Depending on availability, Antarctic fur seals primarily mammals are experiencing declines. It’s heartening to hunt fsh and krill, but will also eat other , know that they are currently thriving in the Antarctic. squid and penguins14. They in turn are hunted by killer Nevertheless, emerging research suggests that climate whales and leopard seals. Although sealing once came change-related impacts, specifcally decreases in krill in close to wiping them out, Antarctic fur seals have some areas, have already started affecting at least one staged a comeback even more impressive than Elvis fur seal population on South Georgia19. Presley’s15. At one point, there were only a few thousand seals left16,17. Today, there are an estimated four to seven million18. Well over 90% of the population breeds

Page 10 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Francisco Viddi, WWF 4 Balaenoptera musculus

ny description of blue whales includes a number Blue whale calves are about 8 m of superlatives and startling comparisons. With A lengths of around 30 m and weights of over long at birth (that’s more than four 100 tonnes, they are the largest animals on earth20. men of above average height). Blue whales can live for at least 80 years21. Blue whale calves give some idea just how large these creatures are. Calves are about 8 m long at birth (that’s more than Blue whale hunting was banned in 1966 by the four men of above average height) and drink enough milk International Commission24 and the species is (over 300 litres) to pack on 3.6 kilograms of additional now on the IUCN Endangered List25. It is unclear why weight every hour22. But all that food is necessary to the blue whale population, though increasing, has not grow to more than triple their birth size and weight. recovered signifcantly since the end of the whaling era. Perhaps one of the most intriguing facts about blue Part of the reason may be that they only give birth every whales is their choice of diet. Tiny krill are the blue two to three years. The global population likely exceeded whale’s primary prey, and blue whales consume millions 350,000 prior to whaling, which depleted them by over 26 to sustain their huge bodies. Conveniently for them, 95% . Since then, the population has grown slightly 27 Antarctic krill habitually congregate in large swarms to about 10,000 to 25,000 . Though hunting has of billions of individuals, making it somewhat easier to ceased, they still may be impacted by human activities. consume the quantities they need. These swarms draw For example, krill are considered to be very sensitive to blue whales to the Southern Ocean every year. Because climate change. Changes in the krill population caused of their size, these giants have almost no predators, but by fshing or climate change would likely affect blue may be attacked by orcas on occasion23. whales signifcantly.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 11 Image by John B. Weller 5 Antarctic Balaenoptera bonaerensis

he is a baleen whale often Antarctic minke whales have been found in the Southern Ocean and, together with t the blue whale, is the furthest south migrating observed migrating all the way to rorqual (the largest group of baleen whales, from the the Arctic29! Norwegian word røyrkval, meaning “furrow whale”28). Antarctic minke whales have been observed migrating all the way to the Arctic29! Recently, research on minke whales helped solve a Antarctic minke whales mostly eat Antarctic krill and mystery that had puzzled scientists since the 1960s. other krill species and as a result are most common During winter and spring, scientists would record what near the edge of pack ice but can also occur within it30. they termed a “bio-duck” sound at various locations in These relatively light and lean whales, which are smaller the Southern Ocean, but did not know what made the 33 than most other baleen whales, are also clever. New sound . Researchers recently tagged two Antarctic information gleaned from tagging minkes in the Southern minke whales with microphones, and subsequently Ocean reveals that they are skilled at feeding on krill recorded the quacking noise. It is unknown what under sea ice31, lunging more quickly than any other the noise means. However, whales are known for baleen whale32. Sea ice is thought to be a place of refuge their complex underwater communications so we for krill, but minkes may have fgured that secret out. can probably assume they aren’t just doing animal impressions. Like other krill consumers, minkes may be at risk if climate change results in diminished sea ice or reduced krill populations.

Page 12 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Daniel Beltra, Greenpeace 6 Orcinus Orca

iller whales are a very distinctive Orcas are fond of eating Weddell and encountered in almost all oceans and seas, K although a large portion of the global population seals, and to get at the seals more is found in Antarctic waters. Recent research suggests easily, they “wave wash” them off that there are several distinct “ecotypes” of killer whales, some of which may be separate species34. The ecotypes ice foes. B and C are among those likely to be separate species and are common in Antarctica. Type B eat marine mammals and Type C, also known as the Ross Sea killer is an example of their extremely complex social whale, specialise in fsh, particularly Antarctic toothfsh35. behaviour, cooperating in groups and teaching younger whales in the pod37. They are also incredible travellers. Among all animals, killer whales are second only behind Type B killer whales sometimes migrate enormous the for having the heaviest brain36. They distances into the subtropics and an individual has been use this brain for some terrifyingly effective hunting. recorded to travel 9400 km in only 42 days38. Orcas are fond of eating Weddell seals, and to get at the seals more easily, they “wave wash” them off ice foes. Working in groups, several whales send large waves of water over the foes to dislodge the seals, who fall into the sea and are summarily eaten. This hunting technique

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 13 Image by John B. Weller

Page 14 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) ish F

Antarctica boasts a huge diversity of fshes that are supremely adapted to their unique and harsh environment. Many Antarctic fsh species, particularly in the Notothenioid suborder, (notothenioids are a fsh suborder that make up the majority of Antarctic fsh species) possess antifreeze molecules called glycopeptides that help enable them to survive Antarctica’s cold waters. Members of the icefsh family lack , the protein that most use to transport in their blood, but instead are able to absorb oxygen directly from the surrounding water. Some fsh species are adapted to live their entire lives near the deep seafoor and lack swim bladders, the gas flled organs used by most fsh to adjust their buoyancy. Other species have developed special fat reserves to provide the neutral buoyancy they need to lay their directly under the sea-ice. Each Antarctic fsh species plays an important role in the food web, many as prey items for animals like seals, whales, colossal squid and penguins. The unique life histories and habitat use of most Antarctic fsh are not well understood. Some of these species share a common set of characteristics – they are slow growing, late maturing and long lived. Whether exploited directly or taken as bycatch, these characteristics make populations of these fsh species highly susceptible to being overfshed. Because these species are particularly well adapted to the unique conditions of the Antarctic, they are expected to be very sensitive to small changes in climate as well as sea-ice loss. Read on to learn about a few of our favourite Antarctic fshes that need protection from the combined threats of climate change and fshing. Image by Philippe Koubbi 7 Antarctic Silverfsh Pleuragramma antarcticum

rill seem to get a lot of the attention in the Unlike similar prey fsh, the Antarctic. But they aren’t the only ones keeping K the Southern Ocean ecosystem functioning. Antarctic silverfsh is slow-growing The Antarctic silverfsh is highly abundant in areas such and lives up to 10 years43. as East Antarctica and the Weddell and Ross Seas and an important prey fsh for many species such as seals, whales and penguins in those regions.39,40,41,42. This small fsh is well adapted to the seasonal changes Unlike similar prey fsh, it is slow-growing and lives up of the Weddell Sea, and feeds on available zooplankton, to 10 years43. Like an experienced scuba diver, it has including copepods and krill of any size depending attained neutral buoyancy, which is due to its minimal on the stage of fsh’s life47,48. This opportunistic fsh skeleton and high fat content44. This enables silverfsh will even eat its own kind49. Both its feeding as well to lay their eggs just under sea ice, where they are as reproductive are connected with the better protected from being eaten, which is a threat for availability of sea ice and polynyas – areas of open water eggs of bottom-dwelling species45. Silverfsh are also surrounded by sea ice that are crucial food sources protected in the frigid waters by antifreeze glycopeptides for many species50, making it potentially vulnerable to in their tissues46. climate change despite its diverse diet.

Page 16 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Rob Robbins 8 Antarctic Toothfsh mawsoni

he species Antarctic toothfsh is a key species Females and males in Antarctic marine ecosystems, known as the t “shark” of the Southern Ocean because of its after about 16 and 13 years role as top predator. Toothfsh, also known as Chilean respectively. This high sea bass, produce antifreeze proteins that keep their body fuids from freezing in the frigid waters51. Unlike its reproductive age makes this relative, the tiny silverfsh, it is one of the two largest fsh species particularly vulnerable to in the notothenioid suborder, and grows up to 1.6 m in overfshing. length with a life span of 30 years52. It is usually found in fairly deep waters53, though it is neutrally buoyant and can ascend to midwater areas. Females and males spawn after about 16 and 13 years respectively. This thought to be an important prey species for Weddell high reproductive age makes this species particularly Seals, orcas, and colossal squid. Antarctic toothfsh vulnerable to overfshing. Additionally, toothfsh fsheries occur in many regions of the Southern Ocean spend signifcant amounts of time in areas diffcult for including East Antarctica, the Ross Sea and the Weddell researchers to access and key aspects of their life Seas. Antarctic toothfsh fsheries are regulated, but histories are not yet known. there remain signifcant uncertainties about their life histories and their role in the food web, making it diffcult As the Southern Ocean lacks many of the to understand the impact of fshing on the ecosystem. and other large fsh species found in other ocean A growing body of research indicates that top predators ecosystems, Antarctic toothfsh therefore fll a shark- play incredibly vital roles in many ecosystems, and like niche in the Antarctic ecosystem. They feed mainly without them signifcant and often surprising changes can on smaller fsh and , but also on other occur55. More research is urgently needed to unlock the invertebrates and even birds54. Nevertheless, they are mysteries of these bird-eating, deep-dwelling predators.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 17 Image by Darci Lombard 9 Icefsh family

embers of the icefsh family (Channichthyidae) All other vertebrates use are abundant in parts of the Southern Ocean, m but perhaps because they live on the bottom, hemoglobin to transport oxygen in in depths of up to 800 m, not much is known about their blood, but icefsh are able to them. At about 30 to 60 cm in length, most icefsh are larger than an Antarctic silverfsh but smaller than an get their oxygen directly from the Antarctic toothfsh. Their exact role in the ecosystem surrounding water. is unknown, but at least one study found that several species of seal eat them56. With Antarctic toothfsh and silverfsh, they belong to the notothenioid suborder, but Some evidence suggests that icefsh may be particularly anti-freeze proteins make it even more unique than the sensitive to changes in their environment. Researchers average notothenioid. found that after scouring events, the abundance of a species called Myers’ icefsh declined59. The breakup Members of the icefsh family are almost entirely lacking of ice shelves such as Larsen B due to climate change in hemoglobin. All other vertebrates use hemoglobin to may therefore indicate that threats to this species will transport oxygen in their blood, but icefsh are able to get increase, since the breakup of major ice shelves can their oxygen directly from the surrounding water. They enable glaciers to fow more quickly from land to sea, have also developed other adaptations to go along with increasing scouring events. Icefsh may also be more their hemoglobin-free, clear blood: larger hearts that sensitive to changes in ocean acidity60, and the Southern pump more blood than those of other notothenioids, and Ocean is expected to experience the impacts of ocean wider capillaries57. One might think that there must be acidifcation before other parts of the world’s oceans61. some advantage to abandoning red blood, but strangely Icefsh have managed to hold on for millions of years, but enough, so far one hasn’t been found. Researchers think they may not be able to survive for much longer. that perhaps icefsh got lucky and lived in areas with few other fsh species58. Thus it didn’t matter much that icefsh had less effcient circulatory systems, because they had few competitors.

Page 18 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Dr Paul Zahl 10 Lanternfshes family Myctophidae

pecies in the Myctophid or lanternfsh family Lanternfsh aren’t are found all over the world, including in the s Southern Ocean. Major species include primarily used to illuminate the antarctica, , and water around them, but instead nicholsi. In pelagic regions of the Southern Ocean, there are more lanternfsh by number are hypothesised to play a role and by weight than any other fsh. This, however might in communicating with other not be what you fnd most interesting about them. As members of their species. their name implies, they carry their own light source around with them in the form of photophores, which are organs that bioluminesce by means of a chemical 63 reaction. Interestingly, these photophores aren’t primarily predators all day . Of course, that doesn’t mean they used to illuminate the water around them, but instead don’t get eaten. Birds and seals are their main predators. are hypothesised to play a role in communicating These unassuming fsh, about which not much is known, with other members of their species as well as in are yet another reminder of the complexity of Antarctica’s confusing predators. marine ecosystems. While krill are a in many areas of the Southern Ocean and are the subject Lanternfsh are typically not very large. E. antarctica of much scientifc research, lanternfsh and other species only measures about 10 cm or fewer in length, but which also occupy the lower trophic levels of the food nevertheless makes a huge journey every day, travelling web may play an important role in the wider ecosystem. up to the 0-300 m depth range at night, and descending Acquiring a better understanding is important particularly to 650-920 m during the day62. Other lanternfsh species since it has been suggested that lanternfsh could be in the Southern Ocean undertake similar migrations. targeted to make fsh meal or fsh oil, both of which are It sounds like a lot of work, but it is actually a pretty growing industries64. smart way to stay in the dark and out of sight of

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 19 Image by Peter McMillan/NIWA 11 Antarctic eel Cods family Muraenolepididae

ntarctic eel cods (Muraenolepididae family) are Like many other Antarctic not true eels, although they do resemble them – A hence their name. These fsh were originally fshes, eel cods have antifreeze thought to live only in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic, substances in their blood to but new species have been discovered outside of these areas. Eel cods are not a well understood fsh family. prevent freezing in cold water. For example, only a few years ago, it was determined that the species Muraenolepis microcephalus should actually belong to a different , Notomuraenobathys surface68. This means that they are eaten by king instead65. Like many other Antarctic fshes, eel cods penguins69 (and possibly others), which is bad for the have antifreeze substances in their blood to prevent eel cods but good for hungry penguin chicks. Generally, freezing in cold water. For the eel Muraenolepis eel cod adults stay near the bottom of the ocean, in marmoratus this anti-freeze substance is similar to that waters anywhere from 100-1000 m or more deep, found in notothenioid family66, although they are not depending on the species. As with so many Southern related. This is unusual because most non-notothenioids Ocean fsh, more studies are needed to truly understand have a different type of antifreeze protein67. In any the mysterious life histories of eel cods. event, eel cods can withstand the Southern Ocean much better than the average human. Most species are around 30 cm in length, and unlike many Antarctic species that hide in the depths during the day, juvenile M. marmoratus hang out in shallow waters near the

Page 20 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Peter McMillan/NIWA 12 Macrourus genus

ntarctic Grenadiers are also known as rattails, and A new species, Macrourus this unfattering name is an accurate refection of A their less than beautiful appearance. Though little caml, was only confrmed in known, Whitson’s grenadier (Macrourus whitsoni) seems 2013 (previous examples of the to be of the most abundant non-notothenioid species in some areas of the Southern Ocean70. However, research species had been misidentifed), has not been comprehensive, so we don’t really know underscoring how little we know how many there are. We do know that they are the kind about this group. of fsh (long-lived, slow-growing) that are vulnerable to overfshing, so the amounts caught accidentally in the Antarctic and Patagonian toothfsh fsheries (sometimes as much as 480 tonnes) could threaten the health of the to do research in the Southern Ocean, but there is a overall population71. risk to this species from fshing. CCAMLR has set limits on the amount of bycatch that a toothfsh vessel may The organisation with management authority over the take before it is required to move to another location. Antarctic toothfsh fsheries in the Southern Ocean, Still, more research will be required to fully understand CCAMLR, operates by following the ecosystem and whether these rules are enough to protect the grenadier. precautionary approaches. This progressive way of A new species, Macrourus caml, was only confrmed managing fsheries and ecosystems ultimately means in 2013 (previous examples of the species had been that managers institute rules to make sure that fshing misidentifed), underscoring how little we know about doesn’t take place unless there is a good reason this group72. to believe it will not harm the target species or the ecosystem as a whole. Bycatch of grenadiers presents a challenge for CCAMLR. It is diffcult and expensive

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 21 Image by Jeff Rotman 13 mcCain’s Bathyraja maccaini

he McCain’s skate is one of several species of McCain’s skate is currently listed rays and skates living in the Southern Ocean. It t inhabits waters from inshore to 500 m depth73. as an IUCN Near Threatened This large skate is probably very slow-growing, reaching species74, one of the few Antarctic its total length of 120 cm after 10 years or more. This late maturity and the fact that it is common bycatch in species to be on this list. bottom trawl for icefsh and longline fsheries for Antarctic and Patagonian toothfsh put it at risk. McCain’s skate is currently listed as an IUCN Near Threatened species74, one of the few Antarctic species to be on this list. Worldwide, skates and rays are threatened by human activities. Out of seven Antarctic species in the IUCN Red list database, three, including the McCain’s skate, are listed as Near Threatened. The other two species are Murray’s Skate (Rhinoraja murrayi) and the Kerguelen Sandpaper Skate (Bathyraja irrasa). Both of these skates have limited ranges, and have been caught as bycatch in fsheries both legal and illegal, making it diffcult to assess the status of their populations75. Further efforts to assess and study all Antarctic skates will be critical to ensuring that their populations stay healthy.

Page 22 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by David Fleetham 14 marbled rockcod rossii

hese days, only a few species of fsh in the The marbled rockcod populations Southern Ocean are being commercially fshed. t This was not always the case, however. The have not recovered despite marbled rockcod (Notothenia rossii), along with several not being fshed for more than other species you’ve probably never heard of, including the grey rockcod ( squamifrons), two decades. humped rockcod ( gibberifrons), and the spiny icefsh (), used to be fshed in Antarctic waters. The story of why the marbled Soon afterwards, CCAMLR began closing fsheries, rockcod fshery and others have been closed is a useful including those for N. rossii. However, it was too late. cautionary tale. Fishing began in the 1970s, but huge The marbled rockcod populations have not recovered catches quickly caused the population to collapse. despite not being fshed for more than two decades. Over 500,000 tons were harvested from the fshery Unlike the Antarctic toothfsh, which is vulnerable to around South Georgia Island in just two years, and then overfshing because of its slow growth, late maturity and catches rapidly declined76. for other species long lifespan, marbled rockcod are a relatively short- experienced similar booms and busts. At the time, lived species, not living much longer than 16 years77. there was no country or group of countries managing Overfshing of the Elephant Island stock seems to have Southern Ocean fsheries, making it diffcult to set catch occurred because catches were almost as large as the limits or understand what was happening to the fsh entire stock78. The hope is that such disasters will not populations being harvested. Fortunately, the problem happen in the future, thanks to CCAMLR’s adoption was recognised and in 1982, when the Convention on of a precautionary and ecosystem approaches to CCAMLR was signed by 14 countries, so establishing management. This approach prevents the kind of “fsh rules and a management framework for fsheries frst, ask questions later” policy that led to the collapse of around Antarctica. N. rossii and other populations.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 23 Image by John B. Weller Page 24 33 Antarctic Species We Love* irds B

The birds of Antarctica are like no others. Able to withstand the harshest climate on earth, each species has its own unique survival techniques and characteristics ranging from shared parenting and monogamy to walking on ice or plunging into near freezing waters. From the who can soar for hours and has the largest wingspan of any living bird, to the fightless who may waddle and toboggan up to 120 kilometres to reach open water to forage, these Southern Ocean birds have found a way to make the most of this icy environment. Others, such as chinstrap and Adélie penguins seek ice-free areas and build nests of pebbles, or prefer to nest on rocky cliffs and ledges, like the Antarctic petrel. Long-lived and slow to reproduce, the common thread among these fearless birds is the important role they play in Antarctica’s intricate food web, both as predator and prey. Not only do they provide a glimpse into the great bio-diversity of this region, but they also provide invaluable insight into the effects of climate change and human activity on ocean health. Read on to fnd out more about how these incredible birds have adapted to survive in this demanding environment and what they can tell us about the future. Image by David Neilson 15 emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri

his largest of all penguins can grow to nearly Climate change is predicted 1.15 metres tall and weigh up to 40 kg79. The t emperor’s stature may be one of the reasons to have disastrous effects on why they are the only penguin species to breed on sea emperor penguins, with projected ice during Antarctica’s dark and frigid winter80. Their devotion to their chicks in this harsh environment makes losses in some colonies by as them some of the most impressive parents in the animal much as 81% by the end of the kingdom. Emperor penguins pair up each year at the century88. breeding site and stay together throughout the season. Shortly after the female lays the pair’s and carefully transfers it to the male, she begins a trek of 86 up to 120 kilometres to reach open water to forage for While they can live up to 40 years , emperor penguins 87 food81. Meanwhile the male incubates the egg in a brood are one of the most ice dependent of all penguin pouch above his feet for a little more than two months as species and their life cycle is strongly linked to changes temperatures drop. By the time the females return, the in sea ice. A decrease in sea ice concentration can have male has fasted for almost four months and has lost up a negative effect on population size and reproductive to 50% of his body weight. success. Climate change is thus predicted to have disastrous effects on emperor penguins, with projected Emperor penguins inhabit colonies around the coast of losses in some colonies by as much as 81% by the end Antarctica82 and forage primarily on Antarctic silverfsh, of the century88. However, these tough birds may be able krill and squid83. They can dive up to 565 m84 and have to adapt and breed in new locations89. developed an extraordinary . Their heart rate, which is usually around 73 beats per minute, speeds up to as high as 256 beats right before and after a dive and slows down in the water to as low as 6 beats per minute toward the end of the dive85.

Page 26 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Bob Zuur 16 Adélie Penguin Pygoscelis adeliae

délies may be the smallest of Southern Ocean Adélie penguins use breathing penguins90, but they make up for it by having a A range along the entire Antarctic coast and on holes in the ice created by minke some of its nearby islands. Similar to emperor penguins, whales to enter and exit the Adélies have a unique dependency on pack ice and live 91 in the outer portion but not on the edge of the pack ice water where they hunt for fsh, in winter. They use breathing holes in the ice created by krill and squid92. minke whales to enter and exit the water91 where they hunt for fsh, krill and squid92. Due to its dependency on the ice and its sensitivity to changes in the ecosystem, While fairly slow on land, Adélies travel much more the Adélie penguin is often seen as an indicator species effciently in the water, swimming or “porpoising” for environmental changes. (periodically leaping out of the water), and reach speeds of 4.4 metres per second94. They usually dive for several In spring, Adélies migrate toward land to join a breeding minutes and go down as far as 170 metres deep. colony. The male establishes the territory and both mates are involved in building and maintaining the nest, which involves protecting it from neighbouring pairs as the penguins are known to steal pebbles from each other. The female usually lays two to three eggs before leaving to forage. Upon their return, both mates take turns hunting, incubating the eggs, and feeding the chicks. After 50 days, many of which the chicks spend without their parents, they will have developed their juvenile and head for the sea93.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 27 Image by David Neilson 17 Chinstrap Penguin Pygoscelis Antarcticus

ost penguins are considered to be cute, but Chinstraps ‘will rush up to you the chinstrap penguin’s horizontal facial stripe, m gives it a particular charm. But don’t be fooled immediately, squawking like crazy, – they are far from cuddly. Longtime penguin researcher and loudly, as if they need to Ron Naveen notes that unlike their close relatives the gentoo and Adélie penguins, chinstraps “will rush up to closely inspect your passports’. you immediately, squawking like crazy, and loudly, as if they need to closely inspect your passports…They will stab if you don’t back off95.” Like their close relatives, Chinstrap penguins stick to relatively warmer Antarctic the Adélies and gentoos, they also have a penchant for and sub-Antarctic climates, not venturing further south stealing rocks from their neighbours to build the nests than the Antarctic Peninsula. When at sea, they also where they incubate their eggs. Currently there are inhabit areas with less dense sea ice. Thus, it had millions of chinstrap penguins, some of them in colonies previously been hypothesised that the warming of the ranging from 55,700 pairs on the Antarctic Peninsula96 Peninsula (part of the overall pattern of climate change) to 20,000 pairs in the South Shetland Islands97. In the would beneft chinstraps, due to their affnity for less icy 1990s, the estimated world population of chinstraps areas. However, recent research, as noted above, has was 7.5 million pairs98, which, now, is believed to be shown that chinstraps (along with Adélies) are actually declining99 — and in the Antarctic Peninsula, chinstraps signifcantly declining in the rapidly warming Peninsula are declining signifcantly100. For example, at Deception region103,104. Although scientifc knowledge of Antarctic Island, the large chinstrap colony at Baily Head now ecosystems has advanced considerably over the past stands at 50,408 breeding pairs101, down from previous few decades, there’s clearly still a long way to go before estimates of as many as 100,000 breeding pairs102. we can predict how Antarctic ecosystems will change as the planet continues to warm, and what this means for its birds and wildlife.

Page 28 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Bob Zuur 18 Antarctic Petrel Thalassoica Antarctica

he Antarctic petrel is found along the entire Feather care is very important in Antarctic coastline, and also breeds on nearby t islands105. Its range includes the pack ice, where Antarctic petrels as they protect it can be found throughout the year, an area where it has the bird from the harsh Antarctic 106 little competition from other birds . environment only if clean, dry and Antarctic petrels breed further south than all other oiled by the bird111. birds107. Although they depend on the sea to feed, they nest much further inland108. The Antarctic petrel breeds in colonies on cliffs or on the ground of the Antarctic The shelter provided by some Antarctic petrel nests continent109. pairs perform elaborate courtship is of particular importance because shelter prevents rituals during which they clash bills, toss their heads chick predation from predators like the south polar and wag their tails110. Feather care is very important in (Catharacta maccormicki)114. Regional climate Antarctic petrels as they protect the bird from the harsh change has made Antarctic petrel nests more vulnerable Antarctic environment only if clean, dry and oiled by to predation by southern giant petrels (Macronectes the bird111. giganteus), leading to decreases in breeding success 115 These birds feed mostly on fsh and krill but also on and survival . crustaceans and squid112. To fnd their prey, they use their excellent eyesight to follow other birds to feeding grounds, where they congregate in large numbers113.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 29 Image by David Neilson 19 Pagodroma nivea

he beautiful, entirely white snow petrel is one Snow petrels breed in colonies of the most southern breeding of all birds116. Its t thick plumage protects it from the wind and icy further inland where the female water and these birds meticulously oil and clean their occupies a nest and is courted feathers, sometimes by taking “baths” in the snow117. They breed in colonies further inland where the female by the male with dance-like occupies a nest and is courted by the male with dance- movements and “fencing”118. like movements and beak “fencing”118.

Snow petrels mostly eat Antarctic silverfsh along with krill and some other fshes119. They typically hunt in icy areas120. The global population is thought to be larger than 4,000,000 individuals121, and they are found on Antarctica and the nearby islands of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.122

As with many Antarctic species, snow petrels are abundant and not directly threatened by humans. Still, they are a decidedly cold-climate species and changes due to climate change may impact them directly. Scientists are studying them closely through tracking devices that will provide information on foraging and thus potentially give clues to changes in marine ecosystems123.

Page 30 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by NOAA Photo Library 20 Wandering Albatross Diomedea exulans

he huge wandering albatross has the largest Thanks to their amazing wingspan, wingspan of any living bird. Thanks to their t amazing wingspan, which can spread between which can spread between 2.5 to 2.5 to 3.5 m (8 ft. to 11.5 ft.) they can remain in the air 3.5 m they can remain in the air for many hours without fapping their wings124. They also are resilient despite the harsh environments they inhabit for many hours without fapping and are able to live for half a century125. their wings124.

The wandering albatross reproduce on a number of islands in the Southern Ocean, including South Georgia, The International Union for Conservation of Nature now Crozet, Kerguelen, Prince Edward, and Macquarie126. lists the wandering albatross as a species of vulnerable During their courtship they display rituals that make status130. This is unfortunately due to bycatch in toothfsh use of their immense size and unusual sounds, fsheries131. Measures introduced by CCAMLR have including a rapid sequence of head movements, snaps, reduced bycatch of albatrosses132 in Southern Ocean ritualised preening and vocalisations127. Their nighttime fsheries to near zero133 although they still end up as feedings consist of a range of squid, small fsh, and bycatch in non-CCAMLR management fsheries north crustaceans128. They have a unique gland above their of the Southern Ocean and by Illegal, Unregulated and nasal passage, which allows them to get rid of salt from Unreported (IUU) fshing. seawater they take in along with their food129.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 31 Image by JJ Harrison 21 Antarctic Fulmarus glacialoides

hough not as well-known or well-studied as its They spend much of their lives penguin neighbours, the Antarctic fulmar (also t known as the ) is quite abundant in a fock with other Antarctic in the Southern Ocean134, with an estimated population fulmars, or in large colonies during of 2,000,000135. Like other and petrels, its plumage is grey and white, and it has a hooked beak. breeding season. However, it is unique from other species in several ways. For example, this bird does not nest on the ground, and instead prefers rocky ledges on high cliffs. That might They are predominantly surface eaters, although they make them sound like they prefer to be alone, but they will occasionally dive for their food136 and dine mostly are far from solitary. They spend much of their lives in on Antarctic silverfsh, krill and squid137. Though several a fock with other Antarctic fulmars, or in large colonies species of albatrosses and petrels that feed or breed in during breeding season. Antarctic fulmars lay a single, the Antarctic region have experienced steep population white egg during late November or early December. declines due to entanglement in fshing lines, fulmars do not appear to be at a similar risk138, even though they have been observed around fshing vessels. Like many Antarctic , they are threatened by climate change139, and are already breeding later in response140. And like other species in the Antarctic ecosystem, they are affected by human pollution, including DDT used in other parts of the world and found to accumulate in their bodies141.

Page 32 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) tes A

Even though these animals do not have backbones, invertebrates are critical to the backbone of the Southern r Ocean ecosystem. These incredible animals, including worms, clams, crustaceans, , snails, and sea stars, appear to have had an evolutionary feld day in the isolated frigid waters of Antarctica. From the tiny bone-eating worms to the largest invertebrate species known on earth, these organisms have B developed bizarre and unique adaptations as diverse as the species themselves. Antarctica is known for its spectacular underwater geological formations including seamounts, canyons, and ridges that support unique and diverse invertebrate species assemblages. Combined with the , these special places host rich benthic communities dominated by invertebrates like bivalves, , and sea stars. These organisms in turn provide habitat for others, such as the glass , which some fsh species use as a place to lay hundreds of eggs, or urchins that provide elevated habitat for other species. Invertebrates are also crucial to the pelagic and sea-ice portions of the Southern Ocean ecosystem. While many invertebrates are important prey, Antarctic krill ( superba) are considered to be the keystone species supporting the entire Antarctic food web. Other zooplanktonic invertebrates are important for transfer: copepods transfer plant energy up the food web, and gelatinous salps export nutrients to the deep sea through rapid excretion. New invertebrate species are being discovered every year in the waters surrounding Antarctica, and little is known about the biology and distribution of the species already known to science. Antarctic invertebrates are extremely vulnerable to climate change and ocean acidifcation, the consequences of which are expected to cascade through the entire Antarctic food web. Read on to learn about a few of our favourite Antarctic invertebrates that need protection from the combined

threats of climate change, ocean acidifcation and fshing. inverte Image by Uwe Kils 22 Antarctic Krill Euphausia superba

he Antarctic krill lives up to its name (superba Krill mostly eat plant , or means magnifcent or superb in Latin). No other t species is considered to be as central to the growing on the underside functioning of Antarctic ecosystems. Everything from of sea ice, and therefore transfer small fsh to huge whales depends on Antarctic krill for survival, which is why their response to climate change plant energy to species higher in is the focus of many scientifc studies. Krill are small the food web -like crustaceans of about 6 centimetres in length. They are found throughout the Southern Ocean, and they form very large swarms of billions of individuals in such as warming leading to reduced sea ice and ocean some areas. They mostly eat plant plankton, or algae acidifcation are projected to have a negative effect on growing on the underside of sea ice, and therefore Antarctic krill habitat, particularly in the Weddell Sea142, transfer plant energy to species higher in the food web, which could adversely affect their predators143. The life an important ecosystem function. cycle of krill is linked to the availability of sea ice, which provides feeding grounds in the winter as well as nursery Because they are so critical to the ecosystem, krill grounds for larvae144. Nevertheless, CCAMLR can take have long been a particular focus of scientists and these impacts into account to ensure that the fshery policymakers. Concerns about the impacts of the does not stress krill populations even further. This will be development of a fshery for krill were an important a critically important task in the coming years. consideration in the decision to establish CCAMLR, which implements the ecosystem and precautionary approaches to management. Unfortunately, these may not be enough to protect them. Climate change impacts

Page 34 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by John B. Weller 23 Antarctic Anemones Actiniaria

ntarctic anemones are an interesting group, and I. striata has an unusually high new species discovered in the past few years A have revealed more about the diversity of this number of nematocysts, cells that group. Two species of anemones, Isosicyonis striata and fre stinging barbs for protection Isosicyonis alba, have only been fully studied relatively 146 recently145. They are usually a few centimetres tall, and or to capture prey . are pinkish or brownish in colour. Isosicyonis striata has stripes. Despite their small size and unexceptional appearance, the species of this genus have a few Another new anemone species, Edwardsiella andrillae, remarkable traits. I. striata has an unusually high has adopted the puzzling strategy of living on the number of nematocysts, cells that fre stinging barbs underside of the ice shelf–upside down148. Most for protection or to capture prey146. Most unique is the anemones prefer more hospitable surfaces, such as the relationship both species have with Antarctic sea snails. seafoor (or snail shells), and no other anemone species The sea snails host the anemones on their back, and is known to latch onto ice. E. andrillae burrows most appears to almost merge with them. Further details of of its body into the ice shelf, with only the this relationship are not yet known147, but one hopes exposed and in the water. Scientists are not yet sure that the snail gets something in return for hauling the how they can do that, since they don’t appear to have anemone all over the seafoor. any special adaptations that would allow them to get through hard ice149. Sea anemones have also been found in the very deepest Antarctic waters. One recently identifed species, Iosactis antarctica, makes its home in soft seafoors in depths of 2800 to 3200 metres150. Antarctic anemones clearly are able to make the most of any habitat they encounter.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 35 Source unknown 24 Colossal squid Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni

espite its enormous size, the colossal squid With a mantle length of up to remains the most elusive animal of the 151 d Southern Ocean, living in depths of more than 4 metres and a record weight of 2000 metres. With a mantle length of up to 4 metres151 500 kg, the colossal squid is the and a record weight of 500 kg, it is the world’s largest 152 invertebrate152. It has huge eyes, a large beak and world’s largest invertebrate hooks on the clubs at the end of its tentacles. With these characteristics, it sounds like a real-life . However, as a rather slow-moving species One specimen obtained from a New Zealand fshing that ambushes its prey153, its behaviour is unfortunately vessel in 2007 was pulled in on a fshing line intact, and not very monster-like. The colossal squid is an apex is now on display at the Te Papa Museum in Wellington. predator, feeding on large fsh such as Antarctic This squid’s eye measures 27 cm across, which is the toothfsh, but, especially as a juvenile, it is also important largest known animal eye. However, its beak is smaller prey for toothfsh154, sleeper sharks and sperm whales155. than some of those that have been found in sperm whale stomachs, indicating that perhaps this squid had not Most of what we know about these mysterious creatures reached its maximum size. We clearly still have a lot to comes from accidental encounters. Colossal squid learn about these deep-sea giants. occasionally are hauled in by longliners fshing for toothfsh. When the squid try to pluck a free dinner off the lines, they sometimes refuse to let go even when the line is hauled back onto the fshing vessel, resulting in the retrieval of all or part of the animal. Other information about them has been gleaned from examining the stomach contents of toothfsh and sperm whales.

Page 36 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by John B. Weller 25 Antarctic sea spiders Pycnogonida

hen you think of Antarctica, you probably think There are well over 200 different of gorgeous icescapes and charming animals. W You probably don’t think about a place species of sea in the swarming with spiders. Yet the Antarctica of stunning Antarctic and sub-Antarctic156, scenery is the same place where hundreds of sea spider species (pycnogonids) lurk in the water. In fact, with 20% of all pycnogonid there are well over 200 different species of sea spider species living in that area157. in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic156, with 20% of all pycnogonid species living in that area157. The diversity of Antarctic sea spiders may be greater than that found in They eat mostly invertebrates160. When they aren’t warmer areas of the ocean, with some regions such as draining the liquids from their prey, the males of some the and the eastern Weddell Sea species act as incubators, carrying around eggs and 158 having particularly high numbers of distinct species . sometimes the larvae of their offspring161. These creepy Antarctic inhabitants are quite fascinating, and despite Antarctic sea spiders live in both shallow and deep being well-studied, we are still learning more about them waters, proving that there are few corners of the world and discovering new species. safe for those terrifed of . Because they are not actually , they do not look like typical land spiders, with bodies that are much smaller and thinner and extremely long legs. Some species are also quite large. The leg span of the species megalonyx can reach 50 cm across, while other species have leg spans as small as 3 cm159.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 37 Image by Hartmut Olstowski 26 salps Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai

alps (Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai) have Salps excrete faecal pellets received some negative publicity in the past few s years. These are tunicates, containing lots of nitrogen and which are part of the subphylum that includes sea carbon, and these pellets fall squirts, and thus are flter feeders and low in the food web. In 2004, an important study of the relationships down to deep sea areas where between salps and another prey species, Antarctic not a lot of these nutrients are krill, determined that warming temperatures benefted available166. populations while harming krill, potentially causing problems for animals that eat krill162. Salps are clear, gelatinous blobs and may not be as appetising as krill to predators, who would be deprived of a major food Another beneft of salps is their waste, which benefts the source. Although population increases may pose a marine environment. Scientists, who probably are not problem for large swaths of the Antarctic ecosystem, it allowed to talk about their work at the dinner table, have might not be all bad. Some evidence suggests that salps measured the content and rate of salp defecation, with may be a more popular and nutritious food source than intriguing results. Salps excrete faecal pellets containing previously thought, with their tendency to move slowly lots of nitrogen and carbon, and these pellets fall down a bonus for predators and their fellow zooplankton163. to deep sea areas where not a lot of these nutrients are 166 Krill and other tiny crustaceans seem to feed on them available . Therefore, salps can potentially provide a as well164. Some crustaceans even enter the salp and valuable source of organic material for creatures that feed on its insides, then make the leftover shell their live on the seafoor. Nevertheless, changes in the salp new home165. population are indicators of potentially widespread impacts on the Antarctic ecosystem from climate change. Despite their contributions to the ecosystem, their expansion may spell trouble for krill predators unless they can develop a taste for tunicate.

Page 38 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Bjørn Gulliksen 27 Glass sponges class hexactinellid

his year, it was reported that a human woman They are thought to live hundreds has lived to be 120 years old167. If the glass t sponges that live in Antarctica could read, they and perhaps thousands of years. would be utterly unimpressed by this news. Glass sponges are a type of long-lived, deep-sea sponge found throughout the world, but are especially numerous the Larsen A ice shelf created new open-ocean areas in in Antarctica168. They are thought to live hundreds and which plankton could grow, and this new food source perhaps thousands of years, so making it to 120 is quite appears to have allowed glass sponges to move fairly easy for them. They get their name from their skeletons, quickly into formerly ice-covered areas173. which are composed of silicon dioxide, the same material we use to make glass. The ability of these species to move into new areas is very important for seafoor communities. Glass sponges Although their lifespan is exceptionally long, in some are important components of Antarctic seafoor life, ways it is not surprising. Glass sponges are suspension providing food as well as shelter and transforming the feeders feeding on plankton169, but most live at depths ocean foor into a habitat for other species such as small where plankton is in relatively short supply (1000 m or mollusks and polychaetes174. have been found to more). Even Antarctic species that live in shallow depths deposit thousands of eggs onto a single glass sponge175. of 30-40 m, such as the glass sponge Rosella nuda, They also shelter the juveniles of many species, including have limited food because they live in ocean areas where brittle stars and sea spiders176. Because sponges are plankton is not abundant at any depth170. Slow growth so critical to the broader ecosystem, policymakers have rates and long lives mean that glass sponges can survive designated special areas in Southern Ocean where without needing as much food as other organisms fshing gear that touches the seafoor is not allowed might171. However, recent research suggests that glass so that it will not disturb or kill them177. Given that their sponges can grow quickly when the opportunity arises, usually slow growth means they will recover slowly from such as when an ice shelf collapses172. The collapse of disturbance, such protection efforts are necessary to protect the whole community of bottom-dwelling animals.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 39 Image by Pete Bucktrout 28 southern Ocean mollusks phylum

urrently 163 species178,179 of bivalve mollusks Many important predators, (e.g., clams, , , ) and 193 C 568 species180,181 of gastropod mollusks (e.g., including Weddell seals and snails, slugs, nudibranchs) have been discovered in the fshes194,195 rely on mollusks Southern Ocean. There have been 195 new species described since 2003182, and new species continue to for food. be discovered183. While parts of the continental shelf, Western Antarctic peninsula, and islands have been sampled; more species may be discovered in layers via bioturbation – the natural mixing of sediments these areas and via exploration of deeper waters184. through biological processes192. Many important predators, including Weddell seals193 and fshes194,195 rely Most Antarctic bivalve and gastropod species are rare, on mollusks for food. A natural product called lovenone and relatively few have circumpolar distributions185. found in the skin of the nudibranch Adalaria loveni has Recent research has discovered thriving ecosystems shown toxicity against certain human cancer cells196. rich with species new to science including species of mollusks and other invertebrates like sponges Scientists are still discovering new species and and worms. These mollusk “hot spots” are found on understanding their ecosystem services, but even as unique geological formations throughout the Southern we begin to learn about them, Antarctic mollusks are Ocean including parts of East Antarctica (Maud Rise186, at risk197. Antarctic calcifed organisms are particularly Gunnerus Ridge, Enderby, Prydz, Wilkes, MacRobertson, vulnerable to increasing ocean acidifcation198 because and d’Urville Sea-Mertz seamounts)187, Bouvetøya188, many are weakly calcifed199. As the ocean acidifes, Peter I Island189, and South Orkney190 and South Georgia it can result in the calcium carbonate-based shells Islands191 near the Antarctic Peninsula. of invertebrates dissolving. In their absence, the communities they compromise are likely to be among Far from being only passive flter feeders, mollusks the frst to experience the cascading impacts of increase oxygen concentration in upper sediment ocean acidifcation200.

Page 40 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Chris Gilbert 29 Copepods subclass copepoda

n the Antarctic, the crustaceans that get all the When ice melts and blooms attention are krill, which are certainly a major food i source for a huge variety of species. But they are not form, plankton eaters and the the only ones propping up the upper levels of the food animals that eat them have to take web. At 1–2 mm in size, copepods are smaller than krill, and in fact are eaten by them, but they comprise a large advantage of the short-lived feast. percentage of the zooplankton foating at the top of the water column. One study of zooplankton in the Weddell Sea found that copepods were the most numerous and Since copepods are dependent on plant plankton for had the most number of distinct species201. In addition food, they are strongly infuenced by seasonal changes to being eaten by krill, they are also eaten by silverfsh in ice204. Many Antarctic species similarly have life cycles and lanternfsh, and in some areas may be part of an tied to the formation and melting of sea ice because alternative pattern of energy transfer to organisms higher plankton blooms do not occur under ice. When ice up in the food web202. Typically, krill are often considered melts and blooms form, plankton eaters and the animals the primary link between plant plankton and upper level that eat them have to take advantage of the short-lived predators such as fsh, penguins and whales. However, feast. Different species respond to these scientists have reported an alternate scenario in which seasonal changes in different ways. Some copepods copepods, lanternfsh and squid are the link instead of show slower metabolic rates in pack ice compared to krill203. Even in the famously krill-centric ecosystem of ice edge or open ocean regions205. They additionally Antarctica, there can be surprises. time reproduction to coincide with plankton blooms206. Copepods may also be affected by climate change207, highlighting the potential for warmer temperatures to affect the ecosystem at every level.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 41 Image from AOA archive 30 Antarctic subclass octocoralia

ike many of their Antarctic counterparts, Antarctic There are corals in Antarctica, corals remain little known, lacking the popularity l of their tropical relatives. But there are corals in proving once again that the Antarctica, proving once again that the Southern Ocean Southern Ocean has everything has everything you’d want in an ocean, except warm, sunny beaches. While many corals are in the deep sea you’d want in an ocean, except and are therefore diffcult to study, there have been some warm, sunny beaches. interesting research fndings. While some species of coral possess stinging cells called nematocysts that can ward off predators, some Antarctic corals do not have Although producing chemicals that keep predators very good nematocysts. Instead, they give off chemicals away is a pretty ingenious adaptation, one Alcyonacean, that send a strong message to stay away. An order of Gersemia antarctica, has another amazing adaptation. soft corals called the Alcyonaceans, eight species of To feed on seafoor sediments, it bends itself over, which live in Antarctic waters, produces compounds brushes against the sediments, and stands back up that seem to keep sea stars and amphipods away, and again. Then it picks itself up and moves to fnd new 208,209 kill bacteria . sediments to eat210. If you’re thinking that you weren’t aware that coral can move, you are not alone. No other soft coral has been known to do this. Thus Antarctic corals are yet another incredible species populating the rich and diverse Antarctic seafoor. They provide yet another reason to study and map these habitats, so that they can be suffciently protected from potential damage by human activities.

Page 42 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by Thomas Dahlgren 31 Bone-eating worms Osedax antarcticus and Osedax deceptionensis

ll over the world, bone-eating worms seek out Bone-eating worms lack sharp fallen whale and fsh bones resting in sediments A deep in the ocean. Until recently, it was unknown teeth or other body parts that can whether there were any in the Antarctic. A group of cut through bone, and instead scientists suspected that the large number of whales in the Antarctic would provide a good food source for produce acids that can break these worms, and hypothesised that there were likely it down213. to be previously undiscovered species in the Southern Ocean211. The researchers therefore placed whale bones in the Southern Ocean in a few locations around Bone-eating worms also exhibit the phenomenon of the Antarctic Peninsula, and left them for a year. Upon male dwarfsm, in which the male is a mere fraction of retrieving the bones, they found large numbers of worms the size of the female. Multiple males attach themselves devouring them. Just one rib had 202 specimens within to a single female, apparently devoting their entire lives to 100 square centimetres. They determined that these doing little more than mating with her. In general, larvae worms constituted two new species. The most abundant of this species develop into females if they happen to species, Osedax antarcticus, has red frond-like body land on bone and into males if they land on a female215. parts called “palps” that stick out of the bone while Males keep their grips on females with chaetae, a type of the rest of the body burrows into the bone. Only one bristle possessed by many worm species. The existence individual of the other species, Osedax deceptionensis, of Antarctic bone worms, which were only discovered 212 was found . in 2012, highlights both how much we still have to learn about marine ecosystems, and how incredibly diverse All bone-eating worms, including O. antarcticus, lack marine life can be. Even in the depths of the Southern sharp teeth or other body parts that can cut through Ocean, there exist at least two different kinds of worms bone, and instead produce acids that can break it whose sole purpose in life is to digest whale bones. down213. As they also lack a digestive system, they rely on symbiotic bacteria to turn the bone into nutrients214.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 43 Image by Julian Gutt 32 Antarctic infraorder Brachyura

hile Antarctica is rich in many types of marine Yeti crabs are typically hairy, but life, such as echinoderms and sponges, W it has relatively few crustaceans. This is the new species has hair is on likely because few species can tolerate cold water its chest instead of its limbs222, temperatures216. Still, there are plenty of crabs in some parts of Antarctica. There were enough king crabs leading scientists to nickname it (Paralomis spp.) around South Georgia and South the “Hoff” crab after actor David Orkney Islands to try to establish a fshery in those areas. Hasselhoff223. However, the fsheries were not found to be economically proftable, so for now the crabs can rest easy.

Yet maybe not too easy, since some of these crabs have Another kind of Antarctic crab has also drawn media a parasite that renders them sterile217. Furthermore, attention recently, but for different reasons. In 2012, some scientists have further suggested that Antarctica’s scientists reported that during the discovery of deep-sea lack of crabs may not last long because increasingly hydrothermal vents in Antarctica, a new species of yeti warmer waters will allow, and already are allowing, crab was also found221. These crabs have to deal with the species to invade new territories and possibly destroy opposite kind of temperature problem as others in the seafoor dwellers that don’t have any adaptations to Southern Ocean – the liquid coming out of the vents is at protect them from powerful claws218. Sounds horrifying, the toasty temperature of 352.6°C. As their name implies, but some recent evidence suggests that the situation yeti crabs are typically hairy, but the new species has hair might not quite be so dire and that there is no invasion is on its chest instead of its limbs222, leading scientists to so far219. As one of the scientists involved notes, though nickname it the “Hoff” crab after actor David Hasselhoff223. there may be good news on crabs, the apparently Scientists have not yet discovered whether the crab looks conficting information highlights that there are large gaps good running down the beach in a red swimsuit. The in our understanding of Antarctic ecosystems. This could exciting discovery of these new vents, the frst known in hamper our ability to understand the impacts of climate the Southern Ocean, illustrates once again how little we change, including the impacts of invasive species220. know about the deep sea, including its hairy inhabitants.

Page 44 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Image by John B. Weller 33 Antarctic echinoderms Phylum Echinodermata

chinoderms are a phylum of sea animals with a Another unusual looking large variation in appearance, encompassing sea e cucumbers, sea urchins, and starfsh. Though echinoderm is the sea pig, a you might think of such species inhabiting tide pools, type of pig-shaped deep-sea sea there are also plenty of representatives dwelling in the Antarctic, including in the deep sea. There are 219 cucumber with short legs. different species of brittle stars (ophiuroids) alone224. The Scotia Sea and East Antarctica are the most diverse regions, with over 70 different brittle star species found Unfortunately, some recent evidence indicates that in each225. Antarctica is also home to a species of echinoderms may be at risk. One of the major impacts starfsh that can have as many as 50 arms, Labidiaster of increased emissions is ocean annulatus, and can grow to be over 60 cm226. Though acidifcation, the process by which increasing amounts it lives on the bottom with glass sponges and other of atmospheric carbon are incorporated into the ocean, seafoor dwellers, it can eat moving animals such as decreasing the pH. The poles will experience ocean krill and is one of the few starfsh that can do so227. The acidifcation earlier than other areas, and the more cidaroid sea urchins are another unusual group. Lacking acid environment is expected to have a wide range of a covering or epithelium on their spines, which repels impacts on marine species. Analysis of the impacts of uninvited guests in other urchin species, they actually acidifcation on the sea star indicate seem to attract seafoor animals looking for quality high- that at the pH levels predicted to occur in the Antarctic in rise habitat228. Researchers have found that the presence the near future, and larvae will be negatively of cidaroids increases local populations of some species affected230. This would be problematic for them as well and the number of different species represented229. as entire seafoor communities, since O. validus plays an Another unusual looking echinoderm is the sea pig, a important role in maintaining the balance of species231. type of pig-shaped deep-sea with short legs. They live in very deep waters and congregate in herds numbering in the hundreds.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 45 mPA Proposals

CCAMLR is currently considering two mature proposals for the Ross Sea and East Antarctic regions. Proposals for the Weddell Sea, Antarctic Peninsula and other areas of the Southern Ocean are underway. It is critically important that CCAMLR designate the current proposals in Ross Sea and East Antarctica in 2014, with no further changes to scale or strength, in order to protect the habitats of the incredible species represented in this report. It is equally important that these and future designations are visionary, and of suffcient scale that they collectively provide comprehensive, adequate and representative protection of the Southern Ocean.

2014 Proposed MPAs

ANTARCTICA

Page 46 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) endnotes

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Page 54 33 Antarctic Species We Love* (*and whose homes must be protected) Acknowledgements

Authors: Nicole Bransome, Claire Christian, Barbara Cvrkel, Julie Janovsky, Dae Levine, Rob Nicoll, Leah Weiser

Reference Group: Stephen Campbell, Mark Epstein, Andrea Kavanagh, Richard Page, Bob Zuur

Editors: Stephen Campbell, Amanda Sully

Design: Metro Graphics Group

Maps: Geomancia and Metro Graphics Group

Photos: AOA is grateful for the generous photographic contributions from Ben Arthur, Lara Asato, Daniel Beltra, Pete Bucktrout, Thomas Dahlgren, David Fleetham, Chris Gilbert, Bjørn Gulliksen, Julian Gutt, JJ Harrison, Uwe Kils, Philippe Koubbi, Darci Lombard, Peter McMillan, David Neilson, NIWA, Hartmut Olstowski, Liam Quinn, Rob Robbins, Jeff Rotman, Francisco Viddi, John B. Weller, Dr Paul Zahl and Bob Zuur.

Specimens and photographs collected by and made available through the New Zealand International Polar Year-Census of Antarctic Marine Life Project are gratefully acknowledged.

This report was printed on recycled paper.

Antarctic Ocean Alliance Page 55 www.antarcticocean.org

The following organisations make up the Antarctic Ocean Alliance:

Associate AOA organisations:

TM