Photo Jay Garrido Jay Photo

(E)motion of saudade The embodiment of solidarity in the Cuban medical cooperation in Mozambique

MIRIAM ADELINA OCADIZ ARRIAGA

MASTER THESIS Research Master African Studies 2015-2017 Leiden University/African Studies Center

First supervisor: Dr. Mayke Kaag Second supervisor: Dr. Kei Otsuki E)motion of saudade. The embodiment of solidarity in the Cuban medical cooperation in Mozambique Miriam A. Ocadiz Arriaga

Master Thesis Research Master African Studies 2015-2017 Leiden University/African Studies Center

First supervisor: Dr. Mayke Kaag Second supervisor: Dr. Kei Otsuki To my little brother, and to all those who have realized that love is the essence of life, it’s what build bridges through the walls, it´s what shorten abysmal distances, it´s what restore the broken souls, it´s what cures the incurable, it´s what outwits the death Photo Alina Macias Rangel Macias Alina Photo To my little brother, and to all those who have realized that love is the essence of life, it’s what build bridges through the walls, it´s what shorten abysmal distances, it´s what restore the broken souls, it´s what cures the incurable, it´s what outwits the death

Copyrights photo; Alina Macias Rangel Index (or the schedule of a journey)

Acknowledgments 9 Abstract 13 Preface 15 List of Acronyms 16

1 Introduction. Two ports 17 Human faces 17 Cuban medical cooperation in Mozambique 20 Research question & rationale 23 Order of the thesis 24

2 Methodology. Mapping Nostalgia 27 Methods and methodology 28 Mozambique 30 Cuba 34 Reflection and ethical considerations 36 (Un)Limitations 39

3 Macro perspectives and background. The South also exists 41 The Global South 42 South-South relations and cooperation 44 A transatlantic South 47 An island 50 A corner 53 A bridge 57

4 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodiment. A moving encounter 59 Movement, mobility and migration 61 Educational mobility: those who returned to stay 64 Labour mobility: those who left to return 69 Long term mobility: those who left to restart 72 Solidarity 74 Embodiment 78 Embodying solidarity 79

5. The healthcare setting. Transatlantic healing 87 The medical environment 87 Medicine for the soul 89 Curing across fragmentation 91 The Cuban way 92 Facing the revolutionary doctors 94 Cubans know how to dance 97 Learning new steps 100 The corpus of interaction 102 Ache for Luisito! 105

6. Sociocultural factors. Daily (dis)encounters 109 A human net 110 Facing the South 112 The color of the South 116 (Último?...) The coins of the South 124 The shapes of the South 129 The (multiple) stories of the South 133

7. Conclusion. Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 141 The day Fefe died 142 Retelling the journey(s) 144 (De)constructing solidarity 146 Constructing (new) horizons 149

Epilogue. (E)motion of saudade 151

Appendix 1: Photos and photographers 155

Appendix 2 Maps 157

Bibliography 159 long way to go. Georgita, your intelligence, joyfulness and flawless English accent a promisehave havesharedacrossdifferent I you still me and we with countries, you moments honest and fun the all for you Thank messages. voice endless the and room,your in pizzaacademic/creative/crazyeating while the had we talks Latina to join this program. Matthew, my dear friend, thank you so much for all wherever you go. You are so talented and free, that I couldn’t have chosen a better querida compañera, thank you so much for your infinite mi Agustina, positivitywell! as thesis thatyour celebrate youto wait spreadcan´t I interesting. more and sweetand I’mfriend, smoother dynamics happythe making class, youour joined smart my Juul, amazing. truly is situation every to quality humanizingYour lessons. our after chat and tea have to nice so happier.was Itand better feel me made always you schatje, Joosje, Leiden. in evenings wonderful those me with share programsand switch to decided made you glad I´m fun. more you much studies this warmness and enthusiasm your for Isabella, classroom. the outside and inside charisma and energy your master.all this Rob,for throughout found we willalwaysbethere foreachother. if it was at the library. I cannot wait to see where life bring us, but I’m quite sure together,time much even so spend to got we that happy so I´m caring. and kind so being for Josie, home. at somehow feel better, feel me make always you how and countrythis with cope to mehelped haveyou muchYou how idea no have the in Netherlands, friend actuallywhoone“discover”theand guidedto me significant AfricanStudies. most and first my of one being for Erikita, thanking different perspectives. Kei Otsuki, for your important feedback for that helped me to excitement take into consideration contagious professor And your learning. keep to me inspired than culture miss) and languages African (and appreciate really I master. the to library muchlighter. visit to Mozambique. And of course Ella for always making the long hours at the my settle to helped personally and community ASC the support to there always wasprofessor who to Dietz, Also, me. Ton offered you opportunity the without be would don’tI I whereremarkable. know truly is students the to support and work academic your and scholarship. adviser Yougreata a get are to me helped who Amha Azeb to Especially topic. own my pursue to freedom the and degree personal thatgave methestrengthsupport your tobelieve Icanalwaysdomybest. for especially and advice, critical your and for wise you your professionality,thank supervisor, my as you had have to grateful extremely I´m project. this of step each in essential was guidance YourKaag. academic Mayke I also want to thank all those wonderful friends and talented people I have I people talented and friends wonderful those all thank to want also I stop cannot I that for and friendship of product a also is thesis this But I want to thank professor Daniela Merolla, who guided me from my bachelor I also want to thank the ASC for giving me the opportunity to study a Master First of all, this thesis could not have been possible without the help of professor Acknowledgment

9 Acknowledgment En En cuanto a los hispanohablantes, antes que nada, quiero agradecer a la E aos meus amigos brasileiros, Iana, Baiano, Maysa, Marcelo, Ridalvo, Quero expressar minha infinita gratidão à Inocência, minha querida amiga. amiga. querida minha Inocência, à gratidão infinita minha expressar Quero Thankyou to Chloé, for being such a cheerful and original person, always As well, I´m grateful for the people I encountered in Mozambique. Tess, thank thank Tess, Mozambique. in encountered I people the for grateful I´m well, As y profesional para esta tesis. Y en Cuba, esa isla hermosa, Manuel por ser tan quiero paciente conmigo y haberme agradecer guiado como un hermano. Sin a tu ayuda no podría haber compañía, su realizado por mi gracias muchas trabajo Narvis, de y Caridad campo en agradecida. estaré Cuba te y siempre por ello apoyo y confianza, fue todo un placer pasar tantos momentos lindos juntas que me hicieron sentir que ya soy parte de la familia. Lisandra, muchas gracias por comunidad cubana en Mozambique que me apoyaron con sus testimonios. Su profesionalidad y carisma son realmente impresionantes y y deseo felicidad mucho a éxito cada uno de ustedes. mencionar a Gracias Juliet, Manuel y por sobre todo a Juan Manuel su por su apoyo confianza. Tambiénpersonal debo Marina, Marina, Bea, Joana, Murilo, Ronaldo, Amanda, Camila, Irce e Laís. Minha estada em Moçambique não teria sido tão incrível e mágica funk. ao sem e samba ao combinadas a Português, de aulas pelas muito energia Agradeço vocês. de por e diverso tão país desse grandiosidade a sobre ensinar me por obrigada Muito posso latino esperar me americana acolhido de terem como vocês. Não a parceira revê-los. para em em Maputo e também, me mostrou todas as maravilhas dessa cidade incrível. Felicio, por ter sido um ótimo guia durante minha adaptação ao campus e pelo Langa, ter Patrício Professor início. o desde acolhedora, maneira de recebido me e pelo apoio à este projeto. Mondlane Eduardo acolhimento na Universidade Agradeço Agradeço por todas as coisas que você me ensinou. Sua amizade me marcou de uma maneira muito profunda e espero um dia, poder a retribuí-la. Angélica, melhor moçambicana! Obrigada pela ótimo visitar amizade o Xipamanine, verdadeira comprar capulanas e e comermos juntas, enquanto sincera. Foi frente. pela esses, como dias mais exista que Espero futuro. o sobre conversávamos Quero agradecer também a Amade, meu padrinho, que me recebeu e acolheu ready ready for the next dance. And Nagia, the coolest housemate in all stress my turning and Oegstgeest, work than more much is life that me reminding for thanks into a celebration. Nedelanders: Jesper, Marij, Fenna, Carmen, Jesper, and Johanna Nedelanders: Who Saskia. would say some of the finest Dutch people could be found in Maputo?and eating Kizomba, me dancing gave you memories Thank for all much the beautiful you so alles, hartelijk bedankt! Voor highways. the Mozambican around traveling you you for all the the gossiping, laughs and the amazing moments together around Mozambique. are You such a happy and wise person, I really admire you and would say our friendship is Trump fake, even I´ll if find a way toJay- visityou. mijn En Maputo. charm around all positivity and Philippine your spread for el, is is a real blessing in my life. Thankyou for always supporting me through my messy papers and letting me glimpse all the wonderful qualities that you have. And I also want to thank Mahlet, Loes and Mia for your company during the a have will you sure I´m library. the at days hard those in especially semester, last I´m there your and experience thesis.fieldwork within I´llyour make sure great did with me. to support as you you

Acknowledgment 10 contigo, Fabre yComa.Eres lamejorguíaymaestra delacultura cubana. días lospasar conocerteencantóyHabana, bellame la por guía compañíay tu da fuerza, humildad y una sensacióndeamorque mellenadevida. yo voy, tu calidez no es solo un constante recuerdo, es una ternura grande que me ti, y pocas personas pueden amar de la en forma que tú amas. Donde quiera que muchas mi mamá, A firme. graciaspartir. dejarme mordertey por labios los parafácil sido ha Séno ésto que fe una con siempre letra, la de pie al aventuras siguesmis ytesis estadiseño de elayudaste contantome quepapá, gracias mi a Muchas olvidarme. nunca y felicidad tanta darme por graciasMuchas tanto. cambian días mis fotos sus ver sólo con cómo vieran solo tan Si maestros. mis y amigos mis sobrinos, mis que más mi ser a por Vic,Emiy Gracias mi vida. a la a enfrentar debe se como enseñarme y guiarme para mayor hermano mi tenerte como agradezco siempre y mucho quiero te Pepe, a gracias Muchas familia. nuestra de parte seas que de feliz muy estoy hermana, una como tratarme y ahí sueños con más qué valor, conmuchaentereza. Karlita, gracias por siempre estar existencia. A mi hermana Alis, te agradezco tu sabiduría y cariño para seguir mis poder sertuamigayestaraladotravés delosañosylasdistancias. de privilegiada muy sentir hacen me que sino trabajo, este crear a ayudaron me todo tu apoyo, tus consejos, tus anécdotas, tus fotos y toda tu creatividad que no solo siempre y contigo regresar mundo a esos lugares el donde hemos sido por felices. Y Alina, pasearme no sabes cómo escucharte, te agradezco para amiga tu ser encanta poder me y increíble persona una eres carisma, y ingenio tu todo por gracias inspiranme mejorara pararmea y firmemente, con una sonrisa. Diego, muchas siempre que mujerones unos ser por Chabela, entrañable.y más Aida fuerza la es suave más ternura la que enseñarme y valiente tan ser por ahí, siempre estar por gracias por siempre recibirme con toda tu alegría y buena vibra. Quetzalli, gracias musicalidadla sercorazón,nuestraencarnadapor mideguardociudad queen Nancy A Habana. la y Barcelona en especiales muy días compartido haber por y pesar de sus propios problemas. A Vilchis, por tus sabios consejos, tus chismes de lujo a escucharme y conmigo experiencias sus compartir por Eva, y Jadepara especial juntos, nuestra amistad ya es algo de otro mundo. Quiero manifestar una gratitud creciendo y abriendo caminos mano a mano, aunque estamos no cómo ver siempreencanta Me vida. la estemos de disfrutar físicamente hacerme para ahí estado han A cerveza. y historias recibirme muchas siempre con y presente mantenerme siempre por Lis, y Aarón Isma, Ale, están y estarán en mi vida con mucho cariño. A los amigos de Letras: Taffa, María, más felizcadadía. de ustedes es todo un ejemplo de y fuerza alegría que me inspira a ser mejor, a ser Alexandra, Francia y Ángela. No saben cómo me han ayudado a crecer; cada una gran futuro. un hacia encontrado en esta maestría para compartir buenos momentos que nos guiarán haberte tanto alegraMe inspiración. de llenas me siempre y admirable mujer una Eres rápido. tan linda tan amistad una brindarme por gracias muchas Davinia, academia. la de fuera y dentro juntas momentos Nos esperan muchos Estudios Latinoamericanos, gracias por su amistad y apoyo durante la maestría. Pero, sobre todo, estas páginas son gracias a mi familia, el alma de mi mi de alma el familia, mi a gracias son páginas estas todo, sobre Pero, siempre que familia, su a y Fabi a agradecer quiero hogar, mi México, En Consuelito, Holanda: en latina familia y amigas mis a agradecer Quiero de guapas más chicas las Gigi, y Iara a agradecer quiero Holanda, En La Casa, La mis amigos-hermanos que siempre que amigos-hermanos mis

11 Acknowledgment

políticos sobre a solidariedade são desconstruídos paraserem internalizadospolíticos sobre asolidariedade são desconstruídos pessoalmente neste encontro intercultural. como a de trás da acompreensão mobilidade Sul-Sul contemporânea, especialmente no campo promover da saúde e de da medicina, para destacar fim como os discursos a fenômeno, por moçambicanos.humano” e“rosto objetivocubanos um O dos desenhar cotidiano é no incorporada está solidariedade esse compõe que camadas múltiplas das desdobramento estuda tese o essa campo, de trabalho de meses seis Partindo durante Sul. coletadas Globo estórias em no baseada pessoas etnográfica das perspectiva uma atual de e histórica mobilização a sustentar para notável dinâmica, princípio dessa um trás é Por comunidades. solidariedade suas a de transformadores agentes sendo outra, para sociedade uma de vidas suas novoscontextos,reestabelecendo com lidar que têm sujeitos circunstâncias,esses médico.Nessas campo o para colaborar e contribuir de prol em intangíveis e tangíveis barreiras enfrentando intercontinentais, deslocamentos realizam homens e dos aprofundada diversosníveis desse fenômeno. análise rotaessaéuma Transatlântica acordogovernamental, Alémdeum peculiar ondemulheres uma sugere tese essa Porém, internacional. médico auxilio de campo ao diferentes perspectivas acrescem que internacionais relações de interessante tópico um é esse macro, escala uma de Partindo ampla. e horizontal sistema de saúde fragmentado e fortemente dependente de recursos estrangeiros, onde Cuba se insere como uma alternativa regional, nacional ou internacional, no arranjo do sistema de saúde. Esse é o caso de Moçambique, uma nação que possui um cubano em que organizações realizam ações coletivas para efetuar mudanças a níveis locais, com desdobramentos em escala que, em vez de enviar receitas substanciais, entrega recursos humanos. A principal tática do país tem sido alocar das décadas.o vínculo autônomo ao longo Cuba, uma ilha socialista, profissionaltem sido considerada como um poder de saúde mundial um desenvolveram Sul Globo do nações duas onde peculiar exemplo um como Sul-Sul relações das emergente contexto within t internalized personally be to deconstructed are solidarity on discourses howpolitical highlight to order medicine, in and health of field Cubans and of Mozambicans.lives The aim daily is to the presentcontemporary South-South themobility, in “human face” of embodied especially in is the solidarity how understand to order in phenomenon this constructing into go that layers ethnographic perspective an based Using on South. life Global stories the collected in throughout people six fieldwork,months thisof of thesis unwrapsmobilization the multiple contemporary and historical the sustain to principle remarkable a as stands dynamics,solidarity suchcommunities. Behind their of those livesand their modifying societies,thus other lives in their re-establishing environments, new with collaborate cope must to individuals circumstances, order these in Under borders field. medical intangible the and within tangible facing continents, between move men and women where route the of analysis further Transatlantic a particular a is this agreement, suggests governmental a being merely Beyond phenomenon. paper this within layers different this However, worldwide. aid medical of field the to perspectives various adds that one relations, international within topic interesting an is perspectivethis macro a Fromalternative. horizontal more a healthcare system often described as fragmented and heavily dependent on foreign aid, and in this sense Cuba may represent level,grassroots in order to work within the local healthcare system. has This been the case in Mozambique, a nation with a a at professionals Cuban place to revenues,been substantial has tacticsending resources.deliversmain human Its of place in that, one health, in leader world a as regarded been long has Cuba of island socialist The decades. the throughout link autonomous an maintain South Global the from nations two relations, whereby South-South of field emergent the within Esta tese tem foco na cooperação médica entre Cuba e Moçambique e parte da percepção do fenômeno através do do através fenômeno do percepção da parte e Moçambique e Cuba entre médica cooperação na foco tem tese Esta This thesis focuses on Cuban in medical current cooperation cooperation Mozambique. It begins by placing this of form his intercultural encounter. Abstract: Resumo:

13 Abstract Esta Esta tesis está enfocada en la actual cooperación médica cubana en Mozambique. En primera instancia, este fenómeno Resumen: un principio de acción que sustenta la histórica y contemporánea movilización de personal en el sur global. Desde un punto de de punto un Desde global. sur el en personal de movilización contemporánea y histórica la sustenta que acción de principio un deshilando va tesis esta campo, de trabajo de meses seis durante obtenidas vida de historias de medio por y etnográfico, vista los múltiples niveles que conforman este fenómeno para entender cómo es que la solidaridad es encarnada en de La el cubanos intención y es mozambiqueños. dar un “rostro día humano” en a especial los en Sur-Sur, movimientos el área de a día la salud, para recalcar cómo discursos políticos sobre solidaridad son deconstruidos y personalmente interiorizados en este intercultural. encuentro una alternativa supuestamente más horizontal. Desde un punto de vista general, éste es un tema de relaciones internacionales relaciones de tema un es general, éste vista de punto un Desde horizontal. más supuestamente alternativa una que aporta nuevas perspectivas en el ámbito de la salud a nivel que global. se diferentes Más niveles entretejen dentro allá de de este un fenómeno. acuerdo entre gobiernos, ésta Sin es una divergente embargo, la presente tesis sugiere analizar los ruta transatlántica por la que hombres y mujeres se desplazan entre continentes, cruzando fronteras tangibles e intangibles para realizar una de labor la a salud. favor Ésto que ha los conllevado enfrenten individuos otros contextos y se restablezcan como destaca solidaridad la dinámica, tal de Detrás comunidades. sus de las y vidas sus así cambiando otra, a sociedad una de puede verse puede desde verse emergentela perspectiva de las relaciones como Sur-Sur un peculiar ejemplo donde dos naciones jóvenes han forjado un vínculo autónomo desde hace Cuba, décadas. una isla socialista, ha destacado como un poder médico global integrarsido ha táctica mayor Su ciudadanos. sus de potencial el en basa se enormes lugar en enviar de que, dinero, de sumas una Mozambique, de caso el sido ha Éste local. salud de sistema del dentro trabajar para países otros en cubanos profesionistas como emerge Cuba donde extranjera, ayuda de dependiente y fragmentado salud de contexto su por descrita menudo a nación

Abstract 14 further action. further also that but knowledge, certain creates only not that issues, emotional intrinsic to attached thoughts critical to appeals that text humanized a find will reader active the thesis, this In photos. pre-selected and quotes and men tell their journeys unties a deeper understanding, I present a dialogue among scholarship and creative writing, literary womenwhere spaces the argumentation, academic solid with voiceless. together largely Because been has who people those life during this the thesis). creation From of him, I took current lifethe storiesfierce to narration of create a visceral image of to create journalism awareness on those concrete, real livesreach affected byof that the cost(an wareffort him his on drugs the emphasized who Valdez(2011) Javier of workexhaustive) (and extensive the by motivated was frameworks theoretical a create behind face human to a collective and life. individualand Lastly, daily their of fieldwork, idea the my of fluidity the present to allowsme that text to prior encounters multicultural perform that men and women on focus to me persuaded that condition human the of ode this wascomplexity. It and diversity human the of portrait multi-faceted a build to shots panoramic and interviews combining in mastery his to due inspiration of source a been has Yann director Arthus-Bertrand an ambiguous issue. Thus,the tangiblethe experienceproject of Humans (http://www.human-themovie.org/) from the film selected photos landscapes,the which here istranslated through written descriptions andespecially with the use of capture powerto of shots long of use the and plot nonlinear a as such movie, road the of elements stylistic through this pursue I 1). 2002, (Laderman unknown” the of thrill the for least at or revelation, for unfamiliar familiarity,the cultural seeking of life this stories paper as makes abstract use narratives of to bring the road, reader through the the voyage that “aim beyond the of borders metaphor the embrace to camera the of versatility the have challenged world the around directors film as Just destiny through the desert, those who move across continents in this thesis are seduced by roads, coasts, the ocean or the sky. their braveface lead to motorcycles outsiders or Justcars 2013). as Brandellero 2002; Laderman (see critique social promote literature especially expressions, distinctive to journey the claims that cinematography a moviesas wellroad the as genre, as Africa, Lusophone and America Latin from of diversity a by inspired largely been has thesis odyssey,this of matter the In academia,those uses who creativeembarked on an to odysseythelanguage drawin objectivesthe a South. human face of of aplace called home. with new cultures andthe attachment to those daily elements of steps to search for a better life, to somehow build a life while moving, there (foot) travelers.is their the in a Deep excitement clash and of of existence sadness,nostalgic the in sparkles that the beauty profound the encounter to tribute a are pages these return times,the at and arrival, the itself, journey the moving, start motivationto the pre-departing, the in occur that experiences intense the and another to locations certain this text has been inspired in thepeople human from in a qualitythe journey; tophysical perform and spiritual movement of fieldwork. It is the fact that Iof have autonomy. thatwe the world With this goal in mind, this text interlaces different literature justacknowledge with doing the six prodigious to not months opportunity of with argument an construct carefully to information of academia of flows multidirectionalthe with engage profoundly to also but share, ability the highlighting analysis, reflective and critical a through enormous the topic original an present to aim of the with crystallized is foretaste exposure world.this Here,the and continent a African the reading diversityof and academics prominent to listening University Leiden of classrooms the in hours the of fruit the is it Studies; African in teaching multidisciplinary the follows that thesis a is this Overall,analysis. academic women, captures the essence of this paper: the striking humandiversity this paper: that make usalike. women, captures the essence of angles, different a from many how in them that way from reflect on admire time,me individuals one be same madewhen lights. could the different it portrait, change This how “a Mozambican woman”call Lais Volpe is supposed to look like. this trickphotography myAnd at Martins.own notions of I found captivating how the elements of student Brazilian friends,mya of one of portrait however,the Maputo), is from it is photographer the (as lady young Mozambican a of photo the was it I thought I time it saw first subtlety.rare The a with model the of essence the captures it portrait, a being despite because beauty,also outstanding but its of because only not photo this 2 that makes who we journey home are interconnected are. with aninternal 1 h is xml fthis is the theJay lights cover toThe thatfirst Garrido) play make example it picture,(courtesy of with use of wasthe of a female natural silhouette landscape. as if I chose This is why I have selected the title (E)motion of Saudade (a definition of this word can be found in the Epilogue), as a wordplay that links how those steps from away steps those how links that wordplay a as Epilogue), the in found be can word this of definition (a Saudade of (E)motion title the haveselected I why is This Foremost, the writing style of this thesis is concerned with life stories and bringing them to the spot light to manifest to light spot the to them bringing and stories life with concerned is thesis this of style writing the Foremost, In this constant disjunction between the static and the dynamic, I present a narrative writing style that, without neglecting of labour the and stories, telling and hearing for passion my balance to effort my of result the are pages following The been in Mozambique and a Cuba tactile what project. triggered Each word that conform 1 . Beyond an academic approach that aims to analyze certain phenomenon, certain analyze to aims that approach academic an Beyond . inspire a deeper awareness for for awareness deeper a inspire Preface 2 .

15 Preface World Health Organization Health Organization World Less Developing Countries African Development New Partnership of National Health System Strategy for Reduction of Poverty Programs of Integral Health Resistência Nacional Moçambicana Adjustment Program Structural South-South Cooperation South-South Relations and Development Trade United Nations Conference on Mozambican Traditional Medicine Association Medicine Traditional Mozambican Care Delivering Program Comprehensive Health American Medical School Latin Gross Domestic Product de Moçambique Frente de Libertação Fund International Monetary International Relations IR PIS SSC SSR SAP IMF LDC GDP NHS WHO ELAM CHDP PARPA NEPAD UNCTAD RENAMO FRELIMO AMETRAMO ListAcronyms of

List of Acronyms 16 Inocencia. Photo Marina Masetti waves doesn’t reach the concrete heart of the capital, and and capital, the of heart concrete the reach doesn’t waves It is eight o’clock in Maputo, the delicate sonority of the the of sonority delicate the Maputo, in o’clock eight is It there’s just a pinch of salt in the air to add to the intensity intensity the to add to air the in salt of pinch a just there’s of the sky. An absolutely clear sky, as blue as the sea. sea. the as blue as sky, clear absolutely An sky. the of melody that gradually fuses into a horizon with the clarity of the sunrise over a Tuesday morning. A couple of of couple A morning. Tuesday a over sunrise the of miles away from the coast, the student residence 7 are wornonthebacks oftheirmothers. 6 5 4 3 stands on the corner of Amilcar Cabral and Paulo Paulo and Cabral Amilcar of corner the on stands Mozambicancurrency. Samuel Kankhomba (see appendix 2). On the left side Mozambican name forsarong. It literallymeans“taken back”,butitisanexpressionto describehowbabies Housemaid. Portuguese forboss. of the first floor, Inocencia has been furiously cleaning since seven o’clock. Her slender figure sweats under since seveno’clock.Herslenderfiguresweatsunder The day is bluish. The sound of the sea has a blue blue a has sea the of sound The bluish. is day The Human faces Her legs seem to be made from elastic obsidian, obsidian, elastic from made be to seem legs Her the green uniform of uniform green the while she carries buckets up and down the stairs. stairs. the down and up buckets carries she while eyes, brings stares at her, making her uncomfortable enough to her. After all, she is only 25, and sometimes she she sometimes and 25, only is she all, After her. bosses gossip about it; the students welcome welcome students the it; about gossip bosses Mozambique is a joke). It doesn’t matter that her every rush. She has to finish two floors by lunchtime, lunchtime, by floors two finish to has She rush. sweep their bedrooms, or wash their dishes… dishes… their wash or bedrooms, their sweep the doors of students to wash their clothes, or or clothes, their wash to students of doors the of suchacompetitiveanddemandingjob. eleven the of stairs entire the mop then eao s costas às pegado storey building before she can go home. home. go can she before building storey empregada Some people say she is too thin to be an an be to thin too is she say people Some Xeltinho Still, after her daily shift, she knocks on on knocks she shift, daily her after Still, metical

, her one year old baby with big big with baby old year one her , 5 counts (the minimum salary of of salary minimum (the counts 4 , to perform the physical labour Clean Africa Clean Introduction 6 ih shiny a with Chapter 1. Two ports , while her while , capulana chefe SELF

7 3

17 Introduction Two ports . 10 , she offers, taking the first 8 (it’s no coincidence that her that coincidence no (it’s of November, I encountered I November, of 12 th of November at three in the morning, the in three at November of th (see appendix 2), to meet me and make and me meet to 2), appendix (see período especial período Bom dia, tudo bem? Xiquelene Fue la comida de pobre lo que me salvó, tu comida de pobre de comida tu salvó, me que lo pobre de comida la Fue that survived the survived that 11 congri from Pinar del Río to Havana (see appendix 2). After two hours, her 9 guagua Samuel says when he describes their relationship. On the 18 the On relationship. their describes he when says Samuel 13 ” In the main street of the calm town of Pinar, everybody knows Caridad for her hilarious anecdotes hilarious her for Caridad knows everybody Pinar, of town calm the of street main the In Four months later and 13 496.91 kilometres away, on the 17 the on away, kilometres 496.91 13 and later months Four Inocencia can be very shy when one meets her for the first time, when she quietly announces her announces quietly she when time, first the for her meets one when shy very be can Inocencia The “special period” is the years after the fall of the Soviet Union, when Cuba suffered a strong economic crisis, aggravated by American Santeria is a syncretic belief system in Cuba, which stems from the Yoruba heritage on the American continent. (see Brandon 1997) Santeria is a syncretic belief system in Cuba, which stems from the Yoruba heritage on the American Popular Caribbean dish made with rice and black beans mixed with spices and pork fat. Popular Caribbean dish made with rice and black beans mixed with spices and pork fat. “It was the food of the poor that saved me, your food for the poor Caridad.” “Good morning, is everything alright?” Caribbean slang for bus. 8 9 10 11 12 sanctions, causing a severe scarcity of goods (Behar 2009). 13 in the few years since her first grand“ daughtercancer. with was diagnosed was nephews, born, and Samuel, another of her “adopted” Caridad this woman as a tangle of low voice, hair tubes and a teen-like personality that charmed me within exactthe was It Rio. del Pinar in place her to me invited had she more, seconds few a after minutes; she has raised two children by herself, building their house with her own hands, opening her door to door her opening hands, own her with house their building herself, by children two raised has she all who need help. arroz make to ability her and name means charity in Spanish). With God’s grace she has been the pillar of the family, especially produce her unique hairstyle. They need sleep, and during the next two days they have to cook andcook to have they days two next the during and sleep, need They hairstyle. unique her produce buy a long list of things to celebrate the one year anniversary of Manuel’s conversion to Santeria This is not a simple birthday with a cake and some candles; every detail has to does not want to be upset the saints. This is why perfect, Caridad is there, to help. if She has the experience, thethat one vain in not is It rituals. necessary the all endure and hours for cook to say) would she (as “ovaries” Caridad takes the their but tired, are They capital. the of station central the from up her picks Manuel nephew ‘adopted’ excitement keeps them chatting through to sunrise. They arrive at Manuel´s place of the city in and fixthe a thinold mattress on thepart three square-metre kitchen floor. Caridad only has smalla bag with her belongings: some dresses, make-up, and her infamous hair tubes to add volume and her, talking of politics, or the slow acceptance of homosexuality in Mozambique, or the doctors’ strike doctors’ the or Mozambique, in homosexuality of acceptance slow the or politics, of talking her, that paralyzed the main hospitals in 2013. With such delicacy she seems effortless, such that those of energy the individuality, original of mixture a silhouette her in glimpse can look to where know who women Mozambican other of echoes multiple the and survival, than more for searching lady young a the urban crowd.that pass shoulder to shoulder through who went to South Africa to work in the mines and has not yet returned, or her own father, who died of a strange disease when she was 14, leaving her orphaned. It took time, but as the days passed following that first Tuesday, Inocencia would stand happilyin home her from journey agitated the every morning,juxtaposing her colourful hairstyle ofexpect some role victim the forgets she times, At shoulders. her on expectations the of mockery a cleaning skills. Perhaps due to her job, her background, her gender, her status as a single mother; all of these push her towards a transparent existence looked around carefully the that halls Tuesday of morning, the a severe residence. tone When highlighted I the subtle constant smile that followed white a characteristic giggle. of her smile, a step in getting to know her, talking to her during coffee breaks, hearing of her child and his father, which grounds her tiny body during the harsh working puzzle, minuscule a like broken hands, small her and eyes, her under wrinkles tenuous some shows hours. Her face, although sweet, already are the indelible signature of a childhood spent earning a do, now?) else can she done? What living. (And what else could have she

Introduction Two ports 18 to enjoyVaradero, butitsall-inclusiveresortsandluxury businessremainvirtuallyinaccessible formostlocals(Alcázar-Campos2010) to the revolution, and became a destination for foreigners once Castro took power, who prohibited the entrance to nationals. Nowadays, locals are free 14 that of south kilometres some Now, Angola. M’banza-Kongo, in 1978, in travels character. his amiable began and He experience long his on based is reputation Jesús´ Dr. him. by treated be to waiting backgrounds, of kinds all from ladies, of line long a is there o’clock, eight at room man who has been treating Mozambican women for 10 years. If you visit his gynaecology waiting Cuban elderly an comm.), (pers. Jesús named doctor a by delivered Xeltinho, was Inocencia, example, of son for the imagine: might they than connected more also are lives These space. and time across connected lives, of thousands from made web tangled a within women two these link that bridges invisible the highlighted that meeting of kind this was It openness. emotional upon built incredibly meaningful; they taught me what can hardly be expressed, what can only be taught their by ties on focus to need no experiences, and was they were not expected there to capture academic work attention. But somehow they this became Within cultures. and race, languages, distinct their difference, age the also is There Maputo. of coast the to reach that Ocean Indian the of waters the same dreams. There is an entire ocean between Cuba and Mozambique – one and a half if you count the clarityofacalmseathatsurroundslivesisland’sinhabitantsasifceruleanaura. the whitest sand, gossiping to forget about politics and the problems of friend of hers who lives Varadero in in Miami resort invited a her to visited some ‘feel even like she her a once yankee’ sends for and a over, weekend, ex-husband are taking 1990s in her some the sun Spain, lucky; on from earnings herself considers she And all. after life, calm a neighbourhood It’s the tailor. as money some earn and groceries, buy clean, son, her and daughter grown her for cook to morning each early up wakes Caridad There, by. go life watch just and fan a with sit to portico small a with house, floor one a home: Caribbean a of imagination my in held had I picture Varadero is a coastal town near Havana that is well known as a touristic attraction due to its crystalline waters. It was a destination for holidays prior Caridad and Inocencia do not know each other, even if they share the same faith, or dream the the dream or faith, same the share they if even other, each know not do Inocencia and Caridad el cubano , and simply enjoy 14 . An old old An .

19 Introduction Two ports Cuban medical aid is an international plan carried out by government, where knowledge and Cuban medical cooperation in Mozambique Cuban medical cooperation in The discovery of vibrant life stories is the fabric of these pages; in approaching the contemporary the approaching in pages; these of fabric the is stories life vibrant of discovery The resources, including personnel, contribute to health care issues overseas. It originated when the an ethnographic perspective, relating the wider multi-layered this political contextualize discourses to order of In solidarity. revolution of and personifications daily South-South the to (SSC) cooperation the within exchange Cuban-Mozambican the to introduction brief a present will chapter this analysis, frame of medical cooperation, followed by a description of the research question. Once the specific context that this thesis focuses on is presented, there is space to note the origins and relevance of throughout the following chapters. this research, and how it will be structured agenda on the African continent. It is a peculiar situation, where revolutionary movements meet in a multilayer encounter that has strengthened political and economic networks, solidified by long-term medical aid. From the end of the Cold War through to our current state of global fluctuations, each men for incentives provide that agreements governmental by connected remains Atlantic the of side and women to perform jobs related to medical practices. This thesis focuses on this dynamic from dynamics in Africa, the idea of deep interconnections between this continent and other latitudes of the world motivated me to look beyond the history of slavery. People have crossed the oceans for centuries, thousands of individuals transporting themselves around the planet, battling with the idea has that path transatlantic the journeys, these all Throughout separation. and distinctions borders, of placed Africa and Latin America in dialogue with each other has been a roadmap for the Cuban Northern town, Caridad’s next-door neighbour and dearest friend Dr. Belquis (pers. comm.) works trace can One Huambo. of province Angolan the in teenagers problematic treating psychologist a as this sort of connection among Cuban physicians in several African countries, all of which lead to the and Caridad. as Inocencia characters such charismatic of the complex, hidden stories

Introduction Two ports 20 in relation to a historical and moral bond. Castro’s´ rule expressed that Cuba is indebted to Africa, stipulatedclearly been have policies foreign Cuban where case, interesting an represents island value thatsustainsthemoral importanceofCubanmedicalaid(Miramón and Martínez2010,257). core the remains solidarity of discourse the internationalism, medical current to related explicitly be colonialism, neocolonialism or imperialism (Ibid. 67). While the aim of exporting the revolution may not of form any against struggling person every with solidarity declared officially Guevara Batista, of fall the after years Three Mella. Antonio and Bolivar Simon to Martí, Jose peasants, as such on leaders American emphasis Latin Zedong’s Mao and struggle class Marx’s Karl From converge. century discourse a by consolidated of been has revolution, the of expression an process” as the aid, in Medical population 56). (Ibid. the involving and conviction enormous with beliefs moral and political to religious missionaries, claiming the “universality of their cause, espousing their fundamental socio- compared be can Cubans the that argued has Hatzky respect, this In revolution. the export to order Ernesto and Castro Fidel of invention an as internationalism of birth the describes an is There 88). 2010, (Feinsilver Iraq or undeniably clear political Angola statement at the with very root of collaboration Cuban internationalism. Christine from Hatzky (2015) gained revenues oil the instance for capital, symbolic or support, UN obtain to example for power, soft of form a as labelled often is It framework. ideological and political a to attached closely been has that phenomenon a is (Anderson 2010, 80). The emphasis of the Cuban government on regulating and exporting health care system healthcare local the of frameworks and rules the following country, host the in workers public as function mostly personnel Cuban countries. home their in expertise foreign for need the relieve to home returning of aim the with Cuba in scholarship a students local offering time same the at while recruits the required number of doctors, nurses and/or technicians under a two to three year contract, Cuba and host countries (Kirk and Erisman 2009, 3-4). For the management of personnel, the CHDP between cooperation of of magnitude regulation and cost and of negotiation distribution the including the provided, aid of medical the charge in are bodies national These Spanish). in (PIS Health predominantly the Comprehensive Health Care Delivery Program (CHDP) and the Program of Integral primary programs, scientificresearchandeducationalexchange(Feinsilver1989,88). as such measures sustainable facilities, long-term healthcare of development the scarcity, of conditions to in especially healthcare, management, vaccination administrative epidemics, disasters, provisional natural or of times campaigns in aid short-term from collaboration, of variety wide a includes field medical the into Cubans of intervention This 3). 2009, Erisman and (Kirk world the in countries wealthiest the of control the under are that organizations G-8, the Health and Organization World the of capacity the surpassed has island Caribbean the Indeed, 105). 2011, Dorsch 87; 1989, (Feinsilver healthcare to related degrees in universities Cuban at trained students foreign 35,000 over with together of professionals, health Cuban form 100,000 than more some from assistance, received medical nations 100 approximately decades, following the In War. Cold the during Africa in agenda Cuban the inaugurated Algeria, to time this a brigade, 1963, medical international In second Chile. in earthquake major a after help to efforts ongoing the small with a collaborated when brigade 1960, in was campaign medical Cuban international first The SSC. of form unique a consolidating 255) 2010, Martínez and (Miramón centre, its at solidarity international placed system equally be should that state the distributed, based on of solid scientific researchobligation and with a preventivean nature. provide In addition, Cubanas health to right, orderhuman basic in a created as healthcare was to system access national the when 1959, in power took revolution Cuban Within this framework of solidarity and medical aid, the relationship between Africa and the and Africa between relationship the aid, medical and solidarity of framework this Within institutions, state by regulated entirely and directly is internationalism medical Cuban Moreover, nentoait solidarity internationalist , whereby revolutionary ideologies from the nineteenth and twentieth twentieth and nineteenth the from ideologies revolutionary whereby , Che Guevara, in in Guevara,

21 Introduction Two ports , which is described as 15 This phenomenon has recently been placed within the field of SSC Mozambique is one example of Cuban medical internationalism since the 1970s, even though An in depth description of SSC and the Global South will be provided in chapter 3. independent movements in the region. More than thirty years later, the ties between Cuba and Africa and Cuba between ties The the later, years thirty exchange. than More region. the medical in movements independent of level growing a by reinforced is that perspective historical a in rooted remain nature of this aid, as an expression of the revolutionary ideals and efficient administration of minimal resources, appears to have created a peculiar frame for SSC, where the performance of a project 15 Cuba received a large number of African slaves to work on sugar plantations, whose descendants became a fundamental part of contemporary Cuban society. The historical and cultural impact government of Castro (Kirkthis diaspora was then included into foreign policies by the revolutionary of and Erisman 2009, 6), who stated that the Cuban people were indebted to the African continent for support to duty moral a was it that and times, colonial during contributions social and economic their administrative and ideological structure that fosters medical internationalism. The notion of solidarity may appeal to the emotional and moral forces present within Cuban participants, and in the case of the While duty. moral of sense a to connected been has that ex-colonies towards empathy an Africa, emphasis strong its America, Latin towards projected primarily was Cuba of internationalism medical on Africa has been directly influenced by the diaspora found in Cuba. Like most Caribbean nations, promote more horizontal aid has been proposed as a potential alternative for Mozambican healthcare Mozambican for alternative potential a as proposed been has aid horizontal more promote (Paixão 2012, 61). Globalthe by exercised been historically has that power against unity a to linked relations horizontal North. This has been clearly translated into Cuban revolutionary discourse in order to construct an during the 1970s and 1980s, leading to the post-war context of the 1990s. The healthcare system in Mozambique has been heavily affected as a result, and has being highly dependent on foreign aid, especially that provided by northern NGOs, creating a fragmented healthcare international system and national where administration lack cohesion, and social inequalities are intensified (see Pfeiffer 2003). Consequently, the Cuban approach to public health and discourses of solidarity to since the first independent rule of Samora Machel, who had two Cubans as his personal doctors and doctors personal his as Cubans two had who Machel, Samora of rule independent first the since stimulated the exchange of staff and scholarship students with Cuba (Gunn medical 1989, of targeting strategic the included which 4). war, civil Mozambican the of hardships the This of spite was in infrastructure and staff by the Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO), the opposition party, These 1988). Cliff (see Apartheid Africa South and (FRELIMO), Moçambique de Libertação de Frente tragic events, along with a weak economy and failing political institutions, created a critical situation 99; Anderson 2010, 81). 81). 99; Anderson 2010, approached was Mozambique nations, African other with As unstable. been have relations diplomatic military establish to order in movement independence their of beginning the at Guevara and Castro by and civilian support. Here, medical aid has been a pillar of the connection between both nations possible, regardless of race, religion or ideology, without interfering in the political environment and while respecting the law of the host country (Miramón and are there struggles, political and military in themselves involved also interventions Cuban several Martínez 2010, 259). Although plenty of examples where Cuban medical internationalism collaborated with countries with little or no socialist inclinations, and even rather weak diplomatic relations with Cuba (Feinsilver 1989, and along with the aforementioned appeal for help in their anti-colonialist struggle, this highlighted highlighted this struggle, anti-colonialist their in help for appeal aforementioned the with along and during Initially, 2000). Gonzales (see measures internationalist for region priority a as continent the self-determination encourage to tool a as described was Africa in assistance Cuban War, Cold the among independence movements in the region (Anderson Public Health stipulates 2010, that the staff selected should 78). offer quality service to as The many people as Cuban Ministry of

Introduction Two ports 22 as the foundation and core force of the Cuban-Mozambican exchange, I argue that this system has interactions between Cubans and Mozambicans. Departing from the political discourse of solidarity contemporary approach of to seeks research this Cuba, months in months two and Mozambique four in fieldwork during collected stories life Through reality. different a within experienced now is between both countries was established in the Cold Wat (see internationalism. Cuba Gunn and Mozambique have 1987), both experienced radical and changes since cooperation the concept of solidarity are; however, it is rather difficult to quantify the exact nature of the environment surrounding medical the realityofmedicalprofessionalsintransitionbetween theirhomelandandMozambique. into translated is Castro by mentioned solidarity” of “spirit the how in interested thus am I moving. while experience they losses and exchanges connections, and ruptures the of complexity the with deal must Cubans movement, in population other any with As land. new a in job a take to order in in behind zone comfort their left have that migrants labour of group a of staff example an as Mozambique, medical Cuban involving approach an propose I Furthermore, identities. and differences Mozambicans how wonder I solidarity. of interact scope with Cubans on a daily basis, especially in the terms of personal relationships, negotiating their appreciating to fundamental is whole a as On the other hand, the way Cubans are perceived by local colleagues, patients and the community issues. cultural including peculiarities, and rules local to adapt mostly staff Cuban internationalism, medical on principals Cuban to According performance. aid the and ideologies be Cuban should for contexts yardstick socio-cultural and systems healthcare local hand, one the On solidarity. embody can parties two these between encounter the how understand to order in highlighted are thesis departs from the background of Cuban medical internationalism, the this While dynamics groups. both between encounters socio-cultural in wider the in also Mozambique but context, medical a medical internationalism. of umbrella the under nationalities different from people with interacted have Cubans of thousands that fact daily the with the concerned is in research This behaviour projects. healthcare their around and impacts within performance this how and individuals, by experienced are era War Cold the from ideologies political how in interested am I railway, TAZARA the of construction the during contemporary CubanmedicalcooperationinMozambique? aims topresentanethnographicapproachanswerthefollowingquestion: research this care, health accessible for right the into inquiring as well as America, Latin and Africa an innovativeanalysisofSSCintermsmedicalaid. allowing meaning, on takes and embodied is phenomenon this of complexity the where space a as background, the present research focuses on the daily lives of Cubans and Mozambicans in Maputo this consideration into Taking movement. healthcare the in involved those of reality the to approach ideological an allows staff Cuban of presence the Mozambique, in system healthcare deteriorated the of context the In solidarity. of connotations emotional intimate, of set a with interwoven clearly is In theory, it is clear what the moral and administrative guidelines of Cuban healthcare overseas healthcare Cuban of guidelines administrative and moral the what clear is it theory, In within firstly Mozambique, into people Cuban of mobility the on specifically focus to propose I Inspired by Jamie Monson’s (2013; 2009) research on Chinese relations in Zambia and Tanzania in involved those of experiences daily the in embodied solidarity of macro-discourses are How between connectivity human of subject the on attention academic expanding of aim the With Research question&rationale

23 Introduction Two ports Chapter five looks into cooperation in the medical field, and the distinctive notions of healing in Order of the thesis filaments discrete the trace to had first I Caridad, and Inocencia of stories the narrate to able be To interconnections are strengthened through cultural proximity, at the same time as different perspectives different as time same the at proximity, cultural through strengthened are interconnections interact within intercultural encounters. It is at this point occur, both where professionally and I personally, between must Cubans, stress Mozambicans and the other members exchanges of that the Global South involved in cooperation. As this is an argumentation that challenges International Relations (IR) and political discourses, I make use of epistemologies of the South to analyse how Mozambique, as well as in Cuba. The differences between local healing practices and the participation the and practices healing local between differences The Cuba. in as well as Mozambique, beforesystem, healthcare Mozambican the of context the within placed then is physicians Cuban of relation In parties. both for challenge professional a represent disconnects these how and at looking to their working environment, chapter six highlights the personal lives that prior to, professionals during and after maintain their cross continental movement. This is an articulated exchange, where transforming the individual experiences of those who move, and those who stay. Linked to the activity the to Linked stay. who those and move, who those of experiences individual the transforming of displacement from one place to another is the main concept of solidarity, said to be the motive for Cuban medical cooperation. primary I will thus define what solidarity means in the specific context while moving. of transcontinental movement, and how it became an embodied entity thesis, I propose to narrow them down to those relevant to the transatlantic connection between Latinbetween connection transatlantic the to relevant those to down them narrow to propose I thesis, where settings the describing thus Mozambique, and Cuba between specifically Africa, and America the life stories described take place. This depiction of the landscape led me to specificallybetween mobility analyseof topic the relate will I four, chapter In Mozambicans. and Cubans of movement the and among both regions as a historical process that has re-shaped the socio-cultural contexts while countries. Here, there is certain to also led has this a how and space analysis, ethnographic to this in explicitly background my of reflectimplications the onstating my position throughout this research, limitations. Once I have clarified how I am also part of this journey, Iwill develop therelationship metaphor ofthe the as well as South, Global the of nature the on literature relevant the presenting by “road” between its members, in the third chapter. As these are the principal macro concepts that inform this narrative, the following pages combine life stories and personal notes within a theoretical framework of order the preface, the in mentioned As angles. different from question research the approaches that narrative’s the becomes travel of notion the where genre, movie’ ‘road the of that resembles thesis this chapter second the in argumentation the open I mind, in this With 13). 2002, (Laderman focus primary by mapping my own journey through the fieldwork,both in solidarity of narratives relevant activities daily the within grasp presentingto and stories, life the approach the methodological steps taken to that interrelate medical cooperation, as well as the political macro-discourses of solidarity within their layers multiple the where phenomenon such in involved people of experiences the in is It realities. daily of this analysis became relevant. The women and men involved not only perform the actual medical cooperation, either by supplying it or by receiving it; they also shape it, transforming the frame of the cooperation that simultaneously touches their personal and communal dynamics. Based on this core their daily movements. split into a flexible narrative that deals with frames of misconception, rendezvous, and the tensions tensions the and rendezvous, misconception, of frames with deals that narrative flexible a into split of identity of the ‘other’ that exist within traditions of mobility. Within my writing, I would like to make use of the life stories collected throughout the past months, together with my personal notes and anecdotes, in order to interweave the multiple layers that compose this project. The main goal is to emphasize how everyday women and men translated the essence of the South-South quest into

Introduction Two ports 24 communal journeys that are bounded by both an actual and metaphorical ocean. communal journeysthatareboundedbybothanactualandmetaphoricalocean. the spaces where encounters occur the following pages. Photographs from both sides of the ocean separate the words in order to portray original languages, together with an English translation. Lastly, a visual discourse can also be found in their in notes relevant of forms two these present will I process. intellectual personal a involved has it that and phenomenon certain of reading own my is thesis this that stress to order in notes, personal a inspire to levels intimate and critical awareness, similar to academia. Under this premise, emotional I decided to incorporate some of my own the to appeal that means other through and languages, and The purpose behind these brief additions is to highlight the valuable work writersof locals that exists in other Mozambique. and musicians, Cuba both of African landscapes the and to contributed American significantly have Latinthat who activists from quotations of each series preface, the a in contains mentioned examples chapter the Following stories. life of portrait holistic a pursue to following thejourneysofunseenstories. an invitation to further awareness of the remarkable diversity of other societies and the importance of also is thesis this stories, life of essence the to Returning women. and men of thousands of lives the transformed have that societies different of involvement contemporary the emphasizes project the political abstract process, this over control governmental strong deconstruct is there Although agency. daily to their into discourses able are cooperation medical in participants contemporary how and solidarity of embodiment the on conclusions contains seven chapter journey, the of end the At dialogue. multifaceted a developed have contexts distinctive and struggles similar with groups two 16 A furtherexplanation ofthephotoscanbefoundin followingchapteronmethodology; seetheappendixforafulllistofp hotographers. . Throughout the textual analysis, this thesis embraces other forms of expression and communication 16 with a graphical context, playing with the theme of personal and

25 26 membered tobetold” (myowntranslation). 17 and external journeys. internal about is research this all, concerns. After ethical to addition in project, this of creation the concerning position own my of a reflection find can reader the Furthermore, limitations. significant some including Cuba, and Mozambique in used of I methodology depiction the specific a present will this procedure, chapter the to clarity more bring To collected. were stories life the how as well as will I describe the qualitative scope thesis. of my research, this narration map a consistent that (foot)steps the of find can reader the has been an ongoing intellectual labour. Here, obtaining, essence this participantof transmitting and upon reflecting process the and but observation, interviews semi-informal through collected ofstories life the core is thesis this The lands. that new in travelling challenges faced I and the toconfront opportunities as various so fieldwork, my followed during I that methodologies and methods “Life is not what one has lived, but what one tells, and how it is re is it how and tells, one what but lived, has one what not is “Life This chapter will introduce the reader to the Mapping nostalgia y cómo larecuerda paracontarla” “La vidanoes laque unovivió, Methodology sino la querecuerda,sino uno Gabriel GarcíaMárquez Chapter 2 Vivir paracontarla Vivir 17

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27 Methodology Mapping nostalgia and classic mulatas to Isla de la Juventud. A broad smile broad A Juventud. la de Isla to guagas mural. From the Indian Ocean to the Caribbean, a few miles Che Guevara As I placed greater importance on the role of political discourses, such as solidarity, with their Methods and methodology ophthalmology of director Mozambican the Machava, Dr. to means solidarity what asked I When Mozambique Mozambique is a warm image in my head, a yellow and blue picture of a Lusophone land in and descriptions, but would also somehow leave space for intimate narratives people and attached the to meaning them. Inspired by the work of qualitative to bring stories Jamie life that opportunity the recognized I railways, Monson TAZARA with collaboration (2009 & 2013) on the Chinese research. Consuelo Corrandi (1991) defines life stories as an interactive dialogue initiated by the researcher, who collects individual oral accounts on specific aspect of a person’s life. Thus, a life a personal approach to understanding daily life. In other words, this research away from the mainstream study qualitative of SSC and towards a study of the construction and ethnography shifted negotiation of meanings (Taylor, Bogdan and De Vault 2015, 91-93). diverge from a collection of facts impact on emotional tissues, I required a methodology that would and unambiguous” (Turney 1974 quoted in Taylor et al. 2015, 14). I was only able to and transmit Machava’s story, experience with its humour and nostalgia, through an ethnographic “practice of representing the social reality of others through the analysis of one’s own experience in the world of these others” (Van Maanen 1988, ix). Such a framework has allowed me to focus on women and men individually, documenting their own perspective on their social struggles while recognizing stories in an academic text face” “human (see the Gilbert on curiosity 2000). The This 4). 2012, effort (Cesarino is SSC of already that a with perspective challenging IR strategy the contrasting when (see Favell et al. 2007) of such dynamics is what motivated a qualitative approach, one that could rules cultural abstract apply people ways the “examine to methodologies ethnographic with engage and commonsense understanding in concrete situations to make action appear routine, explicable how he remembered each bus route in Havana and the and Havana in route bus each remembered he how describe to accent, Cuban flawless a in flowed, words Spanish the time each face his across spread his student years, and his return to Mozambique with his wife to create a prosperous family. I had to smile too; I couldn’t help it. In trying to entangle myself with the intimate stories and emotions of those involved in this “SSC project”, I have needed empathy and humanity in order to place the felt to cross oceans to find another place, to live in a new space. felt to cross oceans to find another wife, his met he how Cuba, in youth his of spoke he as by flew time Maputo, of Hospital Central the at simply a schematic visit to collect as much ‘data’ as possible. Discussing the daily embodiment of political discourses, such as solidarity, placed me in a situation where each word felt was as vivid, as emotional and as significant as that which I was living in theflesh. For six months, I spoke with people from diverse backgrounds, trying to ascertain in their voices, gestures and acts just what solidarity meant to them, what their perspective was on meeting people from other latitudes, how it Chevrolets in front of a from my homeland, I blurred myself into a neglected constantly censured. Havana There were also that the times and spaces spoke in between: Istanbul, the my Netherlands language but thesis. was this present I as out left be hardly can that feelings triggers field the in time This Mexico. and When, effortlessly, I recall my time in Mozambique and Cuba, I cannot help but feel it was not the middle of the Indian Ocean. It is a melodic memory, one that makes me feel nostalgic for each moment I experienced there, every person that I found in the cracked streets of the capital, in the highways to the North embellished with Baobabs, or on the windy coasts at it forty is degrees. Cuba, and Then the imminent collapse of the fake touristic image of stunning

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 28 n lmttos epcal we I a t apy hm n w dfeet otxs Apocig two Approaching contexts. different two settings was a privilege; if I hadn’t collected life stories in both countries, I wouldn’t have been able in them apply to had I when especially limitations, and of CubaandMozambique andthecolourful,blurredbordersfromonecontinent totheother. face’ of SSC. Some exhibit, ‘human while a others of depiction conceal the the with diversity play of thesis, the this for Global donated South, kindly the so vibrant photos, textures The 129-136). 1997, more than just illustrations: they are fundamental narratives within their own terms of subjectivity (Vila reader. The various social and individual constraints that interact with each photo is what make them active an of perceptions personal the and thesis this within presented is it how captured, is it when possesses image an that malleability the with engages paper this reality, of reflection” “faithful a is photo a that belief the from away Moving reader/spectator. the deceive to channels sensorial other with plays photography stories, life of uniqueness invaluable the to Parallel perspective. creative own their share to agreed who friends Mexican and Argentinean Cuban, Brazilian, Mozambican, by helped been have I equipment, optimal the but possess not photography, did I specifically Although recordings. some elements, also visual and text written between partnership a develops thesis this fieldwork, of experience integral the transmit to urge this from on Following 264). 2011, collection, the recordingofinformation,andsubsequentinterpretationmaterialscollected”(Dewaltet al data of techniques specific the research, of form the both informs that understanding tacit a is It words. into put easily isn’t that Other the and self the of sense a provides understand to trying is one that people the with laughing with, working with, Living analysis? and collection data to mean one around lives and events the in participate understanding to attempting does of “What reality: form another’s a as participating and being of acts very the views Walt De sense, this In me. to stories their entrusted who those of lives the accompanied that aura and environment whole also to challenge them, giving them another dimension due to the silences, the body language, the but interviews, the complement to just not method, important surprisingly a been has observation Participant 3). 1989, (Jorgesen situations” particular in do they as happen things — participants of standpoint the from least at — why and occur, they how happen, things where and when involved, walking through medical institutions and meeting places, to “describe what goes on, who or what is in thedynamicswhereCubansandMozambicansdeveloptheirencountersrelationtosolidarity, part took I sensed. be only can that something words, their beyond glimpse a gain to observation participant with interviews the accompanied I experiences, such analyse To reality. social their of and others of themselves, of portrait fluid a create actively they how depicting of intention clear the to engage in a me dialogue with Cubans allowed and Mozambicans, with interviews as little intervention as Open possible, but with 310). 2001, (Replay agenda own his/her negotiate to interviewee the invites interviewer the where and encounter, social a for advocate that research qualitative of parameters as interviews, informal and semi-informal open, performed I situation, specific a within to specifichumanlives. in order to reconstruct a macro-cosmos rooted in the uniqueness of the stories and their attachment other individuals allow us to highlight the testimony of and those who Mozambicans are Cubans, often left of out stories (Monson 2009, The 11) 15). 2002, (Jackson imagination” own one’s within and for me, and for the reader; at the same time, they “actively rework them, both in dialogue with others Maria a or Carlos, a Machava, Elena, among many a others, Cubans or is Mozambicans, each person drawing There a picture of (Ibid.,106-108). themselves centre very the at I’ am ‘who question the with otherness and identity of dialectic a implying other, each by altered are and understand story implies “the intersubjective process of knowledge”, where both the researcher and the narrator This methodological support, along with the methods chosen, gave a wide range of opportunities In order to access live stories during my fieldwork, that is to say during a limited period of time and

29 Methodology Mapping nostalgia 18

This is the first picture I took of Maputo. This is the view from the roof where Felicio, on the left, and Amade, on the right, showed right, the on Amade, and left, the on Felicio, where roof the from view the is This Maputo. of took I picture first the is This me the city. where 2), appendix (see capital Mozambique’s Maputo, was journey this of landscape initial The explorar la ciudad, empezando por el techo del edificio, en el decimoprimer decimoprimer el en edificio, del techo el por empezando ciudad, la explorar decepcionada. estoy no y Maputo, de vista la admiré vez primera Por piso. llegar...” de antes hice que lectura supera cualquier vista Esta Maputo) 2016. 1 July (Fieldwork notes, “¡Hoy “¡Hoy estoy en Mozambique! Nunca voy a olvidar sobreviví el ataque terrorista en este Estambul, al finestoy en África. Amade día. No solo mis dos primerosme recogieron amigos, en el aeropuerto y me y Felicio, hogar, en trajeron una a residencia mi estudiantil a nuevo 15 del minutos aeropuerto. Después de dejar mis maletas en mi nuevo cuarto, fuimos a Mozambique “Today I am in Mozambique! I will never forget this day. I not only survived the terrorist attacks in Istanbul, I´m finally in Africa. Amade and Felicio, to Professor Patricio Langa, who not only gave me academic guidance, but also helped me to 18 my leaving After airport. the from minutes 15 residence student a home, new my to me brought and airport the from up me picked friends, two first my suitcase in my new room, we went to explore the city, starting with the terrace on the eleventh floor. For the first time I saw the view of Maputo, and I was not disappointed. That view beat anything I read before arriving…” I lived for about four months. I was hosted by the national University of Eduardo Mondlane, thanks throughout the following pages. throughout the following my fieldwork, I will present it chronologically how I conducted to contemplate the core of the life stories related to migratory movement. Moving myself through the spaces where Cubans and Mozambicans live their lives allowed me to recognize the The research. multiple doing human a as position versatile a in me placing as well as research, this of layers however, fieldwork; entire the throughout sustained were methodology and methods aforementioned on clarity some provide To manner. same the in them conduct could I that think to naive be would it

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 30 20 documentation that supportssuchastatement. 19 Cubans and Mozambicans to feel they were just chatting rather than taking part in an impersonal allow would that environment relaxed an build to best my did I but conversation, each in remain their about them asking would that guidelines and basic were There trust. topic of degree a stimulate to my anonymity, over concerns introducing by began I information. some complete to need a was there if meeting second a by followed them of some hours, two and minutes twenty of MaputoandasmallerCliniquecalledCLINICARE. Military Hospital, both public institutions, along with two private establishments, the Private Hospital the and Hospital Central the at principally Maputo, 20 in and collected were Cubans interviews 20 All Mozambicans. interview to chose I groups, both to importance equal giving of goal the with However, class. social or religion race, gender, age, of distinction no was there group, this Within Cubans. and Mozambicans between interaction constant was there where facility healthcare a at and departments. In order to select my sample, my specialties only requirement various was from that he assistants or she and was working technicians nurses, doctors, with interviews semi-informal 40 of total a performed I Cubans. and Mozambicans with interviews of number equal an establish Mozambique in physicians Cuban of number the of approximate an gave that documentation any find not could I system, as well as organising the integration of the Cuban professionals. Upon my arrival to Maputo found. It is situated next to the Ministry of Health, the headquarters that manages the entire national the principal (and largest) healthcare building in the country, where the most specializations can be The Central Hospital, for instance, was located a few blocks away from the student residence, and is professionals work, as well as where the main health care infrastructure of Mozambique complex is located yet vibrant a to metropolis me that seemed the most logical departure introduced point, as it is where situation the largest number of Cuban favourable This students. as Mozambican international with as space and well time my share to enough lucky was I meaning city, the of heart the in residences student the of one at me for room a facilitated connection This network. a build Thereissolittleinformation onthenumberofCubans abroad, perhapsduetocensorship. This information was provided by my interview with the managers of the Cuban cooperation in Mozambique. Unfortunately, I have not found any found not have I Unfortunately, Mozambique. in cooperation Cuban the of managers the with interview my by provided was information This 20 , but luckily the high number of Cuban professionals in the capital allowed me to me allowed capital the in professionals Cuban of number high the luckily but , eso lse between lasted Each session residence 81-83). 2008. local (Wind my and agenda, restaurants, bars, at also but busy their to due workplace which their at often was interviewee, the for The at the most convenient place conducted effect. were interviews snowball a creating contacts, other for him asked I restaurant, a at interviewee first my meeting After neurologist. Cuban a withworked had who Langa, supervisor, Professor Patricio local my to thanks achieved My first contact was contact first My 19 .

31 Methodology Mapping nostalgia . I followed 22 . Thus, it was common that the topics changed constantly, creating a kind of informal informal of kind a creating constantly, changed Thus,topics . wasitcommon the that 21 Beyond the information collected through interviews, I had the chance to perform participant In the case of Mozambicans, although there were a higher number of potential interviewees, During my first two months in Maputo I focused my research on Cuban professionals working This intention made me switch from audio recordings with my phone to handwritten notes. For example, my third interviewee, a Cuban physician A more extensive reflection on language can be found later on in this chapter. spaces of the four hospitals while I searched for interviewees. I was also a patient of a Cuban dentist Cuban a of patient a also was I interviewees. for searched I while hospitals four the of spaces at the Central Hospital of Maputo, and was subsequently invited to observe a Cuban physician 21 at the Private Hospital, started a long conversation as soon as the recording ended, adding new information and actually contradicting most of the arguments he presented during the “real” interview. 22 in the Caribbean. These last interviewees were highly interesting, as they had contexts experienced and both were aware of the differences and similarities, while at the same observations on Cuban-Mozambican medical aid. time sharing their observations at hospitals, at first by exploring the hallways, waiting rooms, gardens and communal among Southern countries in their daily lives, for example through cultural exchange, as well as in physician Cuban a when stories life of branch entire an discovered I Furthermore, field. medical the studied had who ophthalmologist Mozambican the Machava, Dr. husband, her to talk to me advised who had achieved their in Cuba. Thanks to this, I obtained nine other interviews with Mozambicans degree in Cuba, and were happy to practice their Spanish with me and describe their experience daily encounter between two cultures. The basic questions I asked Mozambicans were their first name, job title, how much contact they had with Cubans, what they thought about the abundance this, After abroad. worked or foreigners other with worked had they if and hospital, the at Cubans of I continued to their personal experiences and opinions on Latin-American relations with Africa in general, and Mozambique in particular, and how they perceived the so-called horizontal relations and request special permission. Other Mozambicans outside the medical field told me there was a widespread fear of the authorities if they I were did “too meet doctors, honest” nurses, about patients certain and social topics. workers Fortunately, in my daily interview activities who them allowed and me helped to me to contact their co-workers. physicians, Similar I to would my initiate approach a with conversation Cuban by stating my position as someone interested in the an emotional or moral background. In such cases, I would ask them directly about their personal Cuba and Mozambique, as well as in their daily lives. perspective on solidarity between it was actually harder to approach them. Due to bureaucratic obstacles, I was not able to simply enter a healthcare institution and talk openly with workers. In the beginning, once my Portuguese nervous, looking resist, would they but could, I personnel any interview to tried I enough, good was conversation. On each occasion, I used these descriptions to express my authentic curiosity on their their on curiosity authentic my express to descriptions these used I occasion, each On conversation. own perspective, leading to a deeper conversation on identity and values as I asked them about their personal experience of Mozambique. The issue of SSC and was the a specifictopic valuethat ofI solidarity tried to cover within the questions on Nonetheless, there their were individuals personal who rarely and mentioned professional the word lifestyle. solidarity, or any indication of in the area, as my Portuguese was not good enough to talk freely with Mozambicans some basic guidelines by asking for general information that allowed me to create a clearer image and if how long they had been in Mozambique Questions such as their job title, of their community. they had been part of the Cuban medical aid in another country were routine inquiries to start up a interrogation conversation with space for jokes, anecdotes and even debates over my position as a researcher. allowed that flow natural and flexibility this was it protocol, of out sound may procedure this Although like information personal access and time of space short a within closeness certain a achieve to me opinions and critiques. feelings,

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 32 23 could glimpsethemovementofCubansandMozambicansinamultidirectionalencounter. added severallightstothehorizon,drawingamorediversepictureofinterculturalitywithinwhich I perspective on the Cuban-Mozambican exchange . These opportunities doctors to own discover multiple their Cuban voices shared simply of others relationship; patients patient-doctor their were acknowledge to them me allowed of and Some South. Global the of perceptions personal their me showed and me told inhabitants Filipino and French Dutch, American, Portuguese, Brazilian, how and context, new Colombian, Lebanese, Mozambicans, Maputo. of population the with situations and conversations a casual the were confront least not but to Last setting. informal had an in challenges that current their to group reacted they migrant a as experience could I their them, with approach out hanging By chat. and beer drink to evening every met physicians several Cuban where family, Dominican a by owned store, grocery local a was research my for interesting spaces most the of One intervention. Mozambican no or little with gathering, were Hispanics and Latinos where places entered I addition, In TV. national on telenovelas Brazilian and Mexican South the of epistemologies the encountered I neighbours of Mozambican manifestations several encountered I and Afro-Brazilian bars. my between race on discussions through example for mean, relations and S-S what restaurants transport, public streets, the in words the hear to common was It Mozambique. in experience daily own emerging my constantly from was topic this concerning patients. information and the that staff stress Mozambican should I with Furthermore, interacted constantly they while routines their developing physicians Cuban see to me allowed experiences These institution. private a at consultations give A furtheranalysisof thistheorycanbefoundbrieflyin chapter3andmoreindebt inchapter6. probably hoping to catch one of the busy chapas to go home. It is rush hour, and the life surrounding the health care buildings buildings care health the gets agitated. surrounding Avenue, life Mondlane the and Eduardo hour, rush at is It standing home. go is to chapas woman busy A the of Maputo. one catch in to hoping down probably goes sun The Hospital. Central the of wing left the and physicians, by frequented 1900, restaurant fancy the front, in Health; of Ministry the of side right the is there avenue, the Across 23 ; or the high number of number high the or ; doctor cubano doctor

33 Methodology Mapping nostalgia 24 acabo acabo de concluir. Me pregunto si los cubanos y los mozambiqueños se la en atravesado dolor este con ahora, siento me como mal tan sentido han garganta grita que “regresa sea.” eso que sea Donde a casa”. 2016. Havana) 10 November (Fieldwork notes, de entender dónde estoy, de de mi dónde entender reconocer estoy, propia por calle, luchando no mar el admirar para puerto viejo al trajo me Manuel mañana Esta perderme. azul ese Mozambique, de olas las a recuerda me que azul profundo el Caribe: costas. estas a llegar para partían esclavos de embarcaciones las donde claro peregrinajeque el en pesada tan tradición una quejarme,hay de debería No dejar dejar Maputo: ahí yo me sentía en casa. Pero no tuve mucho tiempo para en camino mi buscando encontré me tarde más horas Diez entristecerme. la gran ciudad de Estambul, el frío del Bósforo me dijo que cuartito este ya ahora, Y no Madrid. estabay Ámsterdam Después sur. hemisferio el en en la Habana vieja. Me siento enferma, me he pasado todo el día tratando Cuba “Estoy exhausta, me tomó cuatro días llegar a la Habana. Fue tan triste “I’m exhausted, it took me four days to arrive to Havana. It was sad to leave Maputo; I really felt at home over there. But I didn’t have much time 24 to mourn. Ten hours later I was finding my way through the great city of Istanbul; the cold wind of the Bosporus told me that I wasn’t in the Southern Hemisphere any longer. Then Amsterdam and Madrid. And now this small room on the old understand side where of I am, Havana. to I recognize feel my ill; own I street, have fightingbeen notall today get lost.trying Thisto morning,the ManuelCaribbean (mycoast; the host)deep broughtblue reminded meme toof the thewaves oldin Mozambique, portthe toclear blue admire where slave ships departed to arrive to this shouldn’t coast. complain, there I is a heavy tradition in the pilgrimage I just concluded. I wonder if Cubans and Mozambicans have felt as ill as I feel now, with a pain in the throat that screams ‘just go back home’. Wherever that is.”

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 34 25 have been in Angola. While in Mozambique I was able to find Cuban doctors in each main hospital, field. Thesetheir doctorsof helpedvalues merevolutionary tothe contactand colleaguesstruggles whoeconomic havecurrent workedthe abroad,system, especiallycare thosehealth who national helped me to contact two local physicians, who were eager to talk about the medical education, the perspective onmedical aid, SSCandthefamily’sstorybehindthisphenomenon. Lateron,myhost their on hours three over for talk and Havana, of outskirts the in home their in them meet to enough participant observationatHavana’smainhospitalandeducationalinstitutions. as well as Mozambique, in experiences my on based interviews informal 15 conducted I total, In 2). (appendix Rio del Pinar of province the in interviews two obtained also I cooperation. the international of headquarters the to host is it as resources, and time limited my to due Havana, in fieldwork a simple chat than an actual interview, and even then some questions went unanswered. I based my and then asking more specific questions concerning my research. It was more environment convenient to relaxed request more a build to conversation casual a in engaging first Mozambique, I in which used that from methodology different a create to had I contacts. reliable through collected was interview each conditions, these Under faculties. medicine accessing and interviews authorities healthcare to perform to me forced environment research socialist qualitative the underground, with the a help of local sources, friends. Those stressful days frustrated my original followed idea of main talking I the as Although stories 2004). life Nojonen with (see way different a in ethnography perform to need the accentuated country the of context political peculiar the and support academic of lack the Unfortunately, Havana. of University the by hosted while journey my to ending smooth Their storieswillbe presentedinchapter5and6.. The first interview was with the family of a Cuban couple I met in Mozambique in met I couple Cuban a of family the with was interview first The University ofHavanawherewewerelookingforacademicsupport. 12November2016. the of Medicine of Faculty the at view the admiring Manuel, host, my see can you Cuba: in captured I images first the is This a expecting was I where Cuba, in months two of consisted fieldwork my of part second The 25 . I was lucky was I .

Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga

35 Methodology Mapping nostalgia could 26 comandante en jefe !” het is mooi tocht? 27 ”

het is mooi tocht? is het Mozambique y en Cuba, en Mozambique y Leiden) 2016. June 17 notes, (Personal In trying to uncover the sociocultural dynamics through ethnographic research, I was not only “No he empezado mi trabajo de campo y ya me siento desesperada. siento me ya y campo de mi trabajo “No he empezado Me han negado la visa sudafricana y aún tengo que arreglar mis papeles para Mozambique… pero me mantengo positiva. Hoy me dio la las vacunas llamó señora a su colega que (en Holandés claro) para decirle: mira, ella a aquí, es estudiar pero una en va estudiante mexicana que vive Reflection and ethical considerations Perhaps my fieldwork in Cuba could have been enriched, not to mention beenmade easier, if “I haven’t started my fieldwork and already I feel overwhelmed. I have been denied the South African visa and I still have to arrange my documents my arrange to have still I and visa African South the denied been have I overwhelmed. feel I already and fieldwork my started haven’t “I Commander in Chief is the official title of Fidel Castro, but it is also used by Cubans in a paternal manner to express respect and love for his his for love and respect express to manner paternal a in Cubans by used also is it but Castro, Fidel of title official the is Chief in Commander exposed to the practical content within the life stories I collected, but as I dealt with human emotions, human with dealt I as but collected, I stories life the within content practical the to exposed 26 leadership. 27 for Mozambique… but I’m positive. Today the lady that provided me with my vaccinations called her colleague (in Dutch) to tell him: look, this Mexican student that lives here, but she’s going to study in Mozambique and Cuba is a while the personal struggles of those around me were attached to of migration that gave another dimension to my research. crises, racial discourses and a tradition political dynamics, economic intercultural exchange in a different way. This was especially true in moments that broke the routine, routine, the broke that moments in true especially was This way. different a in exchange intercultural such as Fidel Castro’s sickness and the historic mourning that only el bring about. Throughout my trip to the Caribbean, I was more sensitive to the circumstances of the borders. cultural and physical cross to had and island the on lived that Mozambique in interviewees For instance, I could approach the local health care system and the rigid governmental control, among Cuban men and women who welcomed me warmly into their routines, their job schedules, directly someone or doctor a reach to unable was I when days Those circles. friend and family their involved in medical internationalism, I would sit in the portico with my neighbours, or walk around the city visualize findingto goods,able doingwas myI this bestto toThanks connectlife. thedaily specificof details topicthe ofin medical manifested aidis withthat context thesociocultural larger and solidarity of topic the understand to helped which Maputo, in imagine only could I that context a a more structured methodology. Nonetheless, I had a unique opportunity to witness the daily life of fellow Cubans within their contemporary situation, expanding my perspectives on Mozambican the Cuban- encounter. Although this research is medical professionals to Mozambique, mainly my time in focused Cuba was an on enriching addition to the the project. migration The contacts that I achieved through Mexican connections hosted me, meaning that I of always lived Cuban led me to meet relatives of physicians working abroad, especially and abroad in been had who athletes performance or teachers engineers, doctors, of formed families Latin America, and several aspects of Cuban foreign policies. experienced different I had received adequate guidance to deal with the highly controlled national system and followed in Cuba I was unable to meet any Mozambican, nor a physician who had been there; instead, the position of Angola was unique as the main recipient of Cuban aid and a historical ally. The role of facilitated and Africa, with relationship their in events major the of one was war Angolan the in Cuba my encounter with two veterans. A second strategy I used to acknowledge other life stories was to approach student associations that could guide me through the socialist bureaucracy. This tactic

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 36 privileges Ihavehad. Thiscomplexexperienceisstillin progress,tobeunderstoodandanalysed infurtherprojects. the recognize and identity of construction the within articulations multiple the acknowledge could I borders across moving by Nevertheless, groups. Western white and mixed-race between opposition, certain a even gap, significant a marked raised was I where circumstances the contrary, the On belong. to tried ever have nor attached, felt never personally I which to category a within “boxed” be to uncomfortable deeply feel me making time same the at while privileges certain me afforded that sword double-edged a became mentioned, I as which person, white a as regarded somehow 29 (Thomaz 2006,257) lers, who were the authorities during colonial rule, but it can also be extended to any person with an advantage power position despite racial notions 28 reduced tomysexuality(seeGreen1993;Coffey 1999,59-75). unthreatening the to relegated position of daughter or younger sister, while at the same time I could not be taken seriously, or was being my to owing interactions smooth to me paradox, allowed as it seen because be can This integrity. and safety of sense own my maintain to order in female, and male both interviewees, the towards relations social my manage to needed I that stress must I situation exclusive to Africa or Latin America, nor within specific social or cultural groups. However, a not certainly is and life, my in incident new a not is This “necessary”. even or “possible” “easy”, it find they because women and girls over will emotional or intellectual physical, their impose men myself but also to the women around me. Unfortunately, it is common to experience situations where Global Southwheremybrownskin a of malleability of extent the recognize to but local, becoming of ambition the without outskirts city’s the to malls shopping new the from wandered I Maputo, or Havana in whether day, Every foreigners. Western with experience another express to roots indigenous my in pride reinforcing others at while times at identity, own my distancing of myself from image the unstable Mexican an stereotype with constructed played by I North me. American culture betrayed and accent telenovelas, my unless local considered was I where Cuba, in happened similar Something consultations. their finished had they neighbours. Mozambican former my for until hours for case waiting meant often which available, were interviewees the the until wait to had I However, not was this noticed I contrary, the On access. denied never was and Cuban, be to pretend would I person, specific a to talk to asked I When area. the to open general public, I never had to deal with a security checkpoint, and could walk freely in practically any was facility care health each Although fieldwork. my throughout role and a colour played skin features My attention. the of most receive people, European-looking least at or Europeans, to provoke positive racism, but at the same time I was able to blend into the puzzle of the capital where Amazonas. This meant that I Brazilian was the ambiguously of associated indigenous with foreign or origins, India), raising (from enough Indian curiosity or Arabic, to Mozambican half from categories, a being of limbo quicksand the encountered I Mozambique in landed I soon As 23). 1999, (Coffey researcher a as role my on reflect to me required ethnography that recognizing and identity, of veins emotional the triggering fieldwork, the in be could I once dimension further a on took self-consciousness This topic. this do to initiative my influenced heavily physically, and intellectually both up, grew I which in context the woman doing a master thesis in the Netherlands. I do consider myself part of the Global South, and to achieveobjectivity(seeBourdieu2002). researcher toobtainbetterknowledge.Thismeansavoidingthe“interference”ofemotionsinorder a as one of humanity the separating of way a as violence, symbolic of notion the to related be can This objectivity. rigid above for search the in is erased be simply cannot formation, nature this and being, in human a all still one even researcher, A participant. each of contributions remarkable the without thesis this present to impossible be would it role; principal the had perspective own my that mean not does This process. intellectual this in participant a somehow was story life own my This self-gaming with my identity has had a deep impact on my personal and academic path. My fieldwork in Mozambique was the first time I was time first the was Mozambique in fieldwork My path. academic and personal my on impact deep a had has identity my with self-gaming This Mulungo or muzungo Still, as a young unmarried woman, I had to deal with several situations of sexism, not only towards a Mexican as place my on reflected constantly have I process writing and fieldwork my Though is a word to describe social status, also common in other part of East and Southern Africa. It is often associated to white sett mulungo 29 functioned as camouflage (see Twine 2000). functionedascamouflage(seeTwine2000). 28 , though not entirely: people would place me in different in me place would people entirely: not though , -

37 Methodology Mapping nostalgia . The fact 30 (ibid., 367). 31 was intersected by my use of languages being in Maputo; but it was in daily life where my Brazilian and Mozambican Mozambican and Brazilian my where life daily in was it but Maputo; in Centro Cultural Brasileiro Cultural Centro This notwithstanding, there is a thin, blurred line between empathising with individuals in the field the in individuals with empathising between line blurred thin, a is there notwithstanding, This External outlooks were not the only point of articulation on which I was reflective; the cultural In this constant negotiation, my I must mention that not all my interviewees were native speakers of Spanish and Portuguese. In Mozambique, most people have a Bantu phrases and words of sort all down write and striking or relevant found I everything of notes take to side, my by notebook small a had always I already existing discourse of global South-South solidarity. Even when I was open, sharing common sharing open, was I when Even solidarity. South-South global of discourse existing already 30 language as their mother tongue; however, as I focused on medical professionals, all of them were perfectly fluent in Portuguese, which is the language used for interactions at medical facilities. In Cuba, I talked in French with Congolese and in English with Namibian students; I also settings. collected some audio and recordings in Yoruba, though Cubans only use this language in religious 31 that I did not understand in Cuban Spanish as well as in Portuguese. access to life stories. and re-interpreting their views according to my background. To what point it is valid to associate personal motifs in the field is ethically problematic, as is the question of the implications of my own the support to used be may thesis this how and arguments supported of construction the in ideology I am able to interact and shape the discourse of solidarity to from the Global South. During my fieldwork, I was rapidly associated as a membereasily of the Latin and connect with other migrants Hispanic community, in Mozambique and especially in Cuba. This meant that I with them, recalling topics of could the Latin culture that made them feel talk we were somehow closer, while easily appealing to a notion of resistance (against colonial or imperial entities) that would facilitate my discourse of unity between fellow Latin Americans and other “periphery” countries. As a result, acknowledged, but also integrated I into my identity, the discourse of solidarity and equality among Southern countries. This created not only a way of understanding events, but also a feeling, a set of emotions that shaped my behaviour. While living in the Netherlands and doing fieldwork, these characteristics have been strengthened by the daily confrontation of being a foreigner, and how remarkable platform to emphasize my own position when analysing encounters. Discourses of Latin of Discourses encounters. analysing when position own my emphasize to platform remarkable have developed a sense of brotherhood expressed in popular America as a unity, and as a region, culture, beyond political discourses, which is reflected in the interactions between people. This is accentuated in situations of migration, where a notion of belonging sustains the image we have of ourselves (see Estevez et. al 2002). Life in my home country was continuously surrounded by a never will. Language, as Tanu (2016) eloquently notes, is a reflective topic itself, where “we become “we where itself, topic reflective a is notes, eloquently (2016) Tanu as Language, will. never limits our of aware generally are We language. native our of forms particular of speakers non-native – from the outset there is a new vocabulary to learn, terminology and timing that must be practiced of our linguistic limitations by informants” to become natural, and we are reminded and ideological ground where I encountered Cubans and Mozambicans was actually the most me to read and speak it fluently. I was able to meet all thePortuguese speaking physicians without amount greater a as the well need of as a translator, translation, allowing for of greater privacy challenge and a the smoother flow tocreated our conversations.has Of languages two of use the course, of work, because beyond my domain on these languages, I do not speak Spanish or Portuguese as those who I interviewed – who have different accents between themselves – do, and probably studied some Portuguese by myself prior to my arrival in Mozambique, and took daily courses at the neighbours taught me the most. Similarly, using Portuguese added a part to my identity, especially and Spanish American Latin to proximity its to due model, Portuguese Brazilian a follow to chose I as allows Spanish to similarity its but Portuguese, in proficient fully not still am I pronunciation. melodic that I speak Mexican Spanish reinforced a sense of connection among Cuban professionals and Mozambicans who had studied in Cuba. When they heard my accent, there was a playful use of Latin American slang and colloquial phrases that added an aura of informality, yet closeness, the conversation. to For its part, Portuguese was a more difficultbut also truly enjoyable issue. I had

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 38 Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga of people, specifically within the poorly studied context of the Global South. This commongoal This South. Global of the context studied poorly the within specifically people, of movement contemporary the on awareness raise to research is thesis this behind easy motivation my strong an A task. always answer not to is stories narratives intimate approaching multiple Nevertheless, 15). grasp 2002, (Jackson to questions me allowed that methodology a requiring quest a been has relations S-S of face” “human the discovering 19); 1988, Maanen (Van people of this thesiswasobtainedwiththeauthorizationofhisorherowner. in presented story and image Each 2011). al et Dewalt 2016; Spradley (see research the of nature physicians were reluctant to talk about personal issues and felt uncomfortable with the ethnographic always had the opportunity to decline involvement, and to skip any question or topic. In fact, several safeguard their intimacy, all participants were notified of the scope and goals of my research. They to order In sensitivity. necessary the with them approach to order in side human own my through similarities, and contradictions own their with collected, I narratives different the certain between balance a developing by trust their honour certainly can I but position, their in not am I argument. hopes and wishes deserve the respect of not being simplified or corrupted to fit within an academic struggles, particular own their and unique, is story each that aware am I all, After inhabitants. their of guidance the to thanks revealed were landscapes new where observation, participant through to their guidance on what I should highlight, repeat or ignore. This included the information glimpsed to best allow my my Cuban did and Mozambican interviewees I to lead the struggles, flow ofsimilar the conversation, payingthrough attention passed had they whether questioning or experiences I wish to stress the utility of ethnography on the path to understanding the intimate perspectives intimate the understanding to path the on ethnography of utility the stress to wish I (Un)Limitations was oncehappy. one where bittersweet places those of imagination the within remain would always Mozambique in time my right; was she that feeling imminent the with me left This nostalgia). is through get this to (Mimi, saudades” matar para é isto took “Mimi, said me, and belongings her thanked she giggle sharp she was outfit wearing. With her characteristically the handmade they where my paternal grandmother and describe the place to best my did I by, passed Sitting in the living room as the evening everything. practically wrap and dress typical the to women Mozambican capulana, by used textile some me for chose she my exchange, of In line. group father’s ethnic the Zapotecas, my the from dress traditional a her before gave I gratitude, of gesture days a As few departure. a Inocencia hr I m psn tgte with together posing am, I There

39 Methodology Mapping nostalgia soldiers that walk the streets on a daily basis. This was exacerbated after the death (see of chapter 7), Fidel which made Castro my fieldwork more difficult as possible interviewees about governmental censorship. were concerned In Cuba, the strong presence the in seen be can government the of and officers police of number large Although the rigidity of the healthcare environment was somehow managed with the help of local a careful analysis of the perspectives of Cuban medical internationalism in Mozambique that adds the multiple voices, and silences, of those human beings involved in the multidirectional encounters a to been, have who those for platforms develop to effort an is This South. Global the from citizens of next the journey, the with continue to Therefore, SSC. of field developing the in voiceless extent, large Mozambicans meet.chapter will present the “road” towards South where Cubans and important for me to note that the thesis the reader now has in her/his hands is a product of that; stories that; of product a is hands her/his in has now reader the thesis the that note to me for important and storytelling constructed and deconstructed by individuals, creating a mosaic of narratives and discourses that I have interwoven with the filter of my own personalthese story (Ibid.; Vanin Maanen 1988). present I What addressed. carefully be should trust and interpretation for quest the Therefore, rather but reality, a of description unique strictly a even nor truth, “hard” a be to claimed not is pages words, the use of life stories implies facing the unstable product a nature was fieldwork my of during me stories told people (though What 2002). this Jackson (see is wonderful) them also makes what of their own perspectives, their own internalizations and reflections on a given reality, and these are words own their contradict opinion, their change often would people contrary, the On stone. in set not with further confessions or have little coherence in their speech. I found this to be a relevant point to reflect on the veracity of life stories and the idea of truth and objectivity in academic papers. It is managers and departmental directors, while I enjoyed a great deal of freedom of movement once the principal of a certain department had demonstrated their support for me. While in Cuba, I was or archival sources. to high ranking medical staff denied any access contacts, there is still the much more subtle issue of how to deal with the ‘information’ itself. In other the scene of delicate medical procedures that walk the thin line between life and death (see Wind methodology different remarkably a follows analysis scientific on based scholarship Medical 2008). from the ethnographic nature of this research; I was thus often dismissed as ‘not serious enough’ and questioned on the relevance of research of permission the request in to me lead often which structure, hierarchical highly a is medicine the of path Humanities field. Besides, the professional has inspired Cubans and Mozambicans, as well as those from other backgrounds, to support this research. This notwithstanding, since I tried to create a somewhat spontaneous momentum to talk about people’s lives, this was sometimes seen as genuinely uncomfortable reluctant and to contribute. some The professionals medical were environment is not an easy common target. space, It related is with at the once basic a human needs and rights of life and well-being, and also

Methodology Mapping nostalgia 40 The road to the airport in Havana. Photo Alina Macias Rangel together achievewhat wasimpossible,thatthewholeworld wouldknowthattheSouth, Southalsoexists” 33 for about a week in order to get from Havana to Maputo, crossing Northern and Southern borders, Johannesburg or Addis Ababa, before finally arriving in Mozambique. One must travel constantly live in the Caribbean, you must take a plane to Europe or the US, sometimes São Paolo, then fly to youif that unreal almost seems It cities. mega territoryand deserts mountains, oceans, across extending vast a is South the fact, In North. named counterpart that under or down is it say will it how theseabstractideasarestillpartofthelandscapewheremedicalcooperationoccurs. and regions, two the in voices postcolonial with concerned is chapter this in selected literature the Additionally, countries. both in embodied are they where realities the to connection intrinsic its as well as communism, of terms in especially solidarity, of discourse political the understand to foundation a provides literature existing the of summary This resistance. of movements similar motivated have that experiences colonialist common of terms in interrelations American-African to the discourse of South-South relations. I then narrow this broader approach to the historical Latin to Mozambique. To begin with, I will introduce the metaphorical image of the Global South that led “But down here, down downs near the roots is where memory omits no memory and there are those who un-die and there are those who live-for and thus The South also exists, and is not precisely located below the Equator, although most who inhabit In this chapter I will present the theoretical notions relevant to a macro-analysis of Cuban medical aid Macro perspectives and background Mario Benedetti El sur también existe que el surtambién existe” que todo elmundo que el Sur sepa lo que era unimposible y asíentre todos logran y hay quienes se desviven y hay quienes se desmueren ningún recuerdo omite es donde lamemoria cerca de lasraíces abajo “pero aquí 33 The SouthexistsThe also

(Benedetti 447)(my owntranslation). Chapter 3

The highway to the North of Mozambique. Photo Juan Manuel Diez Tetamanti

41 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists Before departing for the fieldwork, the academic proposal to understand Cuban-Mozambican The Global South A couple sitting by the sea, drinking Heineken at midday. The blue of the water combines perfectly combines water the of blue The midday. at Heineken drinking sea, the by sitting couple A that although ever-present, was an it Is look? it does How it? is Where South”. “Global The “South”? the is What answers. than questions erratic participant in my fieldfar notes,away from the North? How can we distinguish one from the other? When approaching academic onegrand in recently depicted thatbeen has world the in raiseddiversity of notion the clarity, more of sake the for literature regional narratives, where North and South became principal actors in describing the globe and cooperation was framed in the words ‘South-South relations’, and an acknowledgement of solidarity within the Global South. When admiring the image above to community,analyse the of interrelatedness sense of the a two (Ibid.); description Heyner Dr. to similar proximity of feeling a recall I countries, other localities). Beyond the similar colonial buildings and common international brands, there is a of – interviewees the and me, – us remind that countries both in activities daily the behind humanity the overlapping space in social experiences of the South. take off her shoes and just feel the heat on her skin. She is whispering in his ear, and the way she the rhythms of by the accompanied love scene is a delicacy. This of a sense touches him awakens from, are they where about, talking are they what imagining and picture this at looking enjoy I coast. or what they did after finishing their drinks. Perhaps the most captivating element of this photo is the beauty of an ever-present, fleeting moment of love that I saw in Mozambique and in Cuba (and with the light of the clear sky, and the weather is so mild, with a soft breeze that allows the lady to while literally travelling in time. And I can still recall Dr. Heyner, a Cuban paediatrician at the Central Central the at paediatrician Cuban a Heyner, Dr. recall still can I And time. in travelling literally while Hospital, saying with a wide smile “when my friends ask me how Maputo is I simply tell them: just imagine Havana, with the sea and everything, but with new cars, newer roads, different shops…”. captured vu, déjà of feeling latent a described regions both to travelled have that interviewees Most photo: present the following allow me to To illustrate this, similar aura. in a somewhat

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 42 between Spain and Portugal. Such arrangement justified the invasion of the continent by European powers, involving Christianity as a moralendorsement toproceed withcolonization(Meneses andSantos2009,27;Galeano, a as Christianity involving powers, European by continent the of invasion the justified arrangement Such Portugal. and Spain between 34 that knowledge background of presuppositions favour they meaning naturalise, representation of Discourses ‘other’. an and ‘self’ a creating another, over discourse one of nodal power the through points, through hegemonized is Representation predictions. of sources legitimate as seen are that points, nodal call 10) 1996, Doty in quoted (112, Mouffe and Laclau which others, over discourses certain of privilege the implies Relations International in representation of practice The agency. of – often taken at face value – which affected another entity, one that has been denied equal degrees “realities” construct to able been has entity one which in encounter asymmetric an suggests South the and North the between relationship the words, other In 4). (ibid., dispositions” interpretive and subjectivity of modes particular constitute to works power which in way “the is this (1996), Doty to According states. and people of identities the conditions also but analysis, theoretical and making policy impact only not that representations certain created has trade, drug the to imperialism from dynamics, global of understanding the facilitate to intended is that jargon political the so, doing In North. the of concept self-described the to compared when entity alien an is: South the what depict to initiative the taken have media) the and South, politicians also (though the scholars Northern how notice of we concept political a construct to used been have that academia in process historical are able to re-construct what is known as the ‘first” and ‘third’ worlds. Looking at the aforementioned “serve as a window onto more global South systems the how about North of the from Narratives level. representation” same the at not (Doty are that entities two 1996, about talk 3), where Northern nations “underdevelopment” ofcertainnations. poor performance of the capitalist system has been seen as a theoretical basis for understanding the the Found, Monetary International the and Bank World the like institutions, international principal the behind countries the by adopted been has capitalism where era an In interactions. their of nature factors that have determined the division of the world into the categories North-South, along with the economic principally is it features, political and cultural similar less or more on based homogeneity certain a for arguments are there While 13). 2007, Dirlik 43; 2010, Bringel and (Carou geopolitics of semi-periphery or periphery, the on remained that nations those together cluster to used were that World” “Third the of depictions 1960s and 1950s of, equivalent exact an not is although resembles, by dictated standards political and social follow or specific frameworks to that began GDP, after the able Bretton Woods as structures (Motta and was such Gunvald 2011, 5). This country status, a economic of how markers namely certain “development”, of notions by determined be to came countries between differences intrinsic) (almost of idea the when era, II War World post the to back traced be can South” “a of idea The segmentation. this understand to way metaphorical a also still problematises motionless divisions(Murphy2013,140-142). that one reality, changing constantly a by contrasted is veracity geographical their that respect this in ambiguity of degree a such is the There at continents. respective lying their of despite bottom very prosperity, of examples regional as seen are which Africa, South or Chile, as on the map, are largely considered members of the developed North. Or the cases of countries such position their despite which, Zealand New and Australia of case the is there However, them. ‘under’ that locations situated in the northern hemisphere inferring are terms, more prosperous geographic than on those situated based physically vaguely is and delimitation “development” this sense, of a In notions “underdevelopment”. socio-economic on emphasis an with time this world, the divide to Again realities. multidimensional its The European colonial heritage of geographic transformation can be trade since the since trade be can transformation geographic of heritage colonial European The From this perspective, the Global South as a concept is used to describe what the North is not, to is there perhaps then division, North-South the of endorsement geographical weak a is there If 34 , imaginary lines have been placed by certain groups in order order in groups certain by placed been have lines imaginary , Las venas Tratado de Tordesillas de Tratado 2004,32) in 1494 dividing the New WorldNew the dividing 1494 in

43 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists This dichotomy was soon contrasted by independentist and revolutionary movements worldwide, movements revolutionary and independentist by contrasted soon was dichotomy This South-South relations and cooperation South-South relations interrelationship the for quest the construction, flexible a as seen is South Global a of notion the Once

Lechini 2006, 11-13). As an answer to such impositions, there was an academic space for questions over who actually received the benefits of neoliberalism, and what the position of Southern countries should be in a world order that privileged economic growth over emancipation. leading to alternatives to modernity that set themselves apart from capitalism. As a consequence, emergent economies (see Rosenbaum and Taylor 1975). Moreover, the economic crisis experiencedcrisis economic the Moreover, 1975). Taylor and Rosenbaum (see economies emergent during the 1980s debilitated the interest on Southern emerging powers, in addition to several internal conflicts in Latin America,Africa and Asia. With the end of the Cold War and the forceful influence of of economics was seen as a sortinternational institutions such as the World Bank, a neoliberal model of contract that Southern countries should put up with, despite their local circumstances (Boron and lower trade barriers and strengthened diplomatic ties, which achieved a certain autonomy beyond colonial dimensions. Nonetheless, the presence of relatively new participants was viewed as a weak attempt to create a new division of power in the global order during the early 1960s and 1970s, while Northern countries that had traditionally enjoyed hegemony over the South, specifically Europe and the US, continued to see themselves as the unquestionable leaders who were unthreatened by the their affiliation with the traditional centre, but also with less industrialized nations on the periphery of the world order. The expansion of investment and trade among global market, Southern moving on from countries the traditional flows ofexpanded North-South colonial exploitation, andthe granting new agency to developing Southern economies in order to avoid dependency and make use of their similarities, transforming the traditional global economy (Carlsson 1982, 10-45). This encouraged (LDCs) was seen as a relatively new improvement in the economic development, one that triggered connectivity, especially through trade, beyond the hierarchical guidance of Northern countries. The a new division of labour, creating a multitude of ways to establishinternational economy experienced by semi-periphery the on being as described were that India, and Brazil as such Nations relationships. advancing advances, technological on based industrialization of wave new a implemented economists, imbalance, “(t)he changing usages of the term, and the different agenda they imply, offer clues to both to clues offer imply, they agenda different the and term, the of usages changing “(t)he imbalance, continuities and discontinuities over last half-century in the global positioning of the “South”, as well as in the ideological and political role assigned to it in global politics” (Dirlik 2007, 13). From its initial use in the 1960s, modernist theory stresses the importance of applying an effective capitalist system – avoiding any local influence from pre-colonial management – as the answer to improving a nation’s status. At the peak of the Cold War, the interaction among the so called less developed countries between locations that are regarded as part of the South has been to a large extent framed by theories by framed extent large a to been has South the of part as regarded are that locations between presented within the fields of International Relations and PoliticalScience. In the context of power The North has been accused of using its meeting with the South to produce these representational practices, which in turn restrict the agency of the South, often the by dominated be should, or can, that space blank through of kind a depicting instead voice, own South’s a process of negating the 1-14; Escobar 1998, 29). North (Doty ibid., are accepted as trusted facts of how the world is, and what its inhabitants are (in terms of South and South of terms (in are inhabitants its what and is, world the how of facts trusted as accepted are North, a powerful image has been constructed of the civilized European and the primitive Oriental). This practice is then prone to using classificatory methodswhereby human beings are positioned according to their “natural” place, due to what is presumed to be their character and category. This is essentially a form of stereotype that creates a manageable image, but one that lacks accuracy.

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 44 35 attempts to give coherence to the various agendas of Southern nations. This was a characteristic several been have There (UNCTAD). Development and Trade on Conference Nations United atthe 1964 in founded (G77), UN 77 of the Group the as as such clusters (such into them institutions group to international OECD) the by and framed been have South Global the in countries between relations dynamics, North-South to Related 2). 2007, Schläger in quoted 2006, (UNDP domains” technical and environmental social, economic, political, the in South, the of countries the among collaboration for framework broad “a as defined is SSC Thus, 1-6). 2011, (Modi order the ideas attached to cooperation, making them more flexible within the frame of a multipolar world transformed have BRICS the as such countries in seen advances economic the However, South. infrastructure, and in general all forms of lesser development, that are experienced by the Global to Northern aid, which is described as support needed in times of poverty, natural disasters, weak to descriptions Parallel of the South in terms of (under)development, SSC is SSR. seen as fundamentally different of synonym a as use often its and field Relations International the within (SSC) an increasinginterestandinvestmentinoverseasventures,suchasaid. in translated been has economies their boost to means the have powers growing these that fact the example, For order. world hegemonic different a of sense the giving panorama, international focus, main the to dynamism adds markets the potential new as countries BRICS as the on attention increasing the variables economic With violence. and challenges environmental segregation, social poverty, as such issues external and internal with along GDP booming of mixture a economies growing to attention international (Nadkarni 2013, 1). The five nations – China, Brazil, bringRussia, India and South Africa – demonstrate to BRICS acronym the created Sachs and O’Neill 2001, In growth. economic of measures new of growth during the through focus decades few different last the a on taken have South Global the of perceptions flexible, more became South and North social of concepts the of As 15). 2007, (Dirlik manifestations other the from region other one separated that and migration as such inequality – Practices especially in terms of race, South. class and gender and North between in theglobalorderpost-SecondWorldWar. South-South relations became a topic of importance for International Relations scholars) saw a shift term the (when 1970s The strategies. capitalist of target the to compassion of object an being from of neoliberalism as the main hegemonic power, both politically and ideologically, moved the ‘South’ consolidation the as well as War, Cold the of bipolarization The southerners. between relationships of “South” and “North” into a discourse of postcolonialism, that placed increasing importance on the between different academic theories, along with the political dynamics that (de)constructed the use dialogue this was It 2-5). 2008, Krüger 35-39; 1992, (Fig issues underdevelopment overcoming of way effective most the as rigidity capitalist and exploitation tackling for arguing class, working the dependentistas’ reliance on the South. southern elite. Instead, Marxist scholars stressed the importance of the overpowered that cycle the highlighting flavour, Marxist a on took South oppressive the on theories academic 1970s, the during Later, the break to protectionism and self-reliance for need a thus was There remain. would economies Northern wealthy on countries Southern “poor” the (1962), so-called Prebisch Raúl by inherent, headed and America, an Latin from colonialism cases not on through Based another, imperialism. was over and group one “underdevelopment” of imposition that systematic a rather claimed but state theory passive dependency the of criticisms Thisthreeissues arediscussedinchapter6. This kind of interaction between peripheral nations has been called South-South cooperation South-South called been has nations peripheral between interaction of kind This rm h 19s nad, h cnoain o goaiain ae lre te distinctions the blurred have globalization of connotations the onwards, 1990s the From dependentistas stated that while the centre exploited the periphery, the dependency of dependency the periphery, the exploited centre the while that stated 35 – could be found across imaginary lines

45 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists This analysis of cooperation among Southerners stresses the political and economic advantages advantages economic and political the stresses Southerners among cooperation of analysis This Scholarship Scholarship and diplomacy from Africa, Latin America and Asia have used the concept SSC 2012, 726) grounded in a directionality unrelated relationships, its to of nature that the on of studies and the South Global vertical, the of North-South terminology academic the approach. Within there is a particular species of ambiguity over its most prominent and permanent characteristic. The integration of SSC into various policy agendas worldwide demonstrates that this terminology is not just ambiguous and complex, but also that its obscurity is what makes it flexible. stressed that behind the coherence practice certain of claim to describing serve a that distinction, concepts are there SSC is and South also Global a practice, In counter unity. effect builds that (Fig 1992, 36), encompassing the experiences characteristics shared within resistance of of unity a oppression, expresses underdevelopment, and of label the of beyond similar struggles that, of exploitation, alienation and marginalization (Nicola Bullard, quoted in Juergensmeyer et al. of such relations, implying that this phenomenon is not so different to the North-South relations. These debates have raised a further analysis to this division of the of flexibility world, the expands scholarship framework, questioning a such In affairs. contemporary its in relevance and utility within underrated been have that dynamics socio-cultural the highlight to order in terminology the have origin southern of institutions and Academics drawn. distinctions political and economic the For Vuving (ibid.), policies such as multilateral projects, educational exchange, cultural promotion, promotion, cultural exchange, educational projects, multilateral as such policies (ibid.), Vuving For do that policies benignity, the of part as described are aid economic and assistance humanitarian propagate and images, positive nurture understanding, “promote but power, soft build directly not (ibid., 13 & 14). myths in favour of the source country” power: “benignity, or the kindness of behaviour and attitude; brilliance, or the shine of capabilities capabilities of shine the or brilliance, attitude; and behaviour of kindness the or “benignity, power: and successes; and beauty, or the resonance of shared norms and goals” to describe the utility of making a country a desirable product that embracing prosperity. its domestic others values. to According related to can is both stage Nye rely first and the Vuving, soft on, in power which has nation, including its a roots of its in image creating legitimate a citizens, and desirable while 3) that describe soft power as a synonym of “non-military power and includes both cultural power power cultural both includes and power “non-military of synonym a as power soft describe that 3) and economic strength” based on culture, political values and foreign a as diplomacy uses force, military through performed power hard the to opposed as power, soft policy. From this angle tool to leverage affairs within and outside borders according to certain interests and beliefs (Nye 2008, 95-102). In a sense, diplomatic efforts are directed at enticing other soft countries to of embrace “currencies” the adds 18-19) (2009, Vuving end, this To understanding. and benefits mutual on the simplification of this friendly exchange. A relevant perspective on the policy of increasing aid is that such measures are part of soft power strategies, rather than just use acts soft of power kindness. here in I the sense defined by Joseph S. Nye (2008), as “the ability to shape the preferences of others… (it) tends to be associated with intangible assets such as an attractive personality, culture and political values” (ibid., 95), and further readings of Nye by Vuving (2009, to obtain a higher interference in the global dynamics and challenge the idea world of order. a hegemonic Meanwhile, decolonization approaches have taken advantage of of the the South to terminology claim the similarities of the periphery as an opportunity to create horizontal and empathic relationships that dispute the centric position of the 2012). North Nevertheless, (see these enthusiastic Lechini perspectives 2006; have Inoue been strongly criticized by remarks of the Cold War period, where global polarization determined the countries, foreign either policies by of encouraged Southern cooperation or by and partners emerging ‘clearly’ on focus a to shifted has separating SSC of understanding the decades, recent more allies from enemies. In 2014, 1861). & Seifert donors’ (de Renzo of ‘non-traditional legitimization the further

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 46 37 And scorchallwith theburningofmyfire./Yes!Iwill beyourcoalBoss! / burn to have I / coal! am I / Boss! longer no mine your I’m Until / tar the Brother my like alive Burn / ashes cursed to down Burn / exploited I’m while burn to have I / coal! am I / strength. burning my with all scorch And / yes burn, to have I / coal! am I / Boss! ever for not But / force driving your as 36 these on perspective own their expressed Cubans and Mozambicans when theory background a as theyareoftendepictedbeingapartofthe Global South allows a creative analysis of the contemporary dynamics between Cuba and Mozambique, especially inviting a critical reflection of our own position within contemporary social inequalities. This approach borders suppressed, systematically been proposalhave that groups of academic emancipation the concerns This it as activism, on analysis. Eurocentric purely a beyond diversity, human across experiences and perspectives different valorise and recognise to justice, cognitive to invitation an acknowledge the world. Thus, he introduces the academic project of epistemologies of the South as of economic or political domination, but also a much deeper influence on the way we think about and historical concepts of “development” and “underdevelopment” to highlight how this is the not only re-examines a form Santos segregation. and inequality social of South dynamics contemporary and on North reflect to of concept the behind relations power the discussed recently has 2015) Santos new adding agendas, levels own of meaning. their For in example, Boaventura term de Sousa this Santos of (Meneses & use Santos the 2009, Santos in 2007; alternatives of variety a developed have South so-called the from those US), the and Europe (primarily North the of part being as self-define Amoredetaileddescription ofepistemologiesthe Southcanbefoundinchapter6. “I am coal! / Brutally you wrench me from the ground / And you make me your mine Boss! / I am coal! / And you ignite me, boss / To serve you always During my fieldwork, the aforementioned International Relations discourses became more than than more became discourses Relations International aforementioned the fieldwork, my During While the concepts North-South have been predominantly conceived and regulated by those who José Cravereinha (1982) Grito Negro Eu souoteu carvão, patrão. Sim! combustão. daminha queimar tudo com ofogo Tenhoque arder Eu soucarvão. até nãoser maisatua mina,patrão. arder vivo como alcatrão, meu irmão, arder até àscinzasdamaldição tenhoque arder naexploração Eu soucarvão; queimar tudo comcombustão. aforçadaminha e tenhoque arder sim; Eu soucarvão não,mas eternamente patrão. como forçamotriz eternamente para te servir E tuacendes-me, patrão, Eu soucarvão! e fazes-me tua mina,patrão. dochão brutalmente E tuarrancas-me Eu soucarvão! A transatlanticSouth 36 Black Outcry JoseCraiverinha(translated byGreyandMagalhães2011) 37 .

47 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists The invention July 2016, when Portugal when 2016, July th It is not the same to talk with a Brazilian as Brazilian a with talk to same the not is It among Cubans and Mozambicans, within the ” he added on the encounter between Mozambicans déjà vu centuries and how slavery became a form of transcontinental of form a became slavery how and centuries th and 16 and th of relations between certain groups, specifically among other Africans and “People are more comfortable when they feel closer to a culture. Some of us are us of Some culture. a to closer feel they when comfortable more are “People ” he began, and I perked up my ears, remembering his passion for the Portuguese the for passion his remembering ears, my up perked I and began, he ” Maka was expressing degrees of closeness to certain groups, but at the same time same the at but groups, certain to closeness of degrees expressing was Maka naturality I think it is a more natural relation , eloquently points out the process of making non-European territories and inhabitants While being labelled as ‘the South’ may be just another way of softening negative connotations processes into an autonomous image capable of embodying resistance (Escobar 1998, 28). It (Legum emotions” is and ideas of “movement a processes, colonial to parallel that, coincidence a not 1962, 14) placed emphasis on African culture as a way of challenging hostile impositions, such as movement This 44). 2013, (Morikawa Pan-Africanism as known is what into morphing Eurocentrism, dynamics political and cultural academic, the of layers various impacted has that complexity a offers whisper, slips of colour reveal the meanings, and treads of secret stair indicate the magnitude of a European of legacy a left centuries colonial in Africa of “discovery” the Thus, 21). (Ibid. order.” new discourses and disciplines that justify processes of mental, physical and complex a implying while that, sword spiritual edge double a as served times colonial from conquer rupture This 31). (Ibid. historical process of division, also encourages the adoption and further transformation of such of Africa a European construction (ibid., 6). This creation of an designated an intrinsic other inferiority of a by “primitive” nature. In explorers, radical contrast to settlers the European world, and scholars “(t)he African has become not only the Other who is everyone else except me, but rather the key which, in its abnormal difference, specifies the identity of the Same… traces of something else exploitation. Focusing on the sensation of and Africa (and Asia), there is a significant regional consolidation broader context of Latin America rooted in colonial historical processes. Mudimbe (1988), in his memorable essay of friends. “ non-westerners. and Ronaldo. After several encounters, a few weeks later I arranged to an informal interview to hear more hear to interview informal an to arranged I later weeks few a encounters, several After Ronaldo. “ world. Lusophone the in relationships of view own his about Portuguese a with driving were We Tanzanian”. a with than Brazilian a with talk to different also is it “...but team, football group our of multiculturality the of speaking interview, the continue to beach the to next restaurant a to international students. I must say that I was not particularly interested in the match, but I do vividly remember the enormous joy of my Mozambican neighbours, and the reproach expressed by their Brazilian counterparts. It did not matter that the Brazilians rejected their worship of the team of their ex-colonisers: the Mozambican students of celebrated fan and the doctor future victory a with talk of to curiosity Portugal my awakening as celebrations, the if of leader it the was were Maka their own. imaginary divisions. I can recall the first relevant time this occurred, on 10 on occurred, this time relevant first the recall can I divisions. imaginary trophy the carrying night, the of star the was Ronaldo Cristiano and Cup Euro the in France defeated with pride, while thousands of miles away Maputo celebrated with him through horns around the cheerful city. I watched the game at the apartment of Maka, a young Mozambican fireworks and car medical student doing his internship at the Military Hospital, together with other national and placed in Western Europe, or in those locations where Western Europeans emigrated, is rooted in the in rooted is emigrated, Europeans Western where locations those in or Europe, Western in placed 15 the of processes colonial Latin Americans, my fieldwork emphasized a different analysis of North-South concepts where – in Relations – local narratives take the initiative.contrast to theories of International of “underdevelopment”, conversations centre such a of distinction the as Paradoxically, South. the that in those by which shaped been also I have constructions had with Maka stressed that these naturally closer.” naturally he was able (and eager) to adopt and transform different elements, despite their origin: here was a playfulness. with its into dive one can how and diversity, world’s the of fluidity the on explore to terrain Fuelled by the

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 48 dramatically. This new interconnectivity not only added a different scope of oppression, but also also but oppression, of scope different a added only not interconnectivity new This dramatically. increased ties international and trade where globalization of process into turned industrialization, by affected factions, Colonial role. leading a taking rapidly was capitalism where world a in points and Europe, against struggle American Latin especially againsttheUS. the and Americas the in diaspora African the with Pan-Africanism of ideals the connect that 2004) Andebeng and Alingué (see agony ever-present in theproclamationsofracialandsocialclasssegregation thatinjuredvastterritories,spreadingan West, the of domination ontological and physical the in conceived, is South the among connectivity the where opposition of context a such in it is Ironically, America. and Asia Africa, from peoples of historical the in entrenched extent, large burden of colonization, where a assumptions of “civilized” and to “savage” endorsed the dehumanization remain, “underdevelopment” and to approaches “development” and understandings Contemporary 15-23). 2009, Galeano 16-18; 1987, (Campra oppressors against unity of sense a and colonialism, Portuguese or Spanish as such outside, the interventions. Latin identity has been constructed around the tension between a label imposed from US or companies British realm, Spanish the is it whether other; the to response in defined been has 19 the of movements independence the after developed was term This America. Latin as known be to came Fuego de constructed byforeignelements. is self-identification where and poverty of source a is wealth natural others’ where world, of the in superiority claims the support to forged were regions where exploitation, intense and segregation as “primitives” and therefore positioned were Oceania, and Asia Africa, from those to similar America, of “indigenous” the peak, point of extinction. Forced into the hierarchical structure where Europeans placed themselves at the communities from the American continent were profoundly and violently suppressed, at times to the Indigenous World. New the of wealth the by funded world, the of balance power the change would the Africa, for scramble the before years that domination colonial European the inaugurate to Caribbean the in arrived fleet treasure Spanish hundred Four continent. the of areas Lusophone and scholarship Anglophone, (Valdés especially 2005, 191), these and ideas have Francophone, a remarkable the echo in the among parallel struggles found among the mainly Hispanic are intellectuals also be found in the Caribbean, promoting resistance movements on both continents. Although such the anti-colonial struggle on the other side of the Atlantic. Remarkable voices of Pan-Africanism can mode ofempowerment(Nsong’oinFalolaandSanchez2016,21-23). a as well African as protest of of form those a into by Pan-Africanism turned felt discrimination, racial alienation specifically origin, of experience The vii). 2014, Edozie in (Horne Mozambique” and Madagascar into Cape the around way its looping then – River Congo the along particularly – inland widely stretching Angola, southern of coast Atlantic the to down Mauritania from stretches “that intensity an to due Pan-Africanism within recognized been has trade slave European extent, certain a To resistance. collective notions on perspectives alternative deconstructing raise to “civilized”, dichotomy, and “savage” of a such reshaped also but Africans, upon imposed label criticised the consciously only not imposition foreign to reaction This xii). 2014, (Edozie community” international western-dominated “a contrast to Africans all among community of feeling a to unity, to appealing region, a of self-determination the represents Pan-Africanism South, Global the and of the continent throughout the process of its construction. For the purposes of my analysis of SSC By the beginning of the 20 the of beginning the By Tierra to Bravo Rio from territory the continent, African the to up held mirror broken of kind a As in part essential an also was but continent, African the affect only not to on went initiative This th century; an America below the Anglo-Saxon territory. Since then, this region region this then, Since territory. Anglo-Saxon the below America an century; naturally th century, anti-colonial movements were approaching political turning turning political approaching were movements anti-colonial century, inferior (see Quijano 2007). It was in this context of systematic

49 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists Photo Alina Macías Rangel Macías Alina Photo within the Cuban Desde Los Blancos island Plaza de la revolución,Plaza Havana. , by Margarita Mateo, focuses on the main character Gelsomina, and her unstable An island Nanne Timmer (2014), in her analysis on the subject of the archipelago in the novel narrates how “(t)he island in question is not a representation of the a national, nation regional, but and rather even universal — as in “singular” — experience lived through the self with no boundaries.” (ibid., 63). Here, Timmer develops the notion a of an depicts She bloc. communist a of America, Latin of Caribbean, the of part as nation, a as identity identity an where point the to ideals, strong such within framed overly entity, well-formed constant, Manicomios mental condition that makes her believe she is an island. Situated in the coastal city of Havana, Mozambique, a tragedy of broken dreams” (Luchembe 1995, 48). of broken dreams” (Luchembe Mozambique, a tragedy of resistance (Tlostanova 2012, 130-132). Within these discourses on communism, Latin and America Africa met once again, this time in a face to face encounter that inverted ties. centuries The of historic slavery processes of constant the in 16th viewed century, be through can to the people borders which of through the windows ‘hot’ are and Mozambique Cold Wars,and “Cuba how represent interaction with their past. On one side Cuba, a symbol of defiant struggle and on theother side spread the anti-colonial and anti-imperialist struggles across continents. In the first decades of the century, Bolshevism introduced one such attempt, positing Marxism as and an capitalist alternative systems (Hirsch to and colonial Van der Walt 2010, xxxiii-xxxvi). The Russian vast revolution impact had on a the colonies and ex-colonies in notions anti-capitalist Africa, towards interrelated Asia and directed be and could movements Latin liberation were America, platform offering a political

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 50 part oftherevolutionary discourseofthecontemporary communistpartyandarewellknown amongCubancitizens. 39 their beings”(myown translation)(DelasCasas1974, 25) beyond status their upgrade to days, few a just in wealth for swell and gold the aim ultimate as have that Christians those to ambition the is souls, of number infinite such of destruction and death the of cause [The personas..” sus de proporción sin e altos muy estados a subir e días breves muy y muerto han que por causa destruido “La tantas y tales e tan narrates: infinito número de ánimas los cristianos ha genocide sido solamente por tener por su the fin último el oro y henchirsetestified de riquezas en who scholar, and men religious Spanish a Casas, las de Bartolomé groups. 38 marking aperiodofstrong oppression,censorshipandfear(Aguilar1993, 25-30). the Thisfacilitated dictatorship agenda. of Gerardo Machado American during the 1930s, followed the by Fulgencio Batista by in the a 1940s influenced and to 50s, strongly led 1929 was of that Depression Great structure the non-democratic and sugar of was price the nation in new fall the the as world, Palma, fragile Estrada a into the Tomás born Although president troops. elected US under by formed occupied was was Cuba soon of but Republic colony, former a longer no was Cuba control, and “just a for arguments ideological stronger necessary” war. After decades with of fighting against and Spanish political domination and encounter, American economic armed heavily a as fought time Martí José poet General the Maceo, especially and Antonio García mulatto Calixto Dominican, actually was who Gomez, century, Maximo the of as end such the characters By sovereignty. their for forcefully fought who status, social lower to owners windmill privileged the against resistance of feeling the increased US, the by supported negotiations, diplomatic failing The more. decades some However, for 5). lasted realm 1993, Spanish (Thomas the from farms independence tobacco Cuba’s and sugar their ran that system slavery the maintain to inaugurating acomplicatedrelationshipbetweenCubaandtheUS. neighbours,Southern their in invest to began entrepreneurs American North ambitious World, New the economic output the over take to Anglo-imperialists allowing crumble, to when started especially settlements 31), Spanish 2005, (Tornero society and culture local the of part soon essential rule, an Spanish became the by Cubans as seen not while Africans, of number large This 51). 1995, came from Portuguese colonies in Africa, in order to cover the world’s sugar demand (Luchembe became a prosperous sugar producer, it also became a principal recipient of slaves, who usually “white gold”, after Haiti took the first step towards independence from the colonial yoke. As Cuba Oceania. In between, the labour of African men and women was the essential force for producing to and Asia of exported lands distant the in then away farther markets were or Peninsula, Iberian the which on metropolis the continent, the from exploited goods and metals transport precious of the point main for the was it Americas; the to key the was Cuba centuries, three over For 57). 2012, (Keen live” to will of loss the and disorganization social resulting the and exploitation, brutal the immunity, acquired no had Indians the which to diseases new of combination “(a) with 13 1974, Casas las (De months in population the of most eradicated practically that practice inhabitants of the island, known as Tainos or Ciboneys, forcing them into slavery to obtain gold, a coast in 1510. The Spanish expedition Caribbeanrapidly took over the the lives and resources on of the indigenous landed who Velazquez, de themDiego conqueror spotted the by Columbus followed closely when 1492, in world Western the of consciousness the entered They Mexico. by SpainortheUS,andremainasymbolicplaceofresistanceinglobalimagination. the water. Cuba, the larger Caribbean nation, has been to a large extent a land of speculation, either it that such is leads to self-awarenessthe madness of becoming an blurred island, as free and this isolated as that mythical of spot of land upon intensity The individuality. and community between is not only constructed over the image of a country, but has also fragmented the intuitive distinction During my fieldwork, I recognized how this three characters are national symbols of unity against colonialism and imperialism, they form an essential The Spanish occupation in Cuba was part of a colonial campaign over the entire continent, which lead to devastating consequences for local for consequences devastating to lead which continent, entire the over campaign colonial a of part was Cuba in occupation Spanish The By the mid-1800s, a group of Cuban elites (plantation owners) led the initiative to join the US in order of Gulf the bordering Bahamas, the above located are Cuba as known islands of group The of Cuba. In the second half of the 19 the of half second the In Cuba. of th century, after the independence of the British colonies incolonies British the of independence the after century, 39 , headed the Second War of Independence, this Independence, of War Second the headed , 38 ), ),

51 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists . of broader narratives within discourses of Cuban identity). identity). Cuban of discourses within narratives broader of embodiment the revolution. The profound transformation into a socialist system implied after . On the right, the Cuban people of all backgrounds march against the American imperialism . On the right, the Cuban people of all backgrounds and the Cuba Cuba libre This was a point of no return, a moment that, beyond being historic, came to mark history: the Cuba Cuba the history: mark to came historic, being beyond that, moment a return, no of point a was This This mural in Havana illustrates father Martí, the José Cuban of portrait history the is of there middle, resistance. the On In slavery. the fortified revenues left, economic we its and can sugar of findproduction thethe when struggletimes, for independence in colonial of The bourgeois rule in Cuba, manipulated by the invisible hand of colonial or imperial powers, came

industrialized country became the first place in the Americas to follow a socialist path, demonstrating be should, and could, power hegemonic that nations World” “Third fellow to alternative inspirational an 1983, 194). overthrown (Carciofi global narratives, and there is a consequentially extensive body of literature to describe and analyse a and analyse a body of literature to describe and there is a consequentially extensive global narratives, phenomenon that remains in flux to thisday (Guerra 2009, 9). The Cuban revolution, headed by Fidel Castro and Ernesto Che Guevara, was brought to fruition by guerrilla warfare supported by a Cuban population that, tired of deep inequality, joined the militant initiative in the 1950s to overthrow Batista and establish a communist system. To the surprise of a rapidly polarised world, this small and poorly to an end on 1st January 1959 with the emblematic Cuban revolution. This movement crystallised a face face a crystallised movement This revolution. Cuban emblematic the with 1959 January 1st on end an to and thirst of resistance change latent for in Latin America South that had and the Global building been an find we (again, centuries for This was one of the most critical moments in the contemporary history of the region, perhaps even fellow nations in their own struggles for change. As the revolution was taking hold on the island, other attempts for mobilization bloomed across Latin America, Asia and Africa, the latter being of great note to Cuban politics. Along with anti-imperialist resentments in the Americas, before independence years movements two freedom its achieved Nkrumah, by headed Ghana, continent. African the shaking were the fall of Batista, while the likes of Nyerere, Lumumba and Ben Bella encouraged the fall of colonial the violent measures, raising the leaders of the revolution, Castro and loved Guevara, Whether to 1-7). the 2012, status (Diaz-Infante of beyond living and America Latin Cuba, in masses the among legends or hated, the profound transformation of Cuba led to an indisputable change in its relationship to The Mozambique). the as (such nations socialist other and USSR the with affiliation its through order, world towards take would Cuba approaches the mould to came dogma revolutionary the in enveloped feelings before a restructuring of Cuban society from the ground up. While it was achieved through political means, the Cuban revolution was forged by the peculiar strength of those wishing for change, with the pride of the fight, with the sense of bravery born in resistance. It was these emotional tissues that sustained Photo Alina Macías Rangel Macías Alina Photo

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 52 40 the rounded Gama da Cape ofGoodHopetoencounter thelocalinhabitantsofwhatwouldbecome knownasMozambique. Vasco explorer the counterpart, Iberian their As 49). in 1995, coast (Luchembe its 1498 on Columbus of competitors Portuguese the received Tanzania, and Swaziland, Malawi Africa, Zimbabwe, South Anglophone and Ocean Indian the by surrounded continent, African corner the the on of located land vibrant This encounters. ancient of mosaic a into absorbed be to landed forcesforeign where country a was Mozambique Ciboneys, indigenous of genocide the by left spaces of resistance. If Cuba can be seen as the key to the Americas, where Europeans and Africans filled the history own its has Mozambique all, after coincidences: random considered be not should similarities These outfits. military in dressed movements, anti-imperialist and anti-colonial the to face a gave that man of a similar lineage to Fidel Castro, and his predecessor Eduardo Mondlane; figures of leadership a by SamoraMachel was Machel exchanges. was led future to eye an with ties official developed Africa first Guevara and Southern Castro when of nation Thelusophone bloc. socialist the to affiliation political common their through was Mozambique and Cuba between interaction autonomous first The became thehighwaytoIndianOcean,tracinganongoingexchangewithMozambique. movements (Domínguez 1978, 93-95) liberation other in involvement Western to different fundamentally was that solidarity” “international of military aid, trade and humanitarian support in fields such as healthcare and education, all in the name its first venture (Gleijeses 1996, 159-195). Their participation involved diplomatic relationships including being Algeria Africa, in presence strong a maintained has Cuba 1961, Since nations. own their in rule Afurtherdescription ofinternationalistsolidaritywill bepresentedinthefollowingchapter Despite how similar these two trajectories may seem, this was rather a tense moment at the outset. the at moment tense a rather was this seem, may trajectories two these similar how Despite A corner Jardim damemóriadeescravaturatoremembertheimpactofsuchphenomenoninAfrica. The way to the port where most slaves departed during colonial times. It is situated in the Island of Mozambique, in today’s UNESCO 40 . This solid Cuban political stance on the neighbouring continent

Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga

53 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists . While this prazos and fundamentally . This was a colonial Estado Novo century to the first decades of the of decades first the to century th Prazos da Coroa . Following da Gama’s expedition, the century due to its importance to the structure of th century, the Iberian nation was not able to entirely th Moçambique , and later Musambidi century, slavery was a core part of the Portuguese realm. This dynamic had a deep th . Copper from Mozambique, together with other sources of revenues like sugar and transport services, transport and sugar like revenues of sources other with together Mozambique, from Copper . This coast was far more connected to other regions than the archipelagos of the Caribbean. The In 1926 a fascist military coup occurred in Portugal, installing the Compared to other systems of colonial rule, the Iberian monarchies are often referred to as ineffective; as to referred often are monarchies Iberian the rule, colonial of systems other to Compared th different Bantu groups of mainland Mozambique had well-developed ties even North Africa, across as well as Eastern, an intense contact Central with the whose Arabs Bique, and ibn (Luchembe Mussa 1995, by 57-58), ruled North, who the controlled in island an on established were and Ocean Indian the in trade name would later evolve into to conceal the weak economy of the metropolis. This involved a harsh system of unjust contracts, where Mozambican men were practically forced into strong physical labour for miserable payments, shifting the responsibility of sustaining the household to women, and without the possibility to resign without violence, facing or unpayable debts. This slave-like treatment created a clear rift between the Portuguese and locals, while they excused their actions by citing missions of ‘civilization’ or ‘Christianization’. With the of the British and South African companies. He introduced a more capitalist system, with greater control over producing the same goods exploited in Cuba: cotton, tobacco, and especially sugar. The Second World War helped this process by weakening the British presence on the continent, allowing the stronger Portuguese forces in Mozambique to dominate after they landed on the Indian coast. Through companies possible labour the all using Portugal, to imports maximized government Salazar´s Estate, Sugar Sena like passed into foreign hands, adding another colonial layer over the diverse Bantu groups (Luchembe 1995,(Luchembe groups Bantu diverse the over layer colonial another adding hands, foreign into passed 60). Meanwhile, in the metropolis, a dictatorship began to take form under the leadership of Antonio Oliveira Salazar. de control regain to and Africa, Lusophone over control greater have to wished Salazar colonies. the changing Mozambique, as with Spain in Cuba, was often a principal the more became symbolic industry power, mining African while South the the continent, British the empire of went bottom the in At expansion. of pursuit region the in enterprises Anglo-Germanic The power. – political extent large a to and – economic of source 19 the from Angola and Mozambique in rule Portuguese the shadowed 20 playing a leading role in commanding this flow of people and goods across the oceans. The commerce of commerce The oceans. the across goods and people of flow this commanding in role leading a playing human beings continued to almost the middle of the 19 1995, 58-60; Zamparoni 2012, 25-34). Portuguese colonization (Luchembe however, this did not mean they were lacking in oppression or violence. Nonetheless, Portugal in was a weak method of gaining control, it did favour trading goods, and slaves. By the mid-1700s through to most of the 19 were (who year per people 5,400 approximately of departure the adding societies; Mozambican on impact mainly sent to Brazil and the Caribbean) to the existing melting pot of Afro-Guyanese, Afro-Portuguese, Arabic, Portuguese and Swahili peoples. This inhuman business was related to the European control of quest the growing world for trade system, with Britain, France, the Arabic countries and the Netherlands rulers settled. Nevertheless, throughout most of the 15 take control of the Zambezian area, where they principally served as participants in the growing system of trade. It wasn’t until 1620 that the crown introduced the so-called system designed to take control of the land, its inhabitants and production, but was badly administered, leading to a period of chaotic rule where power was held by families in charge of the Portuguese intensified their presence on the coast of Eastern and Southern Africa, often through violence, through often Africa, Southern and Eastern of coast the on presence their intensified Portuguese taking control of the trade in highly valuable goods such as ivory, gold or spices, that contributed a great and Asia Americas, the to trips Exploratory 1-30). 1995, (Newitt economy Portuguese flourishing the to deal from extended that network maritime vast a to Mozambique of coast the connected Africa of Coast West the Portuguesewhere connection, of point key a Mozambique of Island the making Gao, to Brazil of coast the

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 54 portion of human labour continued to emigrate in search of better job opportunities, leaving a population population a leaving opportunities, job better of insufficient for continued economic growth (Wield 1983, 93-94). This debilitated FRELIMO’s intent of a nation- search in emigrate important to an continued industry, labour mining human the of of portion legacy a As Africa. South specifically forces, foreign on dependency their increased conditions of national weakened series the as a especially stabilise, developed and government regulate to independent designed policies the Gradually, agenda. Marxist-Leninist new a of part healthcare, as as such services principal the of nationalization broad a applied FRELIMO, of president the as Machel, Samora context chaotic this In damaged. severely were routes, trade with along agriculture, as such production of modes Thus, inhabitants. local and settlers both of lifestyle the of destruction the and violence coup and proclamation of independence were plagued by strikes and massive mobilizations, often leading to the introduction of a new, autonomous nation was not easy. In Europe, the months either side of Mozambique’s such change, social for strategies various derive to them led colonialism Portuguese managed poorly yet oppressive the with discontent Their nurse. young a was time that by who Machel, Samora and degree, in neighbouring countries. Among these was Eduardo Mondlane, the first Mozambican to earn a doctorate exiled them of most workers, and students through 1940s late the during crystallised only but 1920s, the its achieved Tanganyika Mozambique, ofprocess for Mozambique (Ibid. 23-25). This sort border of uprising had a correlation with Northern the similar Portuguese rule a since encouraged openly the who leader a Nyerere, Julius At by headed 1962, December in liberation.independence at chance a for looked colonies, the release to became thewrenchingmomentumthatgaverisetomovementforindependence(Ibid.15-22). unwilling ruler fascist a to it” chained landscape, underdeveloped desolate actively This 22) Portugal 1984, because (Hanlon rather but underdeveloped, if left Portugal because nor resources, natural of lacks it because not Africa in countries poorest the of one [was] “Mozambique rule, the to comparison in wealthy colonizers of neighbouring farmers areas. By the 1950s, peasant only three decades after predominantly the end of actual were colonial they as difficulties, experienced country the in settlers Portuguese Even education. little and undernourishment of level remarkable a with services, of involvement of the Roman Catholic church, the life of most Mozambicans transitioned without the most basic In the context of the post Second World War period and a weakened Europe, the African continent continent African the Europe, weakened a and period War World Second post the of context the In formation of a national party in free Tanzania. Tanzania. free in party national a of formation the for advocating 1963, of strike doctor’s the as Hanlon 1984, 27-28). Hanlon 1984,27-28). 75-84; 1983, (Wield Mozambique to independence gave officially that Accords Lusaka the signed and 25 on Salazar against d’etat coup a of advantage taking group, representative a as remained FRELIMO and begun, had struggle Uria Simango were murdered. But the anti-colonialist 1966 to between degree a such to scope and policies its colonial of on conflict internal experimented FRELIMO closer, the and end Africa the in presence and eroded dictatorship Portuguese the as Nevertheless, victory. their to the working class, a sector that was indispensable Mozambique, attracting the support of peasants across independence and for calls its advanced party new this 1960s, the During change. of expression political organized an as created was (FRELIMO) the There, Although the Portuguese empire had collapsed, collapsed, had empire Portuguese the Although 1970, that Mondlane and his Vice-President Frente de Libertação de Moçambique de Libertação de Frente th April 1974 in Portugal, Portugal, in 1974 April sao Novo Estado drew drew

55 Macro perspectives and background The South also exists (RENAMO), emerged with the , aiming for Mozambican men to be inspired be to men Mozambican for aiming , 41 asimilados Resistência Nacional Moçambicana

During this last period of independence and civil war, Cuba became a significant influence in Mozambique. in influence significant a became Cuba war, civil and independence of period last this During In practice, the party had its root in a closed group of elites that gained popularity through ideology. A few A ideology. through popularity gained that elites of group closed a in root its had party the practice, In This terms, literally translated as “assimilated”, refers to those few Mozambicans who received education and were closer to the Portuguese elites. and were closer to received education few Mozambicans who literally translated as “assimilated”, refers to those This terms, 41 and the slaves of Cuba, worries imperialism. And imperialism has a reason to be worried…” (qtd. in Ibid. 3).and the slaves of Cuba, worries imperialism. military aid, along with have other countries two communist these of support interrelations political from the onwards, China, 1970s the socialist From Cuba. Germany with ties diplomatic and official the USSR, inaugurating globalshifting the throughout survived nonetheless have but disagreements, serious around times at changed, dynamics (Gunn 1987, 1-10). Within this political process, Cuban cooperation in the military and social sphere of Mozambique remained an essential element in the construction of connections that Fidel Castro described sharply during his first visit to Mozambique in 1977: “(t)his meeting between slaves, the slaves of Mozambique later Samora Machel) met the internationalist agenda of Ernesto Guevara in and Dar Fidel es Castro Salaam, for where the they firstdisagreed time on the although governments, the between distance a created importance struggle own their with proceed to how of on discrepancy the working class to social movements. This Cuba subsequently offered military and diplomatic support, as they did for several other African nations. Once FRELIMO took power under the difficult conditions mentioned above, Machel accepted the Cuban offer for support of Rhodesia and South Africa, which destabilised FRELIMO through violence and domination. From RENAMO, and FRELIMO only not between battlefield a became Mozambique 1990s, the to through 1970s the but also within a Cold War context where South Africa, the US and the Soviet Bloc interfered in a devastated landscape (Sumich 2010, 15-22). As FRELIMO and the revolutionary party followed a Marxist-Leninist ideology, the rule of Mondlane (and groups to control their vast national territory, especially in the rural areas, where The government failed to implement an efficient system of collective national production, leadingmost to a mixture Mozambicans lived. of negligence and military intervention that forced the population into urban areas. In addition, neighbouring Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa saw this emerging socialist governments as FRELIMO supported independence movements in Zimbabwe. As a consequence state of internal as a clear threat to their capitalist and external difficulties, a new party, the building project under socialist principles. Moreover, the implementation of Marxism-Leninism in Mozambique in Marxism-Leninism of implementation restructuring the Moreover, principles. from socialist under away project building shied FRELIMO Cuba. in performed that than process accidental more a as regarded is called so the suppressing instead classes, social the nation. and a newly emerging by rationality social most reach to unable was elite FRELIMO’s by controlled power the independence, achieving after years

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 56 42 poor the infrastructure, weak the shortages, the that remember to then, and now deeply breathe to need – to earn a living. Even those who hold dear to their hearts the pride of the revolution – games crafty their with continue they areas, non-touristic the of streets fragmented the Through home. go to transport inefficient their for lines long in wait Cubans the and rest, to accommodation temporary their to go foreigners The directions. parallel in move groups two these tourism, for authenticity of mask deceptive the replace to eager teenagers and dollars, for experience Cuban “authentic” an offering them of most cars, rushing and tourists foreign of multitude a that symbolizes the rich history of the capital. But this time, the weight of an antique space was disrupted by of feeling unable toconstructorproperlynourish. strength togoonthroughharshness,asupportthatneither socialismnormodern-daycapitalismhavebeen are positive. stayed have who those of Some infinite. seems RENAMO) with rages still (which war the where states Beira. Anywhere where there is a job in this current time of crisis, even if it means passing through the central or Maputo, or city, closest the Nampula, to migrating up end number significant a situation, their improve to overpopulated houses. While people here often frequent tiny, the green of mosque to collection pray, or the practice Bantu in rituals, system drainage a of lack the aggravating scarce, is water running where part the and costs; renovation the afford can who those by inhabited buildings shops, souvenir and church its with houses, colonial old the of that sections: two into divided unofficially is country, whole the of allegory an as the emptiness of the Fortaleza de São Sebastião, where just a few people live in its surroundings. The island, are somehowasimilarmixtureofcolonialbuildingsandlocalslivingonthespoilstourism. its thickness a formidable barrier to protect Iberian business. Even the areas bordering these two constructions coast, the surrounds structure round Its sun. the by eaten paint white faded waves, by pounded walls tall their built in the same period as the Fortaleza de antique the where was ships, cabañas, las de Carlos San them, among cruise foremost The stand. still Caribbean the guarded holiday that fortresses now also and is Americas, There the Ocean. to Indian gateway the classic of the Harbor, edge Havana the the on point meeting and island an Portuguese; the of first settlement the and commerce of source Arab an this, of example one is Mozambique of Island The overwhelming. by Licinio Azevedo (2007). A uniquedocumentary ontheIslandofMozambiquethat describesitshistoryandcurrentreach cultureisIslandoftheSpiritsbyLicinioAzevedo (2007). Later, during one of the times when I walk through Havana at sunset, I stopped to notice the contradictory in presence chameleonic a was there affinity, their from aside that noticed I seashore, the by sat There, of feeling latent a that found to countries these in landed I later, years Thirty-nine A bridge Sua ilha Sua déjà vu déjà , the island of the spirits the of island the , attached to the Fortaleza de San Carlos de las cañas. There it was, the colonial structure colonial the was, it There cañas. las de Carlos San de Fortaleza the to attached Buenavista Social Club Social Buenavista 42 São Sebastião , with its warm land and crystalline waters, provides them with the with them provides waters, crystalline and land warm its with , on the Island of Mozambique. They shine effortlessly, with the latest reggaeton hits. Distanced by Distanced hits. reggaeton latest the with hasta la victoria siempre déjà vu déjà can be slightly slightly be can

57 el comandante en , the Yoruba owner of the waters, who guides the natural power of women and those who dare to refers to is the meeting between people, and this peculiar element is rarely found among the academic The route between Cuba and Mozambique has more than four hundred years of history, as yet unfinished. Sadly, I was unable to capture her more precisely, but in one of her hands she was shaking a maraca, while maraca, a shaking was she hands her of one in but precisely, more her capture to unable was I Sadly, theories on SSC. Beyond the concept of horizontal relations, the translucent bridge between Latin America and America Latin between bridge translucent the relations, horizontal of concept the Beyond SSC. on theories Africa, and more concretely between Cuba the and consideration into take Mozambique, to propose has I Therefore, been projects. humanitarian carried in participants and and politicians soldiers, shaped by the slaves, in involved humans the on focus to order in background, a as SSC and South Global the of approach theoretical constantly is that bridge a of age the trace gradually can one where lives their in is it because phenomena, these chapter. transforming through their movement. This is a topic I will explore in the following locations. Returning to the beginning of this chapter and the discourse of the Global South and SSC, the images the SSC, and South Global the of discourse the and chapter this of beginning the to Returning locations. of these countries, especially contemporaryin a terms draws described of Castro that their encounter respective slaves” the approaches meeting “slaves to The resistance quality. mythical and almost sovereignty, has an bridge that plays with these ancestral narratives of trade routes during the Renaissance, the painful violence attached to the identity of blackness, or the resilient power of the guerrilla. Even more, what jefe that divide the contemporary perception of the world, and the particular struggles of the two countries I visited,I countries two the of struggles particular the and world, the of perception contemporary the divide that clashed into a more emotive with understanding. interweave that Listening faith omnipresent an to of filaments a subtle the prayer, imagines one when I created sensation was nostalgic again touched by the type of rare across time and space. the immensity of a human connection The colonial times ended by tumultuous revolutions did not “end history”, nor the ties between these two in the other she held a blue and white beaded necklace. When I walked closer, I realised she was worshipping was she realised I closer, walked I When necklace. beaded white and blue a held she other the in Yemaya navigate the oceans. Suddenly, I remembered how inside the fortresses there are enormous chambers, often used to host the colonial military powers, or to imprison rebels, or as the last place where slaves would touch theories abstract the Then, sea. the of immensity the by absorbed be to caravels the boarding before mainland salaries and the virtual impossibility of going abroad is all the fault of the American sanctions. Some in the picture. Like the lady sitting for guidance. the intangible forces looked to have

Macro perspectives and background The South also exists 58 as a feeling embodied in the active sensitivity of the people I interviewed. as afeelingembodiedintheactivesensitivityof peopleIinterviewed. both countries. Nevertheless, I will connect approach that this discourses concept political from the of the part perspective essential of an personal as experience, and decades, last the during exchange who remain. Here, the notion of solidarity stands out as a specific element of the Cuban-Mozambican sphere of medical cooperation, I will highlight the the intangible substance of those who travel, and within those mobility of types three these of complexity the unwrapping By Caribbean. Southern the and of Africa context the to relevance particular their and topics these to approach concrete a present here thus will I phenomena. collective and of individual theories both the as migration track and will mobility movement, pages following the chapters, previous in covered history substantial the joke, imitating the other Indian’s speech. Now his decision left me in utter despair. So much unhappiness had had muchunhappiness despair.So utter in Indian’sme other left the decision joke,imitating his Nowspeech. always adapt,” was his justification.Whether there’s a war or not, an Indian is always in the it”, thick he of would from on Following Mozambicans. and Cubans of movements the on focus will I chapter, this In His announcement tore me apart. The trader had always reassured me he wouldhestay. alwaysme had reassured trader The “Weapart. me tore announcement His business,do we awayI’m going Kidzu! Approaches ofmobility, and embodiment solidarity A moving encounter Chapter 4

59 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter -

43 , 21-22) 28-29) Sleepwalking Land Sleepwalking Mas as dúvidas me ocuparam: poderia eu fugir daquele lugar maldiçoado? Recordei as palavras de Surendra: fica, tu não sabes o que (Couto, (Couto, But But I was beset by doubt: could I get away from that infernal place? I recalled words: “Stay Surendra’s here, “I don’t like blacks, Kindzu” blacks, like “I don’t Whites?” then? like, Who mean? “What do you do you either” them like “I don’t race.” own your like You Indians. like you I know: “Ah! Kindzu.” you, I like why That’s no race. who have men I like “No. I left the shop under a shadow of I distress. had now been orphaned by both family and Without friends. What country, Kindzu? I have no place at all. Having a country is something like what you are doing now, now, doing are you what like something is country a Having all. at place no have I Kindzu? country, What the assistant, listened with deafAntoninho, As far as he concerned,was ears. I a was traitor to athe race, I didn’t want to I understand his didn’t were For the words killing shopkeeper. the mirage of an ocean that had “You have forebears, Kindzu. They’re here, they live with you. I have none, I don’t know who they were, were, they who know don’t I none, have I you. with live they here, They’re Kindzu. forebears, have “You Terra sonâmbula himself truth the know of land. I never know. his native to abandon forced had been I ever would Nor his story. family, who family, are we? Less than a speck of dust. Without family or friends, what was there left for was that there me out fire the got into I pushed to before go account, to off own was do? solution my One on myself, by everything. consuming as if He spoke around, on the run to move through lands that belong like to others.” he what it’s know don’t you knowing that it’s worth crying worth for? it’s that knowing his display to just provocative, indelicately us, between passed He traditions. African from fled had who black of me reminded He and stridently. loudly cackled he Thenscorn. said: Surendra a hyena. moved, As he united us in the past. After all, Surendra was alone, without ties to his neighbours, without roots in the land. the in roots without neighbours, his to ties without alone, was Surendra all, After past. the in us united ideas that my still I insistent, suddenly humbled, was delivering Only me. He had no one goodbyeto say to. heart could no longer That render this convincing. land was that his there too, was room for My everyone. voice my stifling was fear and weeping, I was tears: salty my taste me make to enough alone were words crippled crippled me: disappearance, my death, my brother’s father’s madness. But my family’s nothing affected me as had deep-seated Surendra reason: In vain. stay. to man the departure. convince to I tried Indian’s the as much I know don’t where they are. Did you see what happened now? Who came to comfort me? Only you, no one else.” — Vou-me embora, Kindzu! — Já sei: gosta de indianos, gosta da sua raça. — Não. Eu gosto de homens que não tem raça. É por isso que eu gosto de si, Kindzu. grão. um de poeira que Menos somos? que o família Sem amizade. da e família da órfão estava agora Eu angústia. pela sombreado loja a Abandonei Sem família, sem amigos: o que me restava fazer? Única saída era sozinhar-me, por minha conta, antes que me empurrassem para esse fogo que, lá fora, consumia tudo. da certo o soube Nunca natal. terra sua abandonar a forçado sido tivesse próprio ele se como Falava outros. de são que terras por fugista, andar, é sua estória. Nem nunca viria a saber. (Couto, olhos: eu chorava, o medo me afogava a voz. saber que vale a pena chorar. — Que pátria, Kindzu? Eu não tenho lugar nenhum. Ter pátria é assim como você está fazer agora, dois, nós entre por Passou africanas. tradições das fugido negro raça, da traidor um era eu ele Para absurdez. com escutava ajudante, o Antoninho, desdelicado provocador, só para mostrar seus desdéns. No passeio, gargalhou-se alto e mau som. Me vieram à disse, então: lembrança as hienas. Surendra — Não gosto de pretos, Kindzu. — Como? Então gosta de quem? Dos brancos? — Também não. Aquele anúncio me angústia. rasgou. total em O deixava me comerciante dele decisão sempre a me Agora indianos. dera outros dos certeza falas as de imitando ele ficar.brincava Nós meio, na fazemossempre está negócio,monhé não: semprecomo tanto adaptamos, justificava. Faça guerra Tantas infelicidades me tinham aleijado: o desaparecimento de meu irmão, a morte de meu pai, a loucura de minha família. Mas nada me afectou possuía fundas razões: tanto como a partida do indiano. Tentei convencer o homem a deixar-se por ali. Em vão. Surendra aconteceu? que o agora, Vês, estão. onde sei não foram, quem sei não tenho, não Eu contigo. moram aqui, Estão Kindzu. antepassados, tens Tu — Quem é que me veio consolar? Só tu, mais ninguém. sozin estava Surendra Afinal, passado. no unira nos que oceano um de miragem a matavam palavras suas Porque lojeiro. o entender queria não Eu entregando pequenito, subitamente insisti, Ainda eu. Só despedir. quem de ninguém tinha Não terra. na raiz sem gentes, vizinhas com laço sem ho, ideias que meu peito não autenticava. Que aquela terra também era a dele, que todos cabiam nela. Só no falar senti o sabor salgado da água dos 43

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 60 in Van Dijk et. al. 2001,3) to highlight the different criteria where migration may apply. The places qtd. 1 Secretariat Nations United & (Bilsborrow boundary” by administrative or political a analysis “crossing an define, a or residence” to of “change a as hard migration of notion ‘simple’ rather the stretches (2001) al. is et. Dijk Van term the Although Mozambique. and Cuba between fluctuations contemporary the unfolding for concept resourceful a represents migration mobility, term the of scope broad the Within 210). 2006, Urry and (Sheller entities intangible and tangible of energy dynamic the and static the both capture to alternatives methodological and theoretical building are efforts academic response, in flux; constant in systems mobile and communicate to technologies new motion, in be to ways of diversity a offers world Today’s global. and local like structures of North-South in order to understand the dynamics of mobility beyond generalizations static and dichotomies geographical fixed the beyond moving at aimed have approaches recent of types all pilgrimage and trade.” encompasses (De Bruijn et. term al. 2001, 1). Departing umbrella from nomadism, this pastoralism, broad refugeeism, an notion tourism, of migration, mobility, exploration, as travel, more including movement “[m]obility include to concept the broadens terminology this of introduction The 208). 2006, Urry and (Sheller dynamics contemporary these understand us help to motion in objects or information ideas, people, capturing of concept a as mobility” of paradigms geography have “new to or human referring movement, of studies understanding academic the expanded migration anthropology, studies, as cultural such fields in analyses recent More disruption. abnormal of form a as movements migration describe to used been mainly has it given, is attention this when people; of movement the to attention little grants stories that ground this paper stand in contrast to the classical approach to social sciences, which of publication the after years twenty than more Maputo, in encountered I stories life the and prose this between relationship intrinsic the witness to able was I fieldwork, my During disconnection. andconnection space, and time of notions own their expand people where experience an rather one prose, unique this Within but another, to whole. point one from displacement linear a a simply not is movement as human that notices humanity of and Mozambicans, of essential lives an is the movement of that part idea the Perhaps is narrative society. the of of elements core appealing most the the affect of one that movement of dynamics contemporary the with along path alongthecoastofIndianOcean(TutikiananddaSilva2003,84-88). inevitable almost an as reconstruction, of act future a as remain will movement that insinuation displacement, as in the passage above, within and outside of Mozambique. There is also a careful mastery in the words of Couto that the active reader can even recognize the centenary tradition of character, struggles that mirror the movement along the road in internalized voyage. There is such wave of refugee migration, as well as the personal struggles experienced in the loneliness of each massive a created that war a of horrors the narrating of capable is stories, two depicting by that the deep wound left by a conflict that broke the young nation. It is a book about travel, Mozambican and Lusophone literature, one that finds the revival. inexhaustible charm of and the journey survival within Couto’s ofMia of plot search the is This in roamed society Mozambican of layer every from characters where reality, and dreams between limbo the in met stories their and diary, Kindzu’s discovered they when bus burning a inside sheltered were They war. civil Mozambique’s of highway bleak Terra sonâmbula As an artistic expression, this novel reflects on the historical legacy of transcontinental trade, transcontinental of legacy historical the on reflects novel this expression, artistic an As Muidinga, a child, read these words to Tuhair, an elderly man who accompanied him along the Movement, mobilityandmigration . This is also true for Havana, where similar paths of movement are found. The Terra Sonâmbula Terra , one of the most iconic novels of contemporary of novels iconic most the of one , a road novel ,

61 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter On the other side of the Atlantic, Cuba’s parallel history with Mozambique can also be On the African continent (Van Dijk et. al. 2001, 1-18), as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean Caribbean the and America Latin in as well as 1-18), 2001, al. et. Dijk (Van continent African the On policies. A major tactic to reject Castro’s rule by the US has been the acceptance of Cubans onto onto Cubans of acceptance the been has US the by rule Castro’s reject to tactic major A policies. American territory, offering them not only the chance to enter, but to achieve legal citizenship with the help of the government. This option became an incentive for Cubans to embark on the dangerous journey across the sea and desert to achieve the “American dream”, even if it cost 1997,50-52); (Urrutia homeland their re-enter to right the thus and citizenship, Cuban their them movement itself is limited. Due to both economic and bureaucratic reasons, Cubans have had to endure a somewhat static condition that consequence, a virtually As precludes 114). 2014, its (Fresneda island citizens the from from away especially moving and within territory, national control. governmental strong the challenging paths, illegal for opted have Cubans of thousands On the other hand, measures outside of the law have come up against US anti-communist country in a more polarized position than Mozambique under FRELIMO’s rule. The imposition of US imperialist power on the rest of the American continent, and specifically ontriggered mass mobilization towards Cuba,the northern borders. The case of Cuba is a peculiar one, has where two general incentives stimulate international mobility. On the one hand, the nature the of socialist system, in addition to the American blockade, creates a specific context where related in terms of mobility. Founded by foreign settlers and enriched by island African shares the Latin American slaves, and Caribbean tendency the for movement, mainly to Spain and neighbouring countries like Mexico and the US. Nonetheless, the socialist shift on the has island been a deep disruptor, one that has impacted flows the placed has location, geographical its with ofalong Cuba, in Marxism-Leninism applied Castro human movement. The way that of whom have found shelter under FRELIMO’s rule. More recently, Mozambique has hosted a diversity of foreigners from every continent – Indians and Chinese, Portuguese and Brazilians, but also those from other African nations, especially Malawi, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Cape Verde (Ibid. 93-95). like the US and Europe (Gonçalves 2016, 79-91). Remembering Inocencia’s story as she awaits awaits she as story Inocencia’s Remembering 79-91). 2016, (Gonçalves Europe and US the like her partner’s return from the mines in South with cope Africa, to practice common a still is opportunities of search in males) (especially individuals we are reminded that Mozambique. to the arrive still travellers movement and travellers; by built of nation a in instability socioeconomic It is important to recognize the multidirectional nature of all others, and Africa South Timor-Leste, Zimbabwe, from activists political to home a been has mobility, as the lusophone country and and international boundaries. Just like Surendra and Kindzu, the Indian shopkeeper and young Mozambican man, the the post-independence context has added new catalysts for mobility due to war, a lack of opportunities, or severe droughts. This has encouraged the displacement of Mozambicans between rural areas, from (especially the capital Maputo), and impoverished to neighbouring South Africa or destinations further afield rural landscapes to urban cities Cuban-Mozambican Cuban-Mozambican exchange can highlight the use of mobility in creating these national, forms the within of manoeuvre SSC, who individuals Mozambican and Cuban of migration the on based dynamics of mobility. as well as regional (Pellegrino 2003, 11-19), motion has been a primal part of people’s daily lives, within both national people move towards, the mode of their movement, the choices that drive their steps, consequences; and all the of these shape migration characteristics in particular contexts, leading to an the as such motivations, and interests of combination a often today is “[m]igration where analysis interrelation of pilgrimage with mobile trading patterns or labour migration connected to visits to kinsmen” (Grätz 2010, 2). Considering these flexible, broad concepts, a careful analysisof the

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 62 Photo Alina Macías Rangel ht norg mvmn, s el s h idlbe otrn o mvmn ta i lf o the on left is that movement of trajectories oftheinterviewees. footprint indelible the as well as movement, encourage that next section and chapter, here I wish to emphasize the inextricable junction of macro discourses a more detailed analysis on the meaning and content of these journeys will be presented in the subject, I will illustrate these flows of mobility in the following section of through life types experiences of being on stories.the move have built a three chameleonic Althoughbridge. To further elaborate on this these where oceans the crossed who those mobility become meaningful points of of articulation between the two countries, voyage and their personal the in humans is by It shaped motion. and built in phenomenon articulated an is it rather, disruption; unilateral as a migration of vision ¨simplistic¨ the challenges approach This field. medical the in Cuba in studied have who Mozambicans of cases and homeland, their to return not did Cubans where controlled highly under cases other revealed fieldwork nations my during collected stories several life the addition, inhabited In circumstances. have them of some that meaning time, of period certain a for locations predetermined in work to countries other to travel professionals Cuban framework, socialist a within cooperation medical of umbrella the Under continent. and mobility, where actual legal borders are traversed in order to change residence to a new country international of form structured the with concerned is follows thesis this that route transatlantic mobility patternsinCuba. today’s of part are traced immigration of routes the recentand diaspora Cuban substantial more the years, in changed have policies these While 1990s. the in crisis migration a to led this in Havanawhowant tohavea“morelocal”experience byrejectingtheclassicChevrolets. busses in Havana are the from one province to the other, or even to find effective transport within each city. For instance, an alternative to the overcrowded travel to money enough save to hard is it tariffs, lower with transport exclusive own their have locals Cuba in Although borders. Miami. Three hundred euros is not an affordable price for most locals, who have to find creative ways to move within and outside move within Cuba and Mozambique. It costs the same to fly from Maputo to the North of Mozambique than to go from Havana to It is ironic how this research is focused on people who move across continents, while at the same time it is rather complicated to contemporary the countries, both in present movement human of dimensions the Following bicitaxis , which are taken by locals sporadically due to their high prices, but are mainly loved by tourists

63 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter , nor a revolutionary; but he was he but revolutionary; a nor , Che 1960 speech, qtd in Brouwer and a medical student who encountered a painful injustice throughout the 44 “On “On Revolutionary Medicine”

2011, 22) Buenos From Granados. Alberto with trip road a on embarked Sierra la de Guevara Ernesto 1951, In realize at that time that there were things that were almost as important to to important as almost were that things were there that time that at realize me as becoming famous or making a significantcontribution to medical people.” help those to I wanted science: (Che Guevara doctor, I came into close contact with poverty, hunger, and I disease; doctor, came with into close contact with poverty, stupefaction the with of money; of lack because child a treat to inability the father a that point the to hungerpunishment, and continual by provoked accepts the loss of a son as an unimportant accident, as occurs often in the downtrodden classes of our American homeland. And I began to “I began throughout America…First as a to student, travel and later as a Educational mobility: those who returned to stay who returned mobility: those Educational As mentioned in the last chapter, Latin American identity has a strong sense of individual and collective identity that was further developed

44 of resistance (see Campra 1987). by the socialist revolutions, not only in Cuba but all around the region as an essential element Aires, all the way up to northern Venezuela, the young Argentinean travelled on a Norton motorcycle yet not was he time, that At America. South of diversity the across became the core of Cuban internationalism movement (Harris 2009, 26-29). From this prelude in the 1970s through to the 2000s, young Mozambicans arrived, along with a wide variety of international migrants, to receive primary, secondary and tertiary education. Approximately 35 to 40,000 students landscape in which he travelled, on a journey that revealed a side to him that would change the course of course the change would that him already a Latin American to side a revealed that journey a on travelled, he which in landscape of form a of founders the of one was Guevara later, years Ten 2004). Salles (see history America’s Latin ideologies. and resources only not people, moving of importance the emphasized that internationalism Professionals, students, assistants and volunteers across fields like medicine, education and sports Photos Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam Photos

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 64 of mobilityhasended, itworksasacontextualnotion tomyanalysisonthecurrentmigration ofCubanmedicalstafftoMozamb ique. ments between both countries. This is a topic of its own that requires further analysis of solidarity and personal encounters. Moreover, as this form 47 for immigrantswhowanttoarrive Mexicobyboat(seeMiroff,2015). 2000, about “35,000 students from thirty-seven Third World countries had been schooled on la Isla” (Dorsh 2011, 295). Nowadays, it is a route boarding schools for international students during the student exchange agreements, before Cuba entered a deep economic crisis in 1994. By 46 bureaucratically supportedtheirventures abroad. their return to Mozambique. Thus, their personal decisions and interactions were somehow conditioned by the structure that economically and 45 by hisCubanaccentandslang,heremembered that periodofhislife. school, followed by university, before specializing in ophthalmology. In his flawless Spanish, decorated affecting theidentitiesofitsalumni(DolbyandRizvi2008,qtd.inBrooksWaters2011,8-9). Cuba in simultaneously while networks, intercontinental studied to led that mobility who a to approach alternative Mozambicans an permits of case the globalization, of terms in exchanges student recent relatively even small movements how have a stress profound effect they on youngsters (ibid.). students, While this of research was mobility focused on more the on analysis their In space. cultural different a with identify they rather but immigrants, as of nor kind tourists, as this perceived in really participated not are who exchange women student and men The Atlantic. the crossed who those of lives impact the profound a on had has that part a cooperation, medical of umbrella the within movement of part in Havana. Following this, I highlighted what I call “a branch of background mobility studied had who Machava, Dr. husband her to talk to me advised who interviewees, Cuban my of one poorly studied phenomenon. As I mentioned during the methodology chapter, I found this group through a remain they and examples), some for 2010 Fiddian and 2011, Dorsch (see subject the on literature of Mozambique tore-integrate. to return their on work would they where even in and country, partner the of needs the with accordance choose, could students foreign the careers the on agreed who governments, both by controlled Dorsh 2011, 298). Later on, they had to pass tests to be able to enter higher education. This was also ties with their homeland while at the same time becoming involved in the Cuban world (fieldwork notes; Juventud la de Isla the on located schools boarding secondary and primary attend would they means development.This personal their degree certain a to and progress, academic/professional their control and regulate would governments both years, formative their During professionals. level high become to order in island the on live to youth their during selected were Mozambicans of thousands party, communist Cuban the and FRELIMO between agreements governmental the of result a As 294). 2011, (Dorsh North the with relations handicapped their overcome other each help to ways alternative find to order in countries World” “Third among internationalism socialist following government, revolutionary the of agenda foreign the of part ambitious an was This force. labour the into reintegrate to countries home travelled at an early age to pursue secondary and tertiary education in Cuba, before returning to their 2011, 295; Fiddian 2010, 137). In a nutshell, this was a form of educational exchange where students of 3,764 those were Mozambican students who obtained a degree and in Cuba, as part of this agreement (Dorsch Africans, were 30,000 around these, of program; this of part were countries 120 from The and Cuba within movement their restricted which permits, and scholarships governmental on dependent highly was Cuba in lifestyle Their Here, I refer to Mozambican students in Cuba as a background to mobility because it is not my main focus to explore the educational move educational the explore to focus main my not is it because mobility to background a as Cuba in students Mozambican to refer I Here, He was in Cuba for nineteen years, from 1977 to 1996, where he studied secondary and tertiary tertiary and secondary studied he where 1996, to 1977 from years, nineteen for Cuba in was He “I hadsuchawonderfultimethere”hetoldme,with awidesmile. Thinking onmyfirstencounterwiththisformofmobility, IrecallDr.Machava’spersonalnarration: These educational journeys were a kind of “discovery” during my fieldwork, as there is not a great deal Isla de la Juventud la de Isla (Isle of Youth), previously known as known previously Youth), of (Isle 46 (Isle of Youth), taught by Mozambican and Cuban professors in order to retain retain to order in professors Cuban and Mozambican by taught Youth), of (Isle Isla de los Pinos los de Isla , is an island located in the Southeast of Cuba that hosted 61 hosted that Cuba of Southeast the in located island an is , 47 ” as a fundamental 45 -

65 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter . 48 This was 50 , while we took tea in her consulting room where she works she where room consulting her in tea took we while , 49 Portunhol grade we had class with Ghanaians and Sudanese, and we all spoke th When he was at the hospital during the last years… he had so many children. But he chose me. a wanted always he guess I health.’ to related something in work to you want I girl, ‘my me told He assistants, the of one be could I thought “He smile. a with continued, she doctor” a become to boy like those ladies who clean and help around. Then, he said if I could go abroad I should, but I I took the chance.” should graduate as a doctor, a nurse or something related… so I asked her, thinking about how young she was when she left, and for the many years she was away. I asked her, thinking about how young she was when she left, and for “Did you want to go?” “I didn’t know anything about Cuba, but because my dad had died of cancer when I was little… It was a quiet evening, after the patients had just left the building, and my attention was captivated was attention my and building, the left just had patients the after evening, quiet a was It before you arrived there?” “Did you know anything about Cuba professors, so they worked hard to make during us primary school. And there were others, feel from Angola, Namibia… one school per like country. we were a united I country. remember in the 11 the first year.” Spanish, because we learned in She told me in her flexible her in me told She “It was a new experience, from Africa, from rural parents… Inhambane, free. In to the beginning Cuba. it We was hard, were I cried without the first our few months, butused afterto it. And we thatall came from different weprovinces (in Mozambique), but we got had Mozambican Inhambane (see appendix 2), so they sent me firstgovernment tolooked for Maputo,there. the up grew best I and years; students. 13 for They from there was would I theremales... go were those to class of most by Actually Cuba. The abroad. class, study could selecting those who Havana.” First I was on the Isla, and then in “I arrived there when I was 12, to do the last year of elementary school on the Isla. I’m from “Those were the years of my youth. There I met my wife, and thanks to that I have this job.” and thanks to that I met my wife, my youth. There the years of “Those were Nowadays, he is the director of the ophthalmology section in the Central Hospital, which meant Just in Dr. Machava’s department there were three other alumni, two of whom I interviewed, who shared the same working space with a Cuban Cuban a with space working same the shared who interviewed, I whom of two alumni, other three were there department Machava’s Dr. in Just Mixture of Spanish and Portuguese As Dorsch (2011) notes, this socialist structure of education and lifestyle reinforced national unification by constraining buildings per country

48 refused to give me an interview. maxillofacial surgeon, who I met when I had problems with my wisdom teeth, but unfortunately 49 50 nationalism the with infused was pride national Cuban as time same the at help, for contact of point principal the embassies national making and country (Ibid., 300). of foreign groups as a tactic of coping with new circumstances at a young age and in a different by her enthusiasm. as a dentist at the Central Hospital of Maputo: as a dentist at the Central Hospital there are a remarkable number of Mozambican professionals that still vividly recall this experience this recall vividly still that professionals Mozambican of number remarkable a are there He soon put me in contact with Raquel (pers. comm.), his colleague, who memories to me: agreed to narrate her that he was too busy to give me a long interview. However, the that stressed words Machava Dr. countries. both between of link a remains abroad studying this how highlighted charismatic person

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 66 housing andmaintenance, suchasclothing,food,healthcare andtravelexpenses. 51 work intheNorth. return, afterhavingspentmoretimeabroadthan athome. storytelling momentswhenelderlypeoplespeakoftheiryouth. and culture,reinforcedbyarigorousdailyroutine. policies. Those years of formation were a fundamental part of their integration into the Cuban system According to the alumni and the records (Ministerio de Educación Cubano qtd. in Fiddian 2010, 140), the Cuban state covered the students’ the covered state Cuban the 140), 2010, Fiddian in qtd. Cubano Educación de (Ministerio records the and alumni the to According She continued with her story, gesticulating vividly to make sure I understood how hard it was to was it hard how understood I sure make to vividly gesticulating story, her with continued She accept this,thisisyournew reality.AndIhadtodealwithabscesses!” must you Raquel, me: told early Cuba have from back came I who nurses two thought: other The here! I work to and clean, not were people where province poor really a is it there; me sent “It was a bit hard. I arrived to work in a hospital in Niassa (see appendix 2). The Ministry of Health to was it how her asked I exchange, educational Cuban the about optimism her on Reflecting least so…Ireallydon’tregrethavinggonethere, Cubansareverykind,welcoming.” give… although sometimes they weren’t nice, sometimes they could be racist, but they were the to like they social, so are Cubans and groups, in studying by exams the for preparing were We Colombia… Congo, everywhere: from but country each own your from help only not and more, to even other study, of group a create to had we there different, was it university the at “Then, She laughedbeforecontinuing. different from there werephones.” people, many so met I And before Burundi… from also but friends, Cuban my visit to Cuba. go could I weekend the At countries. of provinces the all almost to guaguas in went we Cuba, in provinces other to travelled we holidays the During study. just didn’t we “But the of common cadence, joyful with spoke continued Raquel discipline, military-like the Despite then wewouldcalltheteacher.Butitwasourdutytostudy.” didn’t You have study. any excuse, to people there help each were other, especially We from your remember. own country; still and if I nobody knew, Ah, time! study the during silence a such was There evenings. the in study to had we and classes the then showered, we fields, the After to party Friday night or so, we had to write a letter to the director… everything was so regulated. “Not hard, but it was kind of a military life, well thought out and regulated. If we wanted to go out, “Wasn’t thathard?” She saidwhenIaskedhertodescribeexperienceontheIsleofYouth. way togivesomethingback.Becausewedidn’tpayforanything. a was It grapefruit. or coffee cultivate to school, before mornings, the in fields the to go to use “I internationalist ambitious Castro’s supported USSR the when 1983, the in there arrived She 51 ”

67 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter “Being there helped me to understand. I’m different from those who stayed. Those who studied that understand I But empathic… aren’t they talk, to minute a have not do they patient, aren’t here I need to leave my problems somewhere else and smile at them (the patients), to just be nice. Because sometimes it isn’t the pain that brought them here; maybe there are other problems, As the interview came to an end, I asked Raquel if she was glad to have been part of this Our pleasant conversation reflected similar patterns in the storieslife of other Mozambicans She laughs. ignorance! what Ah, study. to went I that them show to family my to me brought she returned I “When my kids to go away when they are 12 years old... so young.” But I can imagine, I wouldn’t allow “They thought we were going there to cut sugar cane, they thought my older sister sold me, as a as me, sold sister older my thought they cane, sugar cut to there going were we thought “They slave to work in the sugar cane field.” Raquel’s story demonstrates that educational migration was not only a significant international “But I really think it’s worth studying odontology, even if I went three months without eating well due to the smell. I showered so much, I really suffered… Cuba was so orderly in comparison. Everything was organized so you didn’t encounter that kind of smell. But life, and I like it…” a more stable South, with now I’m here in the their foreign education and the skills learned in Cuba (especially those in the medical sciences), as sciences), medical the in those (especially Cuba in learned skills the and education foreign their well as the Cuban approach to these fields. educational mobility, to which she answered emotively: memories. In doing so, they had to face new challenges that pushed them to forge autonomy, while autonomy, forge to them pushed that challenges new face to had they so, doing In memories. balancing their own background with a nationalistic environment that was not free from racism or prejudice. They then had to adapt to post-war Mozambique in transition a system to where capitalism, Western and education was thus preferred (Dorsh 2011, 306). The alumni I talked to occupy high-ranking jobs that ensure them a “stable life”, as Raquel puts it, now achieved partly due to of this socialist exchange, the story of Raquel, Dr. Machava and all those involved, casts a unique light on this migratory experience. In their words, we notice the multiple layers that this movement entailed then, and now. It was not just a strict boarding program – they physically moved to a new (aside cultures other encountered language, new a learned ocean, the of side other the on country, from Cubans), all the while building professional skills and personalities that grew full with youthful who had spent time in Cuba. Their stories shared the path of this controlled form of mobility, which secured system This Mozambique. to return their to through departure from experience their framed with case the was as Mozambique, in needed most was it where labour skilled highly of formation the Raquel, to the benefit of a nation weakened by civil war. Nonetheless, despite the clear guidelines Mozambican interactions away from the painful weight of the 291, 296). her return home (Dorsch 2011, of this historical image when describing made a mockery transatlantic slavery route. She even dynamic, but that it also represents a valuable part of her memories; thanks to her time character abroad, changed in her the process of obtaining a professional degree that has helped her to reach a profitable career.While she did point out that it was not an easy process,her nor a words perfect destination, gave new confidence to the process of meaningful migration, which refocused Cuban-

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 68 Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga coping withtheirworkingstyleandabletocreateaculturalboundarybasedonnostalgia. of capable are that island the on studied who those to referring term a 303), 2011, (Dorsh “cubanitos” the with connection strong a shown has group last This medicine. of sector public and private the in staff, often trained by Cuban professors (fieldwork notes), as well as with the Cubans that currently work is still found in the number of healthcare professionals educated in the Caribbean that interact with local internationalism are no longer focused on young internationals, the legacy of this socialist educational of exchange years the and ruins, in now is Youth of Isle the Although mobility. of forms aforementioned fewer with and education, vacancies. Since tertiarythe fall of the soviet bloc, the economic crisis in Cuba has had a direct impact on the on focused mainly though exchange, academic of forms shorter Despite the generally positive feel of Raquel’s story, this form of mobility is over. There are still some to bemoretolerant.Thatwithlittlewecaninpeace,don’tneedfightlife.” which in and take to need amount. Here they they are afraid… doctors can what be very arrogant. have, It really changed my they life, taught me what diseases… their about medication, the I learned this over there, here the patients are afraid of the doctors. They do not properly explain perhaps social or psychological. So if I talk to them they trust me and they feel more comfortable. ilmtc asot ettig hm o full to them entitling a passport, with arrive diplomatic They locations. and hospitals predetermined in work to request, by years of opportunity of extending their stay for a couple exchange or for 2 to 3 years contracts, with the professional situations, crisis for abroad sent worldwide (ibid.), Cubans are more likely to be staff medical of mobilization increasing an is there While 2). 2003, Bach in (qtd. national” a not is she or he which of State a in activity engaged or has been engaged in remunerated is engaged, be to is who person “a as worker migrant international an of definition UN’s the within included be can staff medical Cuban elsewhere (Dahrendorf 2015, 8). In this orsense, Mozambique it be country, partner the of needs the cover to techniques and assistants to nurses, physicians, of number certain agrees a send government flow, Cuban restricted the a whereby is mobility This 6). 2009, Erisman and (Kirk personnel of exchange the in Africa’s healthcare has been mainly through doctors travelled to 58 temporary Algeria in of 1963, Cuban participation brigade fulfil a After to worldwide. aid staff medical national shipping of the been has cooperation medical Labour mobility:thosewholefttoreturn h piay om f oiiy ihn Cuban within mobility of form primary The

69 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter The situation there is so harsh, and people identify you. I 52 , and some snacks) he asked me about my research, and said without hesitation: , and some snacks) he asked me and usually people die… it’s the worst day to work, and the Cubans always had to cover the nightthe cover to had always Cubans the and work, to day worst the it’s die… people usually and was patient the if even us, to get to just beds… the or instruments the hide even would They shifts. a local, just because we were Cubans.” controversial so been has that country a of condition delicate the highlighting nodded, family His “Venezuela was the hardest for sure! Venezuelans.” and doctors Cuban between conflict huge a is There hospital. anti-Cuban an in was he told me, alarmed by my poor knowledge on the issue. “Let me tell you, Friday accidents, are there nights shot, are people Fridays on are but time, the all violence much the so is There worse. He told me this as the night found us, sitting with his wife and son; we were all looking at him, “I couldn’t travel then, the war had devastated the country and there were mines in the fields… I boom! huge a make that those mortars, some still were there and (2010) ago years six back came But still, this last time I travelled around…” “I was in the war for two years… In Angola.” “I was in the war for two years… Dr. Ricardo was a military doctor with a brigade in the Southern border with Namibia. During this With such a large number of participants in this type of mobility, it is not difficult to find people people find to difficult not is it mobility, of type this in participants of number large a such With Since Hugo Chavez achieved the presidency of Venezuela in 1999, Cuba has been a strong supporter of the socialist shift of the country. As in the political arena. Interested in the difficult – not to mention dangerous – nature of his stories, I this time to Angola. went on, asking him why he had decided to go on a fourth mission, 52 a consequence, SSC between both governments has increased rapidly, with oil revenues coming to Cuba while physicians travelled to several critical a propitiated has instability, political severe to attached crisis, economic the Nonetheless, 107-113). 2010, (Romero Venezuela in regions situation in Venezuela. (For more on the matter see Levine 2015.) like the spectators of an adventure radio show. chapter, after his return to Angola. Dr. Ricardo completed another He two missions, in Guatemala and continued his story, moving on to in Venezuela, the main ally of Cuba in Latin America. the next period, he lived in a bunker, and travelled together with the Cuban and MPLA troops against UNITA.period, he lived in a bunker, and outside a renovated colonial house. After a classic Cuban welcome (consisting of an espresso, or or espresso, an of (consisting welcome Cuban classic a After house. colonial renovated a outside cafesito with a variety of experiences, even in the most remote places. For instance, Caridad (the during lady I described my in the introduction) visit I met to Ricardo, whose father (persn. comm.) of the same name worked abroad for several years and had now returned, living on the outskirts of fast and cheap a bike, his on me brought junior Ricardo meeting, a scheduling After Rio. del Pinar mode of transport in rural Cuba, through the fields as the night fell, to find an elderly men sitting the crowded streets of Rome, professionals collaborating in a remarkable number of countries (Kirk and Erisman 2009, 1-15; Anderson 2010, 55). Most of my interviewees are physicians with experience in other countries besides Mozambique, particularly Angola and Venezuela, but also Guinea. like Mali, Nigeria or Equatorial other African countries support from the Cuban embassy within a regulated predetermined progress. Their destination, objective is working to health collaborate the schedule in on framework common public and a medical non-intervention; of healthcare, code a adapting under to regulations professional local countries various to been have men and women Cuban conditions, these Under 3). (ibid., industry to fulfil international contracts, from the coast of Timor-Least to the jungles of and Venezuela

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 70 salaries andspecific livingconditionsthatcontrasted with thelocallifestyles.This discrepancywillbefurtheranalysedthenextchapter. in abroad in different foreign aid projects worldwide. These highly educated migrants, mainly from Western countries, arrived to Mozambique with higher 54 in thenextsectionandtwo chapters. 53 internationalism. encouraging themtocross bordersinthenameofhumanitarian staff medical international other of conditions the to different are and easy, be always not may goals Such skills. professional develop further and abroad travel to opportunity the offers internationalism of kind regulated environment (I will describe in detail this process of adaptation in the following chapter), this a wide variety of landscapes. Although they must face professional and personal challenges in a highly Cubans; those who work abroad have reinforced the vast Cuban foreign network of movement across around the world. This experience is in sharp contrast to the static circumstances of most of their fellow within Cuba, shifting professionals from the provinces to the main cities, before flying to other countries in thelongrun. than the time stipulated in their contracts, and offers the opportunity to become a permanent migrant more often years, take may that mobility a is this time, same the At certainty. complete without often destinations, their in variety great have may and home return a visualize they shorter as migration, this of form with elements share cooperation medical in involved those comparison, In 91). Ward 2000, and (Bell abroad location stable a have rarely and periods shorter for travel who tourists, or may be different to other, better recognised forms of complete temporary migration, such as seasonal workers to This change. eager permanent a was not is she this that up, conscious is grown she Nevertheless, have Africa. in they shewentback project another that which Now after children. her years, of care three take for to Namibia Cuba in to worked she ago, years her not Ten is mission. This Health. first of Ministry the at staffer administrative an as works who husband, her with Arleti (pers.comm.),aCubanmicrobiologistintheCentralHospital,expressedthisclearly: residence.” This was the case for the Cubans who came to medical cooperation based on contracts. any formofterritorialmovementwhichdoesnotrepresentapermanent,orlasting,changeusual “as migration, permanent to relation in migration, temporary describe 88-89) (2000, Ward and Bell flow. hybrid a or migration of temporary of form a staticperceptions is this whether clear entirely not challenges is it as movement, ofmobility form This notes). (fieldwork exile with punished and and any longer duration without the proper bureaucratic permission was viewed as an act of treason sound so adventurous. The governmental project was designed to be a form of temporary residence, In comparison with Cuban medical aid, Pfeiffer (2003, 731) describes the so-called “aid cowboys” as those employers who would temporarily work Dr. Ricardo means the goods and revenues he needs to have a more comfortable life for himself and his family. This will be further developed In any case, being part of the Cuban medical cooperation involves a high degree of mobility, firstly together contract, years three a begin to Mozambique in arrived she after months three her met I for awhiletodevelopspecificproject…collaborate,butthat’sit.” “I’m not here to take the place of anybody. In Cuba I have a space, which is my place. I’m just here Most participants in Cuban medical cooperation have a similar path to Dr. Ricardo, though not all now I’mfinehere.” wanted I what got I again. ever leave to want don’t I done, I’m now but again… there up ended I So Angola. in experience with preferably and ready, documents the with somebody arrived, for looking call emergency an then but places… touristic and beach nice a with island, small a on mission, peaceful a was wanted I All Venezuela. and Guatemala then war, the during there, been “It wasn’tmychoice”heobjected.“IwantedtogoBarbados,notbackAngola.Ihadalready 54 . Nevertheless, it represents a popular option for Cubans to get better job opportunities, while while opportunities, job better get to Cubans for option popular a represents it Nevertheless, . 53 ,

71 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam Photo In line with Cuban ideology, physicians must follow a bureaucratic process to leave the Cuban was in the 1990s, ‘95 or ‘97. We met when I was working here and I decided to come back.” was in the 1990s, ‘95 or ‘97. We met when I was working here and “Was it easy? To move back to Mozambique?” I asked him, curious to hear for the first time the word love as a motive to move. “I left, and I came back because I fell in love with a young lady. I was 29 years old at that time. It Long term mobility: those who leave for a for leave who those mobility: term Long fresh start Prior to my fieldwork, the literature on healthcare system. They can then start to process the required documents to work conceal overseas, they not as have do procedures the these flexibilitythough ofnationality, expatsdifferent a fromadopt non-socialistto countries.option the Onceis establishedthere awayhomeland, from their near the coast, distant from my student residence. After walking for an hour, on one of those days days those of one on hour, an for walking After residence. student my from distant coast, the near when summer is really beginning in the southern hemisphere, I arrived to his consulting room to s lunch break. find him calm and more than eager to tell me his story during hi I met him through Portuguese, my who Brazilian described teacher him of Mozambican a “with friend good a and doctor, as a wise heart.” He was my third interviewee, and the neighborhoods fancy the in located infrastructure private neat the within living to talked I one first have built a life as permanent migrants in the country. Dr. Carlos is one of at works those and nationality, Mozambican who adopted has the private hospital of Maputo, as the general established. well is and 52, now is He director. of contact, he made a clear distinction in are the who those Cubans: of experience migration part of the governmental missions, and those who are not. This last group is composed of professionals who live in Mozambique outside the control of the Cuban government, and aid. Nevertheless, the first encounterwith Cuban had I personnel in Dr. Maputo Antonio, was a with cardiologist Mozambican who citizenship had and taken was established now in well the capital. As my first point Erisman 2009; Miramón and Martínez 2010) described the mobility of the internationalist personnel project, within and to a extent certain the educational exchange, historical within context a of contemporary Cuban Cuban medical cooperation (see Kirk and

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 72 55 are circumstances andchoices. periods, shorter individual or their by motivated is longer motion in group other any for like which group, skilled go highly a of part they whether professionals, Cuban 2-3). 2002, abroad (Vertovec life a consolidating facilitates for that network international an created to Cubans introducing as although well missions, Internationalist even contracts. as lifestyles, other acknowledging contexts, other to exposure or the encourage contracts, temporary private longer towards with step important residences an be permanent can abroad time their cooperation, international to movedifferentdestinations,norreturntheirhomeland(BellandWaard2000,90). will or obligation the without and nationality, second a of adoption the with often country, foreign a in Mozambique without restrictive regulations can be seen as permanent migrants, with a stable residence several menandwomen. for path popular a become has and government, by regulated missions internationalist the to draw their Cuban citizenship (fieldwork notes). Althoughtheydo losesomeoftheirhealthcareandschooling benefits,whichare availableonlyfornationalresidents. no governmentsupporting you,nostructure.” is there means, own your by zero from start must you work. nothing, have you things outside, move you Once how not that’s and solved, be would everything outside once that thinking an illusion, with Cuba left He integrate. couldn’t he adapt, couldn’t just he here arrived he when before, colleagues who have been here have other expectations. Like one of my friends who was in Spain “The main motive is economic” he told me, without pause. “The experience I have had is that other “And whatisthemainpurposetoallthis?Togoabroad…” of system government the join must legally Cuba leave to wish that staff medical all While leave thatbehindandacceptyourrealityhere.” to need you Cuba, leave to decide you If no. Cuba… in left you what have, don’t you what about complaining crying, be cannot You day. single every hard work and ground’ the on feet ‘the put easy, everything is expensive. You cannot arrive here thinking you can live from nothing, one must I found a good job in no time! Cuban doctors have a good reputation, you know. Still, life here isn’t there are more Mozambican professionals, and there are more Cubans who also stayed here. But the 1990s, there were about six surgeons in the country, including foreigners. Now it has changed, “Now it’s easier because I have citizenship. And being a doctor has helped a lot! When I arrived in “And lifehereinMozambique…hasitbeeneasy?Isworthit?” in living now individuals the above, mentioned that to mobility of form derivative this Comparing you wanttogobacklivethere,needdomorepaperworkberepatriated.” if but holidays… for family, your visit to back go can you and Cuban, a still are You abroad. live to categories… nobody really understands it” he told me, laughing. “And one of those is a document migration many are there country my In abroad”. live to “permit a gave they out; go to you release to had Cuba “liberation”, call something for ask to had we time my In harder. even is it now hear I months. six around took that process a was it leave, just who couldn’t doctors I many But Cuba. not outside were migrated there time that at and 1990s the was It time. that at easy wasn’t “It 55 In a way, this long term alternative is a remarkably strong

73 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter I took this photo in the Cuban consulate in Maputo. On the left, the first photo shows the brothers Fidel and Raúl Castro; on the right, Fidel and Samora are sitting together in their first encounter. What is behind the constant motion of Cubans and Mozambicans? What is the foundation of Solidarity procedures. And I would do the same if I had to do it again.” I would do the same if I had to do procedures. And socio-cultural the of part fundamental a is mobility how glimpse can one Carlos, Dr. of story the In and still there are some who rather go through all this, due to the economic benefits ofoutside working the Cuban system. When I was here (in Mozambique) to the simply stay, firstmy girlfriend time,wanted that… but I hadif you stay illegally chancethe you cannot return to Cuba eight years. for And I thought: no way, eight years! Without my father and my mother! All the money in Mozambique was not worth such a punishment. So I decided to go back and do all the legal “But you decided to stay here…” I asked him, doing my best to understand the forces that make such difficulties. pass through these men “Each country has its own legislations, so when you arrive to a new place you have to follow their rules, you may be able to work illegally, or end up exploited… there is a risk of being humiliated;

such a concise and regulated form of cooperation? Do they move just for money, as Carlos said, or because of emotional sensations, like the love that he described In the for search for his understanding, I Mozambican noticed that wife? while the different variants of mobility mentioned have their own processes, all of which occur within governmental measures. At the root of phenomenon was the this first medical cooperation project in socialist Cuba was actually an emotive within each personal story for the sake of a better life for themselves and their loved ones. within each personal story for the simultaneously incorporated in various societies, moving between moral fields as well as spheres of exchange” (Glick-Schiller qtd. in Grätz 2010, 2). Dr.Carlos, Arileti and her husband, nurse Olga, Dr. Ricardo, Raquel, Dr. Machava… each of the people I interviewed narrated fragmented stories, scattered through memories of two coasts, and curiosity. interwoven In with their nostalgic movement reunions, across loneliness, reshaped also continents, but absorbed, been just not have socialism of discourses their political where awareness, lives have been built through a fluid self- life of Mozambicans and Cubans, those who move, those who stay on the other side of the ocean, this human network, migrants are “transborder citizens, often and those who welcome them. Within Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam Photo

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 74 médicos, y cada año que pase más estudiantes ingresarán en la Escuela de Medicina; porque la Revolución tiene derecho a recoger lo que lo recoger siembra yrecoger losfrutosquehasembrado...” a derecho tiene Revolución la porque Medicina; de Escuela la en ingresarán estudiantes más pase que año cada y médicos, 50, mandar podemos hoy nosotros...Claro mástendremos pase que año cada porque ayuda; darle que podremos hermanos pueblos nuestros a y cuántos, sabe se no años 10 peor o 8 de dentro está, que amigo pueblo un con pueblo nuestro de solidaridad de espíritu del expresión comomás, ofrecer a van se que seguros Estamos más! nada ¡Cincuenta faltarán. no voluntarios esos que de seguros estamos Y argelinos. los 56 His term. sports to class social the and nation from communities, of to relation in contexts solidarity describes conclusion and uses diverse the to pointing humanity, of nature complex the as well as conflict, of terms in solidarity of rise the stresses He humankind. of feeling innate an as fraternity and solidarity of simplification unrealistic the challenges article God).Bayertz’s Furthermore, of sons are they as brothers are men all where Christianity, by in or (as organizations), connotations religious kinship Ancient in (as sexuality or blood as such ties biological by either connected, are beings connectionhuman all whereby close morality, universal of the notion a and highlights solidarity between Bayertz humankind”. for “love even or cooperation” “social of Comte making use of solidarity as a sociological concept, its common use is often related to ideas word French Revolution, solidarity became a concept the associated with fraternity. Despite Durkheim and on, Later the payment. after Especially characteristics. emotional obligatory to linked morality of an sense a to relation to in evolved referred that law Roman from originating word ancient an as (1999) Bayertz Kurt by described broadly been has solidarity concept, concrete in comprehension of degree high order to visualize the conceptual as well as emotional layers of the term. Aside from the relatively a demand solidarity of notions Mozambicans, and Cubans by actualphysicians,nurses,techniciansandtheirrelatives. digested were Guevara and Castro of words passionate the or papers policy Cuban written the how on research little is there However, 2015). Dahrendorf (see continent the to supplies Cuba that campaign medical each The of core the aid. at solidarity medical place to continue Cuban documents official to latest reference with particularly and SSC, of analyses within mentioned constantly is Solidarity nature. in spiritual is but logic, in grounded not is that force a by inspired others help to people Cuban the of unification a for appealing connotation, emotional an reveals land “friendly”) (although faraway a in venture a join to invitation this of analysis careful A Africa. that, as prophesied by Castro, spread throughout Angola, South Africa, Ethiopia and elsewhere in his characteristicallyimpassionedtone: of Science, the most recent achievement of the intellectual faction of the revolution at that time, in Cuban volunteers to support a medical mission to Algeria. He spoke at the opening of the Institute and appealing inauguration. On the 17

“...conversando hoy con los estudiantes, les planteamos que hacen falta 50 médicos voluntarios para ir a Argelia, para ir a Argelia a ayudar a y oncig ar dsore o coeain o ir raiis ihn h diy ie of lives daily the within realities micro to cooperation of discourses macro connecting By Seven month later, 55 physicians embarked to Algeria to initiate a form of medical internationalism Marimón andMartínez2010,258) in quoted F. Ruz (Castro translation) own (my planted…” are that fruits the harvest to right the students has it and seeds plant more to right the has Revolution have the because School; Medical from graduating will we passes year each as and doctors, more have will we passes that year each because brothers, our we help can course we Of knows, who condition… years ten worse or eight a in fifty, in send can are who ours, of friends are who people other towards people our of solidarity of spirit the of expression an as up, sign Wewho more be will there sure are fifty! Only lacking. be not will volunteers those that sure are we And Algerians. the help to “...talking to the students, we have need of fifty volunteer doctors to go to Algeria, to go to Algeria 56 th October, 1962, when Fidel Castro made a request for 50

75 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter ’ who was “free forever from ignorance, hombre nuevo ’ or ‘ , where equality is translated into individual dependence on homem novo The Social Contract “Revolution “Revolution is the sense of a historic moment; everything that must be changed; it it is complete equality is and freedom; it the changing of is being treated and treating others as humans beings; it is emancipating Unfolding this philosophical analysis of solidarity, the first case ofCuban medical cooperation, In this aspect of cohesion, Sally Scholz (2015) agrees with Bayertz on her philosophical its foundation: its foundation: nations) aimed for the ‘ obscurantism, superstition [and] preconceptions [with a propensity towards being] conscious of that discourses political the Following 3). 2014, (Müller cooperation” and solidarity of obligation the not only founded but have also framed the structure of Cuban-Mozambican exchanges, the very concept of revolution was intrinsically attached to solidarity by Fidel Castro thirty-eight years after discourses, mixed with political and economic ideologies centered around the proletariat. The focus focus The proletariat. the around centered ideologies economic and political international with achieve mixed to discourses, order in People” “Chosen the of sense a foster would society of sector this on revolutions, together with the political party, to bring about global human emancipation, and thus liberate the world. (Waterman 1993, 259). In the search to construct women and men who could perform such an odyssey, the Cuban revolutionary party and FRELIMO (as well as other socialist Mozambique, can be directly related to this last political perspective, that which groups. As mentioned in unites previous chapters, the diverse first autonomous interrelation between Cuba and Mozambique was sparked by the Marxist-Leninist similarities that joined both nations within the context of the Cold War. It is through this ideology that solidarity can be traced in the utopian towards social change, often with the goal of overcoming injustice or oppression, although this approach to solidarity is contested by the distinction between shared actions and shared ends or goals. While there are different forms of civil or social solidarity, political versions tend to be framed in relation to struggle and opposition, raising issues such as the use of embodiment of solidarity (Ibid. 732). violence as an similarities. This account is at the same time based on civil solidarity, which was first described by Rousseau in society as a whole. According to Scholtz (ibid., 731), this can be observed in sectors the contemporary vulnerable protect level, international or national a on societies, entire where state, welfare political as known is what is solidarity of account third A life. civic in fulfilment their allow to order in solidarity, where a moral sense unites people or groups, even those from different backgrounds, being and a claim for universal rights, such as those included in the UN of Universal Human Rights. Moreover, Scholtz notes a Declaration scepticism towards a “human essence” of universal meet to need the and differences human on 730) ibid. in (qtd. Rorty Richard quotes She equality. similarities, in order to play with recognize the to notion capacity of a as ‘us’ empathy and to ‘the linked other’ is to whole facilitate a solidarity. as She humanity also in solidarity social that doubts words of Scholtz, can be understood in two forms: “an assertion, [which] describes the cohesive force among and between humans; as an aspiration, it delineates a goal of universal connection that requires moral response to the needs of others” (ibid., 728). Further on, she adds the notion despite community of feeling general more a to appeals which humanity, all of solidarity social of individual differences. This type of solidarity is based on the idea of dignity towards each human clubs, where solidarity plays a cohesive force, often through feelings of duty and a sense of moral moral of sense a and duty of feelings through often force, cohesive a plays solidarity where clubs, action (Ibid.). approach to solidarity. However, she adds other perspectives to “Social Solidarity of Humanity”, “Civic Solidarity” and “Political Solidarity”. describe Social solidarity, in the different accounts:

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 76 sueños dejusticia paraCubayelmundo,quees labasedenuestropatriotismo, socialismoynuestrointernacional ismo.” nuestros por luchar es independencia, es unidad, es Revolución ideas. las y verdad la de fuerza la aplastar de capaz mundo el en fuerza existe no que de profunda convicción es éticos; principios violar ni jamás mentir no es realismo; y inteligencia audacia, con luchar es heroísmo; y solidaridad dentro y fuera del ámbito social y nacional; es defender valores en los que se cree al precio de cualquier sacrificio;los esdemás modestia,como desinterés,seres altruismo, humanos; es emanciparnos por nosotros mismos y con nuestros propios esfuerzos; es desafiar poderosas fuerzas dominantes 57 n bten h mlil eoinl en ta cruae rud oiia sece ad macro- and speeches political around discourses ofInternational Relations. circulate that veins emotional multiple the between and within move who Mozambique and Cuba from women and men approached I treatment, seeking bodies physical the meets solidarity of ´spirit´ the where healthcare, of field the on Focusing 305). uniting FRELIMO´s political similarities with concepts such as diaspora and Africa, resistance Southern (Dorsh and 2011, Caribbean the between correlation historical the with associated been have solidarity socialist on discourses political these cooperation Furthermore, medical 256). 2010, Cuban Martínez and the (Miramón of essence fundamental the locate to tend discourses political where fervor constant apparently this within is It shipped. being brigade medical first the to prior the revolution as a manifestation of solidarity resembles the is visceral words said it by a Cuba, younger of Castro definition of this occurred, have that role changes the and years the passing the despite how, visualizing remarkable When ideologies. such of born projects the in participate who who place themselves within the horizontal discourse of SSC, but also focuses on the lives of those poor” (Monson2009,3). an and embodiment of the Chinese revolutionary frame development, of teaching by example and “the faster poor helping the of terms in power Chinese rising of manifestation a simultaneously was TAZARA Africa. post-colonial of years first the in projects infrastructures largest the of one the of highlights work intellectual and approach physical hard the Monson’s to attached concepts Thus, and emotions of ideologies. layers different capitalist and socialist of Chinese dichotomy internationalism, the Cuban to and War Cold the of context Similar the within developed was industry TAZARA. infrastructure the in participation the of remembrance and performance influenceideological of the Chinesethe revolutionary discourse, andis the sense ofpoints solidarity found inkey the planning, her of One project. massive this after and dynamics through of embodied were kind what and undertaken was construction this how on study extensive an China, made between relationship the has (2009) in Monson Jamie railway. seen TAZARA the of construction be the during Zambia and can Tanzania This point. some at trends socialist adopted who countries the in found be also can articulations political and emotional such Thus, 3). 2014, to the best of everybody’s abilities grounded in shared values of solidarity and belonging” (Müller “Revolución es sentido del momento histórico; es cambiar todo lo que debe ser cambiado; es igualdad y libertad plenas; es ser tratado y tratar a tratar y tratado ser es plenas; libertad y igualdad es cambiado; ser debe que lo todo cambiar es histórico; momento del sentido es “Revolución Monson´s analysis not only acknowledges the socialist ties among African nations (and others) (and nations African among ties socialist the acknowledges only not analysis Monson´s This kind of speech is in line with the Cold War initiative to “build a communal socialist fatherland (Fidel Castro: ourpatriotism, oursocialismandinternationalism.” of justice for Cubafight and for the our dreams of world, which is the base and ideas. truth Revolution is unity,the strength of is independence, is a break to capability the with world the in force a is there that conviction and intelligence audacity, with fighting profound the is it principles; neverethical to violate lie,is nor it realism; is it heroism; and solidarity altruism, disinterest, modesty, is it sacrifice; any of cost the at we believe, that values deft the is it realm; national and social the outside and within forces powerfulchallenging is it efforts; own our ourselves,with Qué EsRevolución ) (My own translation) 57

77 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter . This research directs the metaphor of embodiment as a physical, intimate notion towards In my approach to Cuban medical internationalism, I refer to the discourse of solidarity as a Mural in Havana with the image of the Che and the iconic phrase “¡Hasta la Victoria siempre!”, “to victory, always!” Mural in Havana with the image of the Che Embodiment

Feminism movement in the US during the 1970s. Here, discourses the by inspired Vasquez, Enriqueta and Chicana’s Varela Dolores Martínez, Sutherland “Betita” feminist activists Elizabeth of Che Guevara, travelled to various destinations to promote alternative creative writing. Their work not only reflected their understanding and acknowledgement of Guevara’s words, it also claimed, at the same time as it invited, an embodiment of certain discourses. For instance, 1985 quoted Ibid.). For Csordas (Ibid.) the analogy of human embodiment can represent a fertile perspective for the growth of cultural dynamics. the discourse of solidarity, and its appeal to human characteristics. A useful study where connection this has been established is an article by Natalie Havlin (2015) on the Third World illustrate how an intangible force can affect and be affected by tangible human actions and bodies. and actions human tangible by affected be and affect can force intangible an how illustrate Thomas Csordas (1994) aptly highlights the metaphor of the human body and cultural activity. He refers to various examples of scholarship that use the term body to understand the world, from the body as a self and a symbol of nature (Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Margater Lock, 1987 quoted in Csordas 1994, 5) to a comparison with political structures, and even the cosmos (John O’Neill phenomenon that relates on an intimate, emotional level for Cubans and Mozambicans. Solidarity, beyond being constructed by to socio-cultural term useful processes, a as is ‘embodiment’ experienced word the by to refer individuals I within Thus, entity. their malleable a as context personal own Photo Alina Macías Rangel Macías Alina Photo

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 78 (1974, 333qtd.In Havlin 2015) All werepiecesof me pieces offlesh pieces ofreality; All werepiecesofstruggles; There wereAsianswithtracesofme. There wereIndianswholookedlikeme, There wereblackswholookedlikeme, To seeandspeakwiththesewomen ofthethirdworldwastoseeoneself. 58 Mozambique, heansweredwithouthesitation: the Nevertheless, independence. format oftheseanswersseemedamemorizednarrativeratherthanpersonalanalysis. the during foreigners by inspired was solidarity their how of and processes nation, historical the mention would physicians Cuban Often, discourse. governmental aforementioned the fit that answer an sketch to framework same the used interviewees Cuban Most was tone anddurationofourtalks. I as case the especially was This questioning them inside the answers. higher institution of health care of Mozambique, which influenced direct the me gave questions direct asking that noticed I until interviews, the of centre the it made and solidarity of concept the on focus to best my I did first, At smoothest. the not were they a attempts, of first most representatives with the as however, to community; talk to able be to glad was I hours. office during time interviewee’s of some up taking Health, of Ministry the at performed were They Mozambique. in cooperation human angles. Two the of the initial interviews in entangle Maputo were with the principal toauthorities of Cuban medical trying Mozambique, in landed ofdiversity a found I nature, human with case the is as and cooperation, international of essence I cognition. of levels many on present the acknowledging of means interaction betweenCubanandMozambicans.unique a as lives personal people’s in ideas and discourses of differ from the topic of medical aid, I would like to point out this understanding of the embodiment examplessuch Although necessity.” of born politic a create to fuse longings—all sexual our on, up grew we where concrete or land the color, skin lives—our our of realities physical the where Color, of Women Radical by Writings notion of embodiment with another Chicana writer, Cherríe Moraga ( experiences this highlights physical 94) (ibid., Havlin their expression. creative of and intimate their part of root the become become and to existence, of levels several on internalized be Guevara’s literallycan solidarity, as such discourses, how of example an are woman Chicano words, other of expression visceral a experiences life specific own their to according portrayed it framed but humanity, for love on speech Velazquez and Martinez poetry their through “ThepoemquotedbyHavlin(94)is the following: support from many countries. For example, Henry Reeve, a North American who fought for for Gómez, Máximo fought or Army, who the another general who fought joined for American Cuba and had Dominican who origins. More recently, Che Venezuelan North Guevara, the a a López, Narciso Reeve, Cuba. of Henry liberation the example, For countries. many from support been has there periods, different its throughout revolution Cuban the analyse you If world. the to “Just as the commander in chief, Fidel, says: fulfilling internationalism is to fulfil a debt of gratitude in cooperation Cuban of president vice the Alexis, Dr. for meant solidarity what asked I When Moreover, it was easy to notice a pattern in the descriptions of Cuban internationalism and its values. actually but invisible, perhaps ambiguous, something for searching fieldwork my to arrived I Embodying solidarity 1981), to explain that “a theory in the flesh means one means flesh the in theory “a that explain to 1981), This Bridge Called My Back: 58 . In .

79 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter , from my family. Then through our school system, which system, school our through Then family. my from , 59

by the way is completely free. And when I started to know the world, to travel, those values became values those travel, to world, the know to started I when And free. completely is way the by more and more rooted inside me.” In her words, the notion of “helping others” has been part of her life, strengthened through her “I mean helping out, solidarity, internationalism” “And you personally feel those values? How come?” cuna’ la ‘desde values those got I “Look, “And what are those [principals]?” solidarity. I inquired, hoping to hear the word I asked Dr. Marcela, trying to be as concise as possible. I asked Dr. Marcela, trying to be “This kind of exchange has actually increased since the 70s, in that time there were no more than ourchange doesn’t that relations, Cuban-US the in changes the with now and here… doctors 100 ideals and principles.” “So, actually medical cooperation has increased after the Cold War?” “So, actually medical cooperation colleagues in every area of assistance at the hospital… everywhere. In other words, (solidarity) is a principle of action”. suspicious a awakened answer interviewee’s my and speeches political between similarities The improve it, I do what is possible at the work area where I belong. And the same goes for my (Cuban) “For me solidarity is very important… right my now, here at the Ministry, I do my for best as an adviser to goes same the And belong. I where area work the at possible is what do I it, improve Argentinean Argentinean that gave everything for our revolution. He went from the Congo to Bolivia, and died process…” it is a historical for it. See, Dr. Alexis, a friendly man in his late forties, completed medical missions in Venezuela and Mali, An expression in Spanish that literally means “from the cradle” and can be translated as an emphasis on the origins of person; in this case, it years in Venezuela as a physician; at the moment of the interview she was in her tenth the month as president of Cuban cooperation in Mozambique. Her movement across different landscapes highlights the aforementioned values in new contexts. Even when I questioned the low salaries 59 refers not only to where she was born but also emphasizes an innate quality. family dynamics and free education. Dr. Marcela was in Nigeria for one year, and spent three of describing solidarity as a core value in the medical mission. She mentioned internationalism and value in the medical mission. She mentioned internationalism and of describing solidarity as a core solidarity as the most important components of her personality as a professional working abroad, arena. despite political changes in the international sense of how I would achieve coherence. My next interview with Dr. Marcela followed this pattern that he knows the details of these Cuban missions by heart. Talking with him reminded me of Fidel to Algeria. about the first medical mission Castro’s speech and is still working as an adviser for the Mozambican Ministry of Health, so it was not surprising

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 80 60 in order to elicit a more personal understanding. As a result, solidarity turned into a approaching more notions of solidarity dense by asking entity, about the daily routines and perception of the interviews and sparseempathy. judgment of gestures these with contrasted expressed and interviewees the “friendly that country” brother-like this of people the with solidarity and non-intervention about interviews, the during presented statements the how on thinking remained I topics, other to on moved conversation the and Saturday, “ wine. and beer purchase to entered men several as conducted, being was funeral the how for disapproval their expressed Dominicans the andCuban the inside, Shangana; in chanting was deceased the of family the Outside, neighbour. a of funeral the about owners the with talking shop, the inside sitting were Cubans other two and Marcela Dr. Alexis, Dr. blocks visits, my few of one During a staying. was and I where Maputo residence student of the from Hospital Central the from away streets a of two middle the compound in residential located terrace, the on tables few a with store grocery a business, small It a work. is their after meet to used Marcela, Dr. and Alexis Dr. including physicians, Cuban where Cuban medicalaid of history the on 254-256) (2010, Martínez and Miramón of descriptions the to argument parallel a people. Mozambican was This (Ibid.). solidarity” helping is foundation principal our but of else, everybody like wage, a receive premise We the under here came “We that contradicted expressing sharply doubts, she my NGOs, international for working physicians to compared received she Anarticlewritten by theCubanMinistryofHealth. Reflecting on this brief experience during the following months, I pursued a different wayof different pursued a I months, thefollowing during experience brief this on Reflecting establishment owned Dominican a to me took doctor another meetings, these after days few A or withtheauthorities,ithasbeenagoodexchange,withoutanyproblems.“ population the with Either sides. both for convenient pretty exchange, good a had have we way the through you we respect their culture, their traditions; as guided long as they respect our principles, our culture. In this it So respect. formation: our of part also That’s traditions. Has their respect we you, to explain me “Let case? the been this has Mozambique, differences…” in here, “And social life.” your in and work your in values, certain under personality your and relationships your shapes it person, a in rooted are they Once separated. be cannot feelings of kind these course, of “Yes social the in as life…” well as ethics professional the in present are solidarity, like values those “So, us loveourcountryevenmore,atleastthat’smycase.” go abroad, to know and see the world. That is very important for us, because each day it makes “In a way, but they are part of the formation we have over there, that has helped us a lot when we “And thosevaluesthatyoumention,arepartoftheCubanculture?” doña 60 Christy, the owner, decided to close earlier “ earlier close to decided owner, the Christy, wheresolidarityistheprincipalmotiveofSSC. hs s hypocrisy is This , r Mrea ad I ws cold a was It said. Marcela Dr. ”, before the crowd got drunk got crowd the before ”. As ”.

81 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter - without pretences: 61 described by socialist ideologies. described by socialist ideologies. hombre nuevo ” as a means of encompassing the identity of the entire society was a prominent characteristic that I noticed noticed I that characteristic prominent a was society entire the of identity the encompassing of means a as ” el cubano el Nevertheless, this recognition of values and principles to help one’s neighbour was constantly are kind of weird. You are a doctor, and that one (other Cuban) your colleague is a simple worker, simple a is colleague your Cuban) (other one that and doctor, a are You weird. of kind are any break would you doctor, a as you and something, for asking note a with here comes he if but whatever, carpenter… a lawyer, a doctor, a were you if before, Cuba, In friend.’ your help to rule no matter your range or degree, we had to help each other to survive. Then, solidarity becomes a need.” electricity… at a time when there was no money, people could only help in exchange… I remember I exchange… in “In help only Cuba could there people money, is no was a there need when time for a at solidarity, electricity… because at a time when you ‘you us: characterize to wanted need he name, his was Ignacio staff, administrative an Angola in once something, food, For me, this is like being back in school, I have learned a lot, and I feel more prepared to do my job than before.” across notion this with plays circumstances, and character personal to solidarity of adaptation The “Yeah… well, look; the medical cooperation has its political part and its humanitarian part. On the On part. humanitarian its and part political its has cooperation medical the look; well, “Yeah… political side you have a chance to highlight your values, your ethics… but in the humanitarian part… let me give you an example. I know Cubans who have been in Bolivia to can you and right, politically something is This everything. for pays government Cuban the help, help, really to say that it is very altruistic. But I can tell you, for me it is both things; there is the economic part, which is fundamental, but isn’t everything. I wouldn’t have come here if I didn’t enjoy what I do. we aren’t allowed to bring our families. So it isn’t easy, but it’s a way to improve.” to bring our families. So it isn’t easy, we aren’t allowed “And in this decision the values are an important part…” I given by his bosses. compared with the clear cut speech asked, thinking on how this answer “In Cuba, the economic situation is really harsh, and you have to be Cuban to understand it. But there But it. understand to Cuban be to have you and harsh, really is situation economic the Cuba, “In economic,is issue the Cuba In stuff. bad the all forget you makes that something else, something is and the chance to work abroad represents an opportunity to get some help. becauseOne must leave family government, the for work who those us, for Especially sacrifice. big a it’s behind, friends and The tendency to talk of “ of talk to tendency The those who are under an individual contract gave a different perspective. Revisiting Dr. Carlos, who than (more Mozambique in time longer a for lived has who interviewees my among Cuban only the is twenty years) than Cuba, told me clearly that: 61 crystalli a to referred constantly homeland their in and abroad Cubans cooperation. medical the of tissues emotional the uncover to trying when zed image of what a Cuban is, should be and will be; often resembling the clashing with a clear emphasis on economic longer. any opportunities. structure governmental This the was on depend strongly not do emphasised they by as system, the the of out are who Cubans Taking into consideration my past observations with the leaders of the Cuban cooperation project, treated Inocencia, told me about this characteristic of Cubans treated Inocencia, told me about time and space. For instance, Doctor Jesús, the popular gynaecologist at the Military Hospital that placed beyond any of the categorizations within my previous literature review. The Cubans who are who Cubans The review. literature previous my within categorizations the of any beyond placed intrinsic an as authorities ranks, or management in administrative without being cooperation, government medical part of the by and discourses political in presented solidarity of notion the recognize did element of Cuba’s society. For example Dr. Henyer, depicted a more critical acknowledgement of personal circumstances: discourses and political

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 82 him his opinion on the restrictions of his Cuban counterparts: him hisopinionontherestrictions ofhisCubancounterparts: asked I when clinic, private a at doctor general a Sergio, Dr. by presented clearly was perspective This wages. Cuban their to compared salary and higher a capital, have human physicians while of revenues, form gets Cuba the in aid medical gets Mozambique is where agreement contract, such like that business understanding a an is there hand, one the On interpretations. their in differ of their wages places them in a disadvantaged position. In this matter, their Mozambican colleagues part a takes government the that and sector private the in work to allowed not are they that fact the mission, medical a in working of benefits economic the out pointed Cubans Although Mozambique. seen as a human right per se, and the wages of medical staff reflect a hierarchy of a deeply unequal 2003), embedded in a capitalist system where healthcare is being privatized, where healthcare is not national medical environment, still in the process of being strengthened after the civil war be (see to Pfeiffer used they that revolutionaries the aren’t “ how on reflect professionals local SSC, through between Cubaandthecontinent,itisn’tsameasusedtobe “ how and field, medical the in SSC of discourses settled in now their homeland, are as well who as Mozambicans other Cuban Nevertheless, colleagues, hospitals. are aware local of the the changes in around the work macro- now who Cubans and island the politics study “ how educational programs as well as their daily activities. Bernabé, another of the alumni from Cuba, remembers professionals. Dr.Machavasummarizedthisduringourbriefmeeting: today’s on impression deep a left that development personal and educational an involved chapter, this in before mentioned I as which island, the on time Their hand. first at internationalism Cuban to were exposed thus were there and Cuba, again, in studied had Once who Mozambicans those ended. among differences certain War Cold the once behind left was that factor background a as seen was it but Mozambique, of case the in stands Cuba how and is solidarity what of awareness becomes amobileessenceinitself,constantlyleavinganambiguousaura. break it into flexible pieces that could fit their agendas, the emotional appeal of medical cooperation have they if individual contracts,themaingoalistohavebettersalaries,alifestyle”. or government the with work they if matter doesn’t It abroad. go to Cubans for reason much they earn, it isn’t harsh. If they have an agreement with the state, they should respect it respect should they state, the with agreement an have they If harsh. isn’t it earn, they much how see you When out. get to same the do would I place their in was I if harsh, is it think don’t “I remain links socialist while adopted been has capitalism where Mozambique, day modern In their through transmitted promptly influence, political included Caribbean the in experience Their first countrytoestablishanembassyinpost-ApartheidSouthAfrica.” has done so much for Africa. Just look at their support against Apartheid and how they were the Cuba that story, real the That’s us. for did they what for Cuba, to grateful really feel I sometimes. start from the beginning, but I had to keep going. Now it is better, and I had to travel back to Cuba “Oh yes, those were the best years of my life! Coming back to Mozambique wasn’t easy, I had to an was There perspective. last this stressed also co-workers Mozambican part, their For then to ground, common on solidarity narrated individual every where stories, these Through main the is this that doubt no have I economic. is Mozambique) to move (to reason main “The they talk about it all the time. I saw politics everywhere… we wouldn’t go to church, but we had to to had we but church, to go wouldn’t we everywhere… politics saw I time. the all it about talk they ”. This experience abroad has led to a strong bond between Mozambicans who studied on on studied who Mozambicans between bond strong a to led has abroad experience This ”. ” (Bernabé. pers. comm.). They have to cope with a a with cope to have They comm.). pers. (Bernabé. ” the changes in politics have affected the relationships relationships the affected have politics in changes the the Cubans that are now arriving are different, they they different, are arriving now are that Cubans the .” (Dr. Machava, pers. comm.). .” (Dr.Machava,pers.comm.).

83 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter are some big white buses. The last director, he is now in the US. So everything that he said, about said, he that everything So US. the in now is he director, last The buses. white big some are the (political) party, about this and that… it was all a lie. When things got worse they his kids firedleft, he him; left. And everything he said to be the director? He didn’t feel it, he didn’t believe anything he said; it was just a way to get that job. Then, you can find people like this everywhere. They go there saying that this, that Lenin, then the other… but when time passes by, you find out I can tell you they are the few.” He paused to think and then told me: there province, this for station bus the is It road? the of side other the on there, what’s know you “Do “Solidarity… yeah, that’s the theory, but in practice it’s another thing. Look, I don’t say that’s never that’s say don’t I Look, thing. another it’s practice in but theory, the that’s yeah, “Solidarity… but ideal, an for know… don’t I nothing, for die that Guevara, Che like people, are There case. the “The interest of Cubans is to get out of that poverty, to know how other people live and behave, their own personality”. to also develop their own dignity, Tracing this ambiguous part of humanity across the Atlantic, every time I briefly described my While most interviewees agreed on the important role Cubans play in assisting public and private “Those Cubans, the ones that work here… are them, it’s the people that work day and night… income. Why?” government takes half of their I don’t like that the completely. completely. I don’t think it would be fair if they went to other sectors to earn more, they signed a look to went they if fare be would it think don’t I agreement, an such for taxes pay we and contract had similar conditions.” to Germany they went money. When Mozambicans for more However, there are those who have even experienced Cuban socialist doubt about such medical collaboration. This was the case with Dr. Ricardo, the veteran of the Angolan war, who told who war, Angolan the of veteran the Ricardo, Dr. with case the was This collaboration. medical me while sat in his rocking chair laughing: abroad represents, instead of an emphasis on professionals solidarity other and as technicians a nurses, manifestation physicians, of the include the Cuba revolution. in The tendencies emigrational information collected I When elsewhere. and Mozambique in project aid medical the of part are who on the roots of this phenomenon, sustains that there motive economic was the is an it nowadays, that, emphasis clear it on made interviewees feelings my all of but bravery; solidarity, tolerance and research topic in Cuba, there was a spontaneous affirmation: “Ah, Imedical of export The somewhere...” working see.now right is mother “My in…” was father “My Ibeen…” know a lady who has professionals is probably the best recognized part of contemporary Cuban foreign policy, which means working that it opportunities the is on focused a was cooperation widely medical known to relate phenomenon. Cubans which This in manner was not a surprising reaction; nevertheless, the solidarity as a secondary motivation, while stressing that: solidarity as a secondary motivation, hospitals, there was an ambiguous perception of the working conditions of Cubans in relation to socialist to relation in Cubans of conditions working the of perception ambiguous an was there hospitals, solidarity and the changing dynamics in Mozambique. On this matter, I can recall my visit to Teresa, a social worker at the paediatric section of the Central Hospital. Perhaps because of her profession, she placedTeresa co-workers. Cuban her towards empathy express to able speaker, eloquent very a was measures. Raquel, who as I mentioned lived on the island for thirteen years, told me openly: island for thirteen years, told who as I mentioned lived on the measures. Raquel,

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 84 embodied in the treatment of Mozambican bodies. embodied in thetreatmentofMozambican bodies. is solidarity how and setting, medical the on focus will I chapter, following the In practices. surround medical that tensions and interconnections of series a on light shed “them” and “us” of narratives where encounter, multilayer a uncovers solidarity concerning stories life Mozambican and Cuban of reading closer A schemes. socialist from distinct are that solidarity of notions various adopting wade, have become a fluid current that stresses principles ofchange solidarity,this andof throughconnotations whichpolitical peoplethe areand ableago, to years thirty almost fell wall Berlin The exchanges. medical contemporary in present still is it solidarity, socialist of decades few first the during clearer recalled by Cubans and Mozambicans as an ongoing, shifting sensation, and while it may have been is unity, of sense a create somehow to help, to them frames drives that emotion that so-called This context aid. medical political the of part ambiguous an as concept this describing solidarity, of use propagandistic the of conscious were spirit socialist the of decline and peak the witnessing up grew who interviewees 2016, in fieldwork my During credibility. its supported bloc Soviet the when past, and are ocean, men the contemporary connections in a post-Cold of War era. It is the hard sides to tell how solidarity was both perceived in the on However, observed I state. reality the with socialist together countries, Cuban both in met the I women on discourse revolutionary and injustices, in same use the face historical who its those unites that so- force on cohesive focus a to as tended solidarity, political encounters called Cuban-Mozambican the in solidarity on Theories term. the on a historical emotion rather than a current motivation, which transformed my philosophical perspective as solidarity of perspective the was result significant most The Cuba. and Mozambique day modern in ground the on dynamic the and arrival my to prior reviewed I literature the between discrepancy as theyrepresentedastrongprofessionalandpersonalchallenge. needs were fulfilled, the interviewees showed little interest in continuing with internationalist missions, machines, computers or construction materials) that they could not purchase otherwise. Once these washing televisions, as (such commodities bring revenues, send to opportunity important an as aid salaries (fieldwork notes). Thus, medical professionals, their families and their relativesof describedhalf medical takes government Cuban the if even Cuba, in year a almost in than month one in earn more would Maputo in nurse or doctor a Nevertheless, crisis. of times in services medical bring to “padrino” (Luisito medicine of field the in values and ethics on emphasis important an still is There solidarity. of depiction static a such into fit not did Mozambique and Cuba contemporary in realities daily their a morelinearandcoherentmoralfoundationtomedicalaid,theinterviewees’lifestoriesconcerning ambiguous entity than when it was spread more in a the as 1970s. solidarity frame Despite Mozambique governmental and discourses Cuba that in portray realities the Nowadays, conditions. War Cold to during means constructed entity, contextual a solidarity within it placed political often they but what connection; international their of aware are physicians Mozambican and Cuban Both time. of passage the by unaffected been not has that discourse political a of part as solidarity of perception Reflecting on the aforementioned theories, the fieldwork experiences gave rise to anotable riseto gave experiences thefieldwork theories, aforementioned the on Reflecting Analyzing Dr. Ricardo’s words, in parallel to the aforementioned testimonies, there is a remarkable seen thepriceshere?” you have and physician… a for salary standard the that’s housing… electricity, food, everything: cover should that and dollars, 60 about That’s currency. national 1500 Cuba? in earns doctor a much how know you Do lives. their improve to want They TV. a or house, a buy car, a with back go to want they abroad, go to aid’ ‘solidarity behind gets who everybody But help. and that think who people aren’t there that saying not I’m aid! solidary for toast I say: They are. really they who , pers. comm.), and there are special brigades of volunteers that travel around the globe globe the around travel that volunteers of brigades special are there and comm.), pers. ,

85 Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter

Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam Photo Port of the Island of Mozambique. of Island the of Port

Approaches of mobility, solidarity and embodimentd The A moving encounter 86 Photos Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga. ucms a wl a te ao calne i te efrac o boeia tetet where treatments biomedical of performance solidarity isexpectedtobeembodied. the in challenges major the as well as outcomes, contemporary of picture a Cuban medical present cooperation in Mozambique based I on my fieldwork, Furthermore, analysing the principal positive system. healthcare of part Mozambican specific national a up the makes it how and Cuba, by provided aid medical socialist the describe to space is there Here, healthcare. of field the within interact well-being pursuing of means different socio-cultural where Mozambique, their of example the to on based is relation This mobility. of in terms in especially implications, health and healing curing, of notions the questioning by begin at midday. View oftheMaputo CentralHospital This chapter focuses on the field of healthcare, where Cubans and Mozambicans meet.I andMozambicans Cubans where healthcare, of field the on focuses chapter This in Havanaatmidday. View of the Hospital Salvado r Allende The healthcare setting Transatlantic healing which clash with the shiniest shiniest the with clash which parts, oldest the in especially humidity, and formaldehyde most of the hospital smells as like needed, greatly is which days; summer hot the during green areas and that allow some fresh air cafeterias lots, parking are there between In speciality. medical different a compounds, each focused on and buildings clinics, different sized of block entire is an however, This, building. self-contained Netherlands, tall, a is which the in visited I hospital last the from deal an great of a differs that wing institution East the enter my from student residence, I would of streets few Hospital A Maputo. Central spent the in were Mozambique Most of my days in in days my of Most The medicalenvironment Chapter 5

87 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions

.

hoto Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam hoto P

61 capulana “Sometimes “Sometimes you see kids that “It’s hard. You need to be flexible, flexible, be to need You hard. “It’s At just twenty five years old, years five twenty just At nurse Sonia told me, when I expressed I visited the Central Hospital to focus on Being in a space where illnesses are present and medical procedures are performed means and work hard at the same time. But especially, you need emotional need you especially, But time. same the at hard work and You effort. physical and physiological a make to need you balance; crytime…” cannot the all talked I professional medical youngest the is she to, who had just got married, and laughs very are prepared for the worst. Then, you also have those kids that arrive looking pretty well, and then they die suddenly. It’s very painful” my feelings of discomfort during my first visit to section. paediatric the awoke a sensation similar to the sadness I just mentioned, transforming my analysis healthcare environment. of the arrived healthy, chubby, beautiful; then they you discover somehow But a gradually. chronic apart falling them see you and disease the outrageous decline of the youngest. collecting as many interviews as possible, and to gather data on the lifestyle of the personnel. However, this form of participant observation where the fragility and tenderness of each child each of tenderness and fragility the where hospitalized evoked an urgency of access to well-being; for themselves, but also and spiritual the for communities, their families, for their emotional bonds that have been disturbed by There is something deeply disturbing and unnatural about unhealthy children, in seeing them suffering, them seeing in children, unhealthy about unnatural and disturbing deeply something is There dying. Despite the emotional challenges that this sector created for me, it also revealed the relevance of the topic this thesis focuses with vivid on clarity. The life stories I collected in reality a to attached were section paediatric the witnessing the transformation of bodies; often, on an uneasy path. At the Central Hospital, the jewel of jewel the Hospital, Central the At path. uneasy an on often, bodies; of transformation the witnessing paediatric the visiting while fieldwork my of part hardest the experienced I healthcare, public national wing. I walked among the beds, faced with the crowded waiting rooms of parents clinging to their treatments. the from weak or disease, with wracked bodies small their see to painful was it children; professionals greet Mozambican and Portuguese colleagues. Together with uniformed medical machinery, personnel, and technical terminology, women and men corners dusty the wearing walls, striped the around prowls fliptheir but sign, direct no flopsrule, no was There by. and pass and the broken furniture created a landscape that contrasted thoroughly with the private institutions; treatment country arrived to seek medical where people from all around the this was a place departments departments that have just been renovated by foreign territory representedto me. donations. I particular made my in way through These hospital the halls, learning This the location spaces evenings. of each the department, how they became in empty and familiar mornings the in crowded mainly were an entire ecosystem for my fieldwork. A microcosm of Mozambican society: ahighly deeply unequal hierarchical, melting pot of Bantu culture and Western-like inventions, where Cuban and Indian

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 88 Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga

among the main medical institutions of Maputo, I found a rich field where Western scientific knowledge Wandering defined. are health and illness where landscape socio-cultural each of peculiarities the account into takes anthropology medical in analysis of level This 78). (Ibid., reality” clinical of view shared a out works relatives of group entire “[an] where continent, the of parts most in case the is This societies. communal-oriented within patients for available are that treatments of diversity the he agrees Although on Africa. the of processes context of the medicine in as medicine, being and deeply healing embedded of in act wider the social of realities, understanding he concrete stresses reciprocal interhumanconsideration”(Taussig1980, 13). one to examine the social and moral causes of sickness, and that the those causes lie in communal and perspective, technical the to convey how ‘‘illness… bears precisely on what from makes life meaningful and worthwhile, compelling Aside level, communal a death. as well as personal a and on power, significant entails biomedicine of life performance of borders blurred the interaction surrounding social a implies it organs; vital and fluids bodily blood, like things corporeal to limited . environment an where lifeanddeathfeatureinthedailylivesofpatientspractitioners. in procedures technical perform to how and health, approach to the how of emphasized question and the raise testimonies Cuba These patient. in each treat studied to needed skills who emotional and dentist social the the empathy, 4), chapter (see Raquel of me reminded smile, before describing the hard emotional challenges of her profession. Sonia’s open conversation often. I remember how she made jokes among her colleagues, and agreed to talk to me with a broad However, Feierman (1985) believes Taussig’s work to be overly simplistic, suggesting a more a suggesting simplistic, overly be to work Taussig’s believes (1985) Feierman However, Medicine forthesoul on o ve, n fr o “heln involves “[h]ealing of form any view, of point anthropological and medical a From 75). 2007, (Igreja healing as to referred often concerns, these solve to measures of application the and problems health to relative placed are bodies where embodiment, of forsolidarity form another towards quest the directs the field to medical restricted is thesis this in cooperation hsca eecss vr sc pro i not is person sick a over exercises physician a that impact – sensorial the relationship, doctor patient the Within relations. social and self the of notions further alongside healthcare in who displays the material manipulation present health a solving problem of was written by Michael Taussig analysis (1980), This 34). 2004, the person (from afflicted to healed)” (Kirmayer of identity experience the metaphorical and wellness) to ill of feeling (from are quality the practice of transformations healing heart any the of At actions.... metaphorical salient culturally through enacted is that wellness to sickness from transformation of logic basic a h fc ta te Cuban-Mozambican the that fact The

89 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions - . 62

Photo Juan Manuel Diez Tetamanti Manuel Photo Juan Maputo Central Hospital. Just in front of my local residence, one would encounter about seven or eight Mozambican ladies, sitting outside a big green house offering flyers 62 Mozam that my of guaranteed some a and body-scan Inocencia occasion, with another a On treatments. professional and practitioner herbs requested of the Chinese purchase then medicine. health, Without your spending to solutions a and cent, imbalances you could mental, enter overall their and to events discover these all of importance the the highlighting mosques, and churches at events seasonal or monthly described neighbours bican help not could I field, healthcare institutionalized the in connections Cuban-Mozambican with concerned was I Although health. spiritual and physical a better lifestyle to locals and expats. noticing how these kinds of offers exist all around Maputo, in an expanding market that promises myriad aspects of social, political and economic life” (Dilger 2012, 1). While the borders of “modern” pursuing for options the 7-8), 2006, (West hybridization and syncretism by blurred are “traditional” and where context post-war a by affected greatly been have nation Lusophone this in wellbeing and health flows of neoliberalism and globalization. face the contemporary trauma and reconciliation coexists with diverse modes of healing from Christianity, especially Pentecostalism, to Islam, Southern Islam, to Pentecostalism, especially Christianity, from healing of modes diverse with coexists African healers, and Asian traditions from China and India (West 2006, 7; see also Pfeiffer Mozambique, on 2006) the edge of the Indian Ocean, has been a junction where the movement of people the as well (as practitioners healing and practices, therapeutic substances, medicinal “as that implies shape they circulate, adhere) they which to frameworks ethical and politics, technologies, institutions,

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 90 US$100”, whileNGO staffearnedapproximatelyUS$500 toUS$1500permonth(Pfeiffer2003, 732). 64 configuration ofthe globalhealthenvironment(Dilger 2012, 3). current the on impact direct a had has and donors, the of those resemble that standards social and economic political, to according development 63 who those or aid, international by absorbed be to system national the left ones fortunate some where borders, national within either staff, Mozambican of drain’ ‘brain a of effect the had context demoralized This treatments. biomedical of supply underground an and themselves, staff medical wages in drop A crisis. severe a experiencing was (NHS) System Health National the as time same the at salaries, competitive guaranteed that contracts year three with staff medical foreign attract would NGOs war. of traumas the from recovering population a of reality the with odds at dramatically was expat group that created a demand for certain goods, housing, and leisure activities – a lifestyle that characteristic a as cowboys” “aid these to refers (2003) Pfeffer walls. hospital’s the beyond impact an had arrival their Nonetheless, solution. ‘sustainable’ more a create to workers foreign educated highly of appearance the to translated promises Such poor”. the “help to necessary sensitivity and of international NGOs exploded to ameliorate the wrecked healthcare system, claiming the efficacy the high level of contagious disease such as malaria and HIV/AIDS (Paixão 2012, 50-53). The growth target to agencies health international to attached policies neo-liberal in brought who government, This urge to develop at all costs displaced the socialist tendencies of the imbalanced Mozambican order “development” pursue in to onwards 1980s the from received widely was support outside scenario, a such In lose”. to “nothing having of paradigm a created poverty and hunger where reality neglected a into fused became war civil and nation colonialism Portuguese the of legacy The of 1). 2008, configuration Whitfield 1996; further Hanlon (see the for influence foreign of war a about bringing 1980s, the in from Europe and North America, followed by the economic and political adjustments already initiated an autonomoushealthcarenetwork(Pfeiffer2003,728;Hanlon1996,46-47). fragile post-war context where there was a severe lack of infrastructure and human capital to create remarkably a in resulting 2%, just to care health for budget national the reducing by Mozambique of condition critical the worsened IMF, the by place in put (SAP), programme adjustment structural the 1987, By society. of levels all devastated war the where areas rural the in especially facilities, medical regular to access no or little of was there flesh, thousands the in war where of atrocities the reality felt Mozambicans a In violence. for targets became staff medical and clinics hospitals, FRELIMO and RENAMO undermined between the humble war beginnings of the a Subsequently, national healthcare 55-71). structure 1984, when (Hanlon system efficient an build to resources conditions and economic the match not did ambition this However, areas. remote in those including citizens, all to healthcare free or affordable accessible, providing by FRELIMO of image the fortify poor of composed mainly healthcares, all of colonial facilities whose staff had little nationalization training. This weak foundation was taken as an opportunity to rapid a to led This approach biomedicine. socialist to a installing 1975, in power took Machel Samora when framed previously was healing and health on knowledge of mixture The state. sovereign new a within embedded society a of construction the on converged practices different where healthcare of landscape a displays – framework capitalist a within rule FRELIMO’s under state a and War, Cold the during battlefield According to Hanlon, “(f)rom 1991 to 1996, nurses’ monthly salaries dropped from US$110 to US$40, doctors’ salaries dropped from US$350 to US$350 from dropped salaries doctors’ US$40, to US$110 from dropped salaries monthly nurses’ 1996, to 1991 “(f)rom Hanlon, to According of understanding certain a on based closely been has institutions international and nations Northern of influence the 3, chapter in mentioned As Post-war Mozambique became a principal recipient of international development aid, especially a to colony, Portuguese a being from – 3 chapter in mentioned Mozambique of history The Curing acrossfragmentation 64 and a scarcity of resources led to a black market for pharmaceutics, often dispensed by the 63 within what was, at the time, one of the poorest countries in the world. the in countries poorest the of one time, the at was, what within

91 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions - “Once the revolution took power, (or women), revolutionary doctors in the Dr. Jesús explained to me at the beginning of our nuevo hombre (as privatization of healthcare became illegal and morally 65 It took around a decade to see substantial improvements, and in the coming years, socialist There are various opinions on the Cuban approach to healthcare; nevertheless, it is a fact that The Cuban way support their offer to Samora approached had diplomats Cuban earlier, years ten Paradoxically, Actually, the revolutionary medical environment lowered physician´s wages, following equality principles of socialism. Doctors and other me Cuba improved their rural medical facilities, from 1 in 1958 to 65 in 1999, creating a broad network doctor/ 1:300 a deploying island, the around all system governmental the covering professionals of 65 and Union Soviet the of fall the after Moreover, Cubans. other to comparison in income higher significantly a have not should professionals dical by Ricardo mentioned briefly was wages low on topic This field. tourist the in involved those than income lower a have doctors crisis, financial the in the last chapter, and will be mentioned further on in this chapter. regardless of the financial advantages unacceptable). Indeed, this regulation demotivated a large number of professionals who opted for Castro the for ballast arduous an became landscape biomedical the years, first the for and migrate, regime (Ibid. 30) restructuring of the national system, especially a reconsideration of the medical profession itself. Guided by the socialist principles of the new Cuba had to understand their profession as a to privilege as many and people as a possible. Instead great of teaching responsibility the elitist to sentiments attached serve to the medical environment, revolutionary doctors were trained to be selfless, ready to work in any environment, systemic disruptions caused by the revolution brought about a healthcare agenda committed following Article 49 of to the new constitution, which stipulated the right to receive quality healthcare. This entitled free facilities, hospitals, medicines and all “sanitary sorts of efforts, medical services, health together with education, preventive periodic medical means” (Kirk and Erisman 2009, 31). medical Such measurements required an intense exams, general vaccinations, and other by deep inequality, although there existed Mozambique. The a services and education were of high broader quality, following the US pattern, system but were of infrastructure than strongly in centralized colonial in urban locations, especially in white males. This neglected Havana, the vast rural areas, largely and inhabited by black Cubans and primarily mulattos, performed by elite exacerbating the lack of education, running water and electricity into widespread poverty. The healthcare and education became a priority…” in situation current his understand to point starting a as ask, to having me without session, interview the Military Hospital of Maputo. their postrevolutionary performance has attracted international nature. Before attention the guerrillas due took Sierra Maestra, to colonial Cuba´s biomedicine its was characterized outstanding a gesture from one “underdeveloped” nation to another in within order framed strongly is to aid medical Cuban overcome chapters, previous the underdevelopment in mentioned As 2013,3). (Huish should that right human basic a as health prioritize that revolution of discourses political emotive the be accessible to everyone, no matter their gender, race, religion, origin, social class, or nationality (Miramón and Martínez 2010, 256; Kirk and Erisman 2009, 29). within the military and humanitarian dynamics of Mozambique (Gunn 1989, 1-10). This was not a of solidarity, the IMF; it was said to be an action of the international agents led by proposal like that looked for opportunities abroad (ibid. 731-732 ). Pfeiffer’s (ibid.) critical analysis of foreign medical healthcare national the of fragmentation a to pointed Mozambique post-war weakened, a within aid network, questioning whether direct support by local staff and infrastructure could achieve better agencies. out by foreign projects carried the short-term results than

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 92 Train theWorld’sDoctors? ( US. the like countries in areas marginalised from as well as Asia, and Africa in countries developed other from also but America Latin 67 lower results. 66 level” community the at demands care (Huish 2013, 4). Under this premise, Cuban staff managed by governmental agreements are primary placed meeting at directed be must – resources human notably – resources health, global improve to order In diseases. specific into compartmentalized be against local campaigns contagious diseases, large-scale the the Cuban support from on biomedics is cry in focused around “a far belief that interference health A cannot 27). no 2011, (Brower be practice should medical and there dynamics c) bymeans exchange; resources educational human and develop training well as teaching, as of population the local to commitment their fulfil to have professionals Cuban b) replaced; be then to contracts, year two/three for stay professionals other and nurses doctors, a) conditions: three under made was this however, contracts; temporary for personnel qualified sent Cuba cowboys”, “aid the to Similar 4). 1989, (Feinsilver abroad impact an having of capable also is but system, healthcare national effective an construct to able only not is that one power”, “health a Cuba preparing make to on ambition Castro’s reinforced focus has professionals constant medical This 79). 2013, Huish 52; 2009, Erisman and (Kirk Djibouti and Haiti Spanish) in (ELAM School Medical American Latin the as such institutions to thanks education medicine-related 2003 qtd in Anderson 2010, 80). This is in addition to the thousands of foreign students who obtained today, in all spheres of the country, is notable; but it development is capital most Human notable factor. in important the most health the sector” been (Rojas on “has Ochoa professionals emphasis medical preparing This it. apply and knowledge carry to people of mobilization the is cooperation their in thenameofsolidarity. ventures foreign undertaking while home at applied techniques methodological the follows closely has internationalism Medical borders. which system, medical unconventional this of structure moral and physical the of pillar national a been thus outside extended be must that right human a as healthcare of idea the reinforced Cuba of government socialist the locals, of health the improving in interest an Alongside 46-50). 2009, Erisman and (Kirk society Cuban weakened deeply Period Special the and fell Union Soviet the when period the during even decades, for biomedicine and regulated carefully this been has scheme to It manage minimal resources 314). 2000, (Warman patients/neighbours.” their of routines daily the in embedded are they as example’ an ‘set to even and advice general give to expected also are doctors the However, problems. health chronic with adults of progress the monitoring and communities. children pre-school on of checks developmental health doing care, “antenatal the include responsibilities ensure Their to order in nurses with together serving roof, same the under every on doctor ‘a block’, including have remote rural to areas. There been are physicians throughout has Cuba, often strategies working and these living behind idea the 1984, Since 37-41). 2009, collaboration with communitarian polyclinics to serve as many people as possible (Kirk and Erisman campaigns, educational programs to maintain integral health, and a large network of family as doctors to in 2.9 childcare percent by 1999 (Riverón and and Henríquez 2001, 147), control accompanied by nationwide vaccination neonatal on times, pre-revolutionary focusing in percent 10.9 from mortality infant reduced health, dramatically which standard, to approach preventive a for opted has Cuba resources, human and infrastructure upgrading with Along 317). 2001, Warman in qtd. 1999 (MacDonald, US the or UK the like countries “developed” other than higher 1999, by ratio patient The ELAM is considered the largest medical school in the world, hosting approximately 20,000 students from over 100 different countries, from According to Kirk and Erisman (2009, 45) Cuba spends $251 per person annually, while the US spends $5,711 per person with similar, or even While Cuba has lacked the financial means to donate significant amounts of money, the core of core the money, of amounts significant donate to means financial the lacked has Cuba While 67 and the Medical Sciences Institute, who receive French-speaking students from Mali, Mali, from students French-speaking receive who Institute, Sciences Medical the and , 2014) 66 that has given a good name to the Cuban healthcare system Where toWhere

93 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions of performing medial cooperation has often been used as an example of SSC way

Cuban places. And there are But also Cubans… places. some they Vietnamese doctors. agreement.” their follow to go have they because anywhere, (Dr. Sergio, Mozambican physician. pers. comm., Mozambique) Maputo, 15 October 2016. Facing the revolutionary doctors “When they, foreigners, come here (to Mozambique), they come for a to here Europeans some were there example, of For period specific time. supply technical support, but they rarely go to rural places or “difficult” The life stories collected during my fieldwork have contributed to an analysis of how the socialist the how of analysis an to contributed have fieldwork my during collected stories life The The understanding of contemporary multicultural encounters in the healthcare environment, as it includes it as environment, healthcare the in encounters multicultural contemporary of understanding the experiences of Mozambicans and Cubans, whose voices reveal the constant interconnection between personal and professional dynamics; while health care system. socialist and capitalist policies within an increasingly globalized also reflecting on the interconnections of grassroots level, and within a contemporary context where global healthcare has rapidly evolved to that join Cubans and Mozambicans on a daily basis.cross the political and social bridges approach of Cuban policies is translated public and into private medical institutions everyday of Maputo. working This ethnographic study practises allows a within more holistic the principal services have predominantly been analysed in terms of quantitative results through medical statistics medical through results quantitative of terms in analysed been predominantly have services scale, smaller a on and 2013), Huish 2010; Anderson 2015; Dahrendorf 2009, Erisman and Kirk (see cultural and socioeconomic the through alliance an creates that alternative communitarian more a as characteristics shared between Cuba and Mozambique (Paixão 2012, 57). Nevertheless, there little is ethnographic research on how Cuban professionals are coping with medical cooperation at a have accomplished their medical achievements while ensuring political or economic gains does not completely eclipse the altruistic nature of their internationalist missions. governmentalthis to fundamental be to said is that discourse moral the between coherence the with This thesis is concerned cooperation, but it is still important to recognize the authentic offers, alternatives especially when compared that to other, this traditionally vertical, branch modes of of support in aid Mozambique. The clear, even rigid guidelines that frame the Cuban way of conducting and managing biomedical narrative, which notes the diplomatic advantages Cuba has gained thanks to these missions, not to as such countries in doctors of labour the through obtained profits material and revenues the mention by supported strongly been has cooperation biomedical Castro’s Additionally, Angola. and Venezuela thelike parties international from as well as US, the and Japan Germany, Norway, as such countries institutions, and countries other with as Cuba, that fact The 12). 2015, (Dahrendorf UNICEF and WHO as possible with the aim of sustainability (Miramón and Martínez 2010, 256). the aim of sustainability (Miramón as possible with to highlight how a small country, unattached optimistic to the and mainstream international altruistic agenda and this with little to criticism economic leverage, has been able to reach every continent through an ongoing notable system based on a however, is, There care. health to approach humanitarian in public facilities, and thus subject to local regulations, limitations and requirements. Furthermore, as Cubans are utilised to fillemployment gaps within the host country, they tend tocover vacancies at remote or even dangerous locations (Anderson cooperation is a 2010, horizontal exchange, 80). taking into The consideration the conditions logic people many as of reach to institutions the public behind local the host targeting and context, country, and culture its such respecting modes of

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 94 Maria Elena and Marcos at the paediatric section. Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga countries (Ricardo, pers.comm.PinardelRío,Cuba). 68 for more specialized staff: professionals experienced lack that areas to specialists high-profile those export to is goal main Cuba´s comm.), physicians in specialist the all nation. of Although 37.4% there to has Dr. amount been government an the agreement, increase for in working local Cuban-Mozambican Cubans professionals the (Dr. that Sergio, the out pers. pointed Alexis, of representatives aforementioned the of One system. became my primary source of information, revealing Cuba’s influence on Mozambique’s healthcare themselves participants its community, well-known a such encountered then I however, Maputo; in Prior to my departure, I was it. concerned corroborate whether to there available were sources official a no significantvirtually numberare there ofElena, CubanMaria physicians and Marcos as such “weapons ofsolidarity”(Brouwer2011,16). into involved those turned has it that system healthcare global the in alternative important an such be to said is that cooperation a of guidelines structured the to according lives their moulded have Mozambique, and Cuba between exchange governmental the of part as couple, This family. their conditions have shaped (and reshaped) their existence during the past year, how it has transformed This means that all Cuban physicians in Mozambique must have solid experience in their field, preferably including medical missions in other in missions medical including preferably field, their in experience solid have must Mozambique in physicians Cuban all that means This In spite of searching for information on a phenomenon that tangibly affects the lives of individuals 68 . Alexis´boss, Dr. Marcela, expanded on this notion, emphasizing the local necessity “there are 297 Cuban professionals working with the Mozambican Ministry and we were talking about their lives in Maputo, evening, quiet very a afternoon, Sunday grey a better”. even it´s here, is Elena that now reggaetón played on his LG flatscreen TV, home” this with room and an illuminated living kitchen. large a rooms, two with place, nice a is it 2); appendix (see Hospital Central the from weekend. They share an apartment a few blocks schedules, following the place their to me busy invited they but their to adapted interview, struggling with the time difference. It was a brief arrived one week before I met her, and was still just had Elena Maria but year, one almost for Mozambique in worked of had Marcos Hospital Maputo. Central the of section paediatric the in nurses as work both They interviewed. I noe; t ae elz hw hi working their how realize and made appreciated it really enjoyed; I one conversation, smile, best one was in Italy” third mission: her was this that me told Elena Marie routine. a apartment; that in life a created had they how noticed I TV, watching and beer drinking room living their in sitting was I While future. the for dreams their music… latin tattoos, food, about Maria Elena and Marcos were the first couple “and now I am here” am I now “and “first I was in Venezuela… but the acs ad wie h latest the while said, Marcos , she said with a nostalgic . It was a significant a was It . “We are happy It was It “and

95 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions

who received cubanitos – and this is excluding those who who those excluding is this and – “somehow we need them. They are mainly men, women, and children in handing goods directly goods handing in children and women, men, 70 (Teresa pers. comm.) . Even if the amount of local staff has increased since the war ended, 69 “they are in each department. In each section, there is one Cuban specialist; Cuban one is there section, each In department. each in are “they ”. There was also a cheerful attitude in the Mozambicans who received their rice To better understand this issue, I volunteered for an event with a South Korean NGO in the region the in NGO Korean South a with event an for volunteered I issue, this understand better To Indeed, Mozambique remains a prominent case of high infant mortality and low life expectancy, The contributions from Cuban personnel can be traced through their Mozambican colleagues By 2014, the WHO noted that “approximately 550 doctors served Mozambique’s population of over 18 million, a ratio of 3 physicians I was concerned per with how most of the volunteers were wearing caps, long sleeved t-shirts, sunglasses, and even gloves to prevent physical who needed help “ packages, singing and smiling at the chain of foreign hands that handed them products to “erase 69 100,000 people” (qtd. in Faldacker et. al 2014, 1). 70 contact with the recipients of the goods. and a few abandoned colonial buildings, surrounded by Mozambicans waiting for food. This is not the scene for a charity commercial; it was a messy encounter, where Mozambicans who could not speak Portuguese made long lines to encounter the South Korean volunteers who could not speak Portuguese either. I must say that I felt out of place, unable to of translate the the South uncomfortable Korean fears community, who were nonetheless enthusiastic and keen to talk with those to Mozambicans who were enrolled in the system. It is not my intention to explain or critique in detail detail in critique or explain to intention my not is It system. the in enrolled were who Mozambicans to which situation, the describe to wish do I still, community; Korean South the or NGO, this of work the was deeply disturbing. Firstly, one could not avoid noticing the differences within a rural Standing in this dry area, where rain had not been seen in several months, a red dust impregnated setting. water of lack a with landscape, surreal the of vision blurred a with me leaving body, my of inch every of Namaacha (see appendix 2). They help rural communities in need of goods (oil, rice, drinking water, soap, sugar, salt, etc.), which are brought by the well-organized (and strongly centralized) South Korean of community in Mozambique. I lack agreed to join them as a they mentioned medical check- to due cancelled was this unfortunately but work, their of part being as vaccinations and ups Korean South joined I Instead, support. local housing, salubrity, quality nutrition and safety, especially in rural areas (Mitano et. al. 2016, 909). This 909). 2016, al. et. (Mitano areas rural in especially safety, and nutrition quality salubrity, housing, demonstrates capital rural-urban division remains a major distinction in contemporary Mozambique. Even if we focus only the in hospitals public enter who inhabitants rural of number large the Maputo, on to seek healthcare they would otherwise not receive. their need to leave their communities Dr. Sergio (from a private clinic) and Dr. Teresa (from the Central Hospital) were both in their clear personal opinion of that, Cubans working in Maputo, specialists, they give services that we don´t have here. Even if Mozambique has more and more enough.” professionals, we still don’t have proper water, of lack a to linked poverty constant the to relation in diseases contagious to due largely there is one in pathology, there is a Cuban lady here, in radiology. There, in hemodialysis, you have have you hemodialysis, in There, radiology. in here, lady Cuban a is there pathology, in one is there 4 or 5, in oncology 2 or 3, in internal medicine you also have 2 or 3 doctors. They are everywhere.” This continued participation of Cuban personnel was well-known not only due to political ties over time, but was often also referred to as requires human a resources remarkable addition to the biomedical system, which within both sectors, who have had contact with these foreign groups prior to their medical education, education, medical their to prior groups foreign these with contact had have who sectors, both within as well described Hospital, as Central the throughout of their section radiology working the in experience. works now Dr. and Arsenio, Caribbean the one in education of the how words, own his in of Health, and another 21 Cuban physicians were hired by the Ministry of Education to support the education of future specialists in Mozambique in 2016. The central hospital of Maputo is the main recipient of Cuban staff, followed by the central areas” rural in including hospitals provinces, the all in professionals Cuban of Beira and Nampula. But there are control. the Cuban governmental are outside

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 96 and abroad,forexample inschoolswithinChina,or thiscaseCuba(Monson2009,44). Africa within training formal included also assistance of mode this addition, In themselves. it skills do to certain colleagues African their demonstrating encouraging before fieldwork, during staff local with hand in hand working implies this railway, TAZARA the build to partnership nese 71 interact and team a in work to abilities social their and dynamics, and rhythms working local the standards imbuedduringtheirmedicaltuition. professional the of characteristic a as out this pointed Cuba in studied who those as background, – collaboration was appreciated due to their adaptability and their willingness to follow the house rules did not amount to Cubans having authority or superiority over their local counterparts; instead, their able to explain and augment their decisions, and ready to teach by example mainly because they are well prepared specialists, often with experience in other members, countries, who staff are professional highly as regarded commonly were Cubans personnel. Mozambican the past, and was perfectly able to summarize the principal positive qualities that I heard often from even though she did not have any Cuban colleagues at the time, she had collaborated with them in are they likeable, they and are less experience stressed.” She have had been they working in good, the surgical really department for are ten years, “They and energetically. nodding while Hospital, education and at hospitals… everywhere” institutions. private and public at working Mozambicans the from coexist, unabletotouchoneanotherthroughthedisinfectiongel,glovesanddusty not could literally that worlds two between were I if as say?), I could (what answer to dare not did I line pulled on my arm to ask in broken Portuguese plentiful why they the in could man a while over not me, told they system”, give the in hand be them to have “they the population; remaining to the to rest leftovers of refused the Koreansgoods. South the ended, list registration the When poverty”. Teaching by example has been a common principle within the socialist framework of cooperation. As described by Jamie Monson in the Chi the in Monson Jamie by described As cooperation. of framework socialist the within principle common a been has example by Teaching “to dance to the same beat” same the to dance “to The adaptability of Cuban staff was predominantly perceived in two ways: how they followed followed they how ways: two in perceived predominantly was staff Cuban of adaptability The staff Cuban the distinguishing on focus to needed I capital, the of rush urban the within Back Cubans knowhowtodance Some SouthKoreanvolunteerspreparingthegoodstobehandedover,whilecommunityofNamaachawatchthem , as Dr. Sergio would say. This is often associated with their socialist their with associated often is This say. would Sergio Dr. as , said Pascoa, a Mozambican surgical nurse at the Central “Ah, Cubans! There are a lot, in lot, a are There Cubans! “Ah, 71 (fieldwork notes). This capulanas . - Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga

97 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions , based on the ethics of the Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Assistant lady in the Central Hospital of Maputo. “expressed their gratitude often, saying that they like the way they are treated” , pers. comm.) . The fact that Spanish and Portuguese are similar , pers. com.) 72 Dr. Daniel Nurse Sonia This ability to “adapt easily” went beyond the scientific view, in this profession one must leave everything for a patient, do it right, it doesn’t matter where matter doesn’t it right, it do patient, a for everything leave must one profession this in view, you are.” ( “I would say intensive care is harder in Cuba, because there they are very strict. But that doesn’t that But strict. very are they there because Cuba, in harder is care intensive say would “I code ethical an preparation, of level a have You here. over best my do to need don´t I that mean personal my in demanding, more be may it Cuba in though Even well. things do to you forces that ( For their part, Cubans referred to the Mozambican working atmosphere as similar or even “It is different for them, another dynamic I guess, because we receive children at any moment, one is there Sometimes working. people few a just are there but full, is everything sometimes and these overcome to have You long. day all run to have we so then, five, children, several for nurse well” with time, they always adapt very difficulties, but Cubans described how patients 72 Cuban school of medicine (Dr. Salazar, pers. comm.). Mozambican colleagues tended to reinforce this perspective, but they also linked this to issues of race and colonial thinking that gave Cubans a certain advantage over them. This socio-cultural perspective on race within hospitals will be developed in the next chapter. due to their socialist background. Africa, or that the economic and political conditions of both nations are comparable, have all been highlighted where foreigners and as locals interrelate with common a certain ease. ground This is especially true when compared with other exchange personnel, for example Chinese, North Koreans and Vietnamese who also arrived constantly cooperated to finish the work. Their open characteralso is appreciated by the patients, who recognize the path community in of Mozambique and this appreciate the warm character of the personnel Southern with climate tropical a shares Caribbean the that languages, knowledge Cuban professionals may have; it was also related their to personal additions to the national health system. Mozambican colleagues portrayed their Latin colleagues as easy-going a humorous group, and who participated in outside activities and Mozambican colleagues, they depict their daily working dynamic as highly demanding, where one to be able to reach the level of professionalism required. needs precision and emotional flexibility easier than their previous experiences in their homeland or abroad, considering that some of them had been present during crises like the war in Angola, or the earthquakes in Haiti. Similar to their with patients. In a sense, it was confusing how both groups agreed on this adaptability, though they positive ascribed different reasons for it. Mozambicans referred conclusion to how swiftly their of foreign colleagues would comprehend situations and cope with are able to overcome. that Cubans the difficulties highlighting the stress and amount of work,

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 98 a severescarcityand lowwages,tosuchadegreethat itseffectsarestillseeninthepresent day 74 recognize onefrom another” with Chinese, while the term “Chinese” was often used to include Vietnamese, North Koreans and those from the Philippines as they which could have expanded my focus on SSC. For instance, it was interaction, striking third this how on Mozambicans further working focus at to the me Central allow Hospital not would did compare visit Cubans my during resources and time limited my Unfortunately, Mozambique. in working tries 73 the Afro-Cubancommunity affectedbytheconstanthurricanesthathit region. life in Guantanamo, one of the poorest provinces of Cuba throughout its history, where he worked with his with Hospital Central the at routine his compare to used he interview, our during how, remember I completely uptodatewiththelatesttechnologiesduescarcitiesonisland. how restricted, are not are contracts they how and how their contracts, individual under those for even often, describe families their see to cannot they tend and colleagues, Latin their of difficulties As mentioned in the introduction, the Special Period refers to the strong economic crisis in Cuba that followed the fall of the Soviet Union, causing Union, Soviet the of fall the followed that Cuba in crisis economic strong the to refers Period Special the introduction, the in mentioned As This other foreign group was a discovery during my fieldwork, as there is little literature on the current contribution of previously socialist Asian coun This is how Dr. Heyner described, through anecdotes, what is said to be a more horizontal exchange. I toldthem´Cubaispoor,youhavemoretechnology here,butgoodorganizationisthekey.´” You need to be careful, but this allows you to count the drops of serum.´ And they just laughed, but supply the serum broke. I told them ´you can use a technique, with some paper tied to the hoses. to machine the day, other the Like little. very with work to how know We conditions. similar have we because them teach to more much have we but Americans… to Europeans, to up look “They (Teresapers.comm.) I don’t think they should bring more Chinese, Chinese, Cubans aremorefun more bring should they think don’t I he had to do, without even talking to the mother. what did He left. then and him treated anything, to saying without arrived, come just He “please child”. this see him asked we symptoms, uncommon with child a treat to otolaryngologist “ colleagues. foreign on perspective her acknowledge to eager her, her office. at the laboratory of the Central Hospital told me in cold.” them found I them. greet even to hard it’s same, the isn’t it (Chinese) the with him… with talking start just can you and downstairs working nurse a meet can You easier. is it Cubans with while them, with communicate to hard it’s closed, of a daily basis. Mozambicans are aware of the the of aware are Mozambicans on basis. daily cooperation a for point starting Period remarkable Special the especially during limitations, economic with country “underdeveloped” an consider is Cuba that fact The endured. have nations both difficulties in the developed further are cultures, Cuban and Mozambican the linked have that ties historical “Cubans are very open, but Chinese are kind These characteristic social skills, related to the Silvia, a young Mozambican lady working working lady Mozambican young a Silvia, “And what about the patients?” ” Once we had a Chinese Chinese a had we Once 73 74 , is seen as a a as seen is , “could not really I asked -

99 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions in the national medical national the in doctores cubanos doctores capacity to learn from them, to work as a team, not to think that because of your position you are the are you position your of because that think to not team, a as work to them, from learn to capacity house your to go to were I if like It´s this. manage to needs One process. development the of centre is my home!”and try to be in charge, what would you say? You would tell me: this Mozambique, of needs the to capacities their adjust must staff Cuban guest, proper a be to order In that you care about the project and you go and tell them ´look, let’s do this together…´ Because one also needs to learn, I can also ask them to teach me. That helps to move things forwards, but it takes time. For the to have practitioners you Here, level. it administrative the is at harder, bit easier, a it’s because us For service. he their need or who patients she is actually acting, treating the assist people in high positions. You must be humble, demonstrate what you can do, and have the them to see me as a foreigner. As part of the Ministry of Health, it´s our position to advise them to change things, and they may think ´who is this foreigner telling me what to do´... I tell them to not see me as an outsider, because I´m also a part was of that well, this. But It´s hard. complicated. is Remember, change to the resistance hardest – thinking of way their is person a in change to thing criticize, just not and help actually to there are you see they When beginning. the in issue an of more “It isn’t easy, one finds resistance to accepting change. The first thing I say to myself is: I don’t want I don’t is: myself to I say thing first The change. accepting to resistance finds one easy, isn’t “It Even if the contributions of Cuban staff are seen as necessary or essential, it is the consolidation of consolidation the is it essential, or necessary as seen are staff Cuban of contributions the if Even Learning new steps Learning new steps Following the evolution of Cuban biomedicine since the revolution, my fieldwork in Maputo highlighted Maputo in fieldwork my revolution, the since biomedicine Cuban of evolution the Following and nurses to face what they had only read about in books. Second, they are diseases that require are diseases Second, they books. about in only read they had and nurses to face what take government, their by controlled be to staff Cuban forcing treatments, their throughout biosecurity antiviral measures and follow a series of tests during and after their collaboration abroad (fieldwork notes.). Dr. Heyner, specialist in the paediatric section of the Central Hospital, began our interview on this topic, mentioning how as this was his first internationalist mission, he had to learn fast: which is mainly expressed in terms of the biomedical landscape of Southern Africa. Even though several interviewees have participated in brigades tuberculosis, malaria, like diseases around of number high the to the due challenging as described are world, Maputo the medical institutions of and especially HIV/AIDS. These afflictions were often mentioned as being particularly demanding, first because they are uncommon or practically eradicated in Cuba, thus forcing the physicians group, especially those under governmental contracts of two to three years. Nowadays, as the post- the as Nowadays, years. three to two of contracts governmental under those especially group, war fragile state has demonstrated certain improvements and a Mozambican elite commands the healthcare structure, Dr. Alexis, the vice president of Cuban cooperation, depicted his adaptation a resilient character: as a continuous effort that requires national human resources and structures that is supposed to be the ultimate goal. It is in this premise this in is It goal. ultimate the be to supposed is that structures and resources human national where the notion outside of horizontal an exchange as is meant seen to appear; are nevertheless, they this also professionals, represents Cuban an to references positive the Despite itself. in obstacle community, I continued to look into the adaptability of these of adaptability the into look to continued I community, exchange, medical the hospital, the outside and inside both encounters, daily their into Inquiring field. stable situation. an ongoing process than a concrete, became more of the technique of “revolutionary doctors” to perform professionally at a grassroots level, based on their on based level, grassroots a at professionally perform to doctors” “revolutionary of technique the colleagues Mozambican Their context. local the within cope to abilities social and experience medical countries, wealthier from groups foreign other of those to different group, distinct a as them mark did and even to other Southern nations. Mainly regarded as well-known and pleasant to work with in the

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 100 75 professional skills,butthere wascertaindiscontentwiththeprocessofacculturation. their of terms in appreciated were factors These older. often and 40s, their in least at are missions internationalist of members the that implies speciality, a years achieve to required long preparation medical of the with together which boundaries, international and national within both experience, of level solid a have to need Cubans abroad, go to order In environment. local the into integration full their to impediment certain a as foreigners the of age mature the to pointed clinic, private a from Sergio, Dr. worked. they whom with those of characteristics sociocultural the understand to Cubans of ability limited the as well as testimony, previous the in mentioned as continuously, them assist to this was While said to languages. not be a different real obstacle, Mozambican translate professionals did comment to on how they colleagues needed their on entirely rely They any. learn to intention the had the nor language, Bantu a spoke interviewees the of none addition, In time. with improved with by got they said majority the but Hospital), Central the at neurologist Salazar, of the local environment. Some have a degree of training in Portuguese prior their departure (erg. Dr. local employees,whomustinvolvethemintheirworkingschedules. with shoulder to shoulder literally staff Cuban placing infrastructure, public on focus to is cooperation but alsoconcernsinterpersonalinteractionsintheworkplace.Afterall,ideabehindgovernmental practical matters (despite the high levels of foreign staff, they still number fewer than local personnel) hospitals, they cannot function without daily interactions with local colleagues. This is not Mozambicans of only requirements limited the fulfil to that skills professional and ethical solid have Cubans if Even participation. multidirectional requires system healthcare Mozambican the into Cuban staff foreign) other (or of incorporation The experiences. prior valuable their of regardless mission, internationalist their during patients approaching for guidelines certain required physicians Cuban with, work they for metoexplainit…” who are uneducated or part of the lowest class; I have seen AIDS cases in all kinds of people. It’s hard those about talking only not I´m And common. is Polygamy used. not are preservatives instance, “for diseases. surrounding context specific the acknowledge must Cubans system, healthcare Mozambican the within threats proficiency in Portuguese. . Thisisanexpression todescribeamixtureofPortuguese andSpanish,basedon their similarities,butwhichdoesnotimplyproficiencyinPortuguese. Despite the willingness of Cubans to cooperate with Mozambicans, they arrive with little knowledge serious are that afflictions treat to how learn to challenges, these face to able be to order In patients hasAIDS,andthisissomethingthatIhadtodevelopwhileworkinghere”. my of one when feel can I but it, explain to how know don’t I it, smell can I that much so it seen results… I feel limited, as a doctor, to give them the right to know if the they have hide this to evil. And easy I have actually it’s and it, approve didn’t they if patients test to possible wasn’t it ago years few a this, despite And disease. this from suffer who population the of percent 20 about it’s say would I notice, I what From AIDS. from complication a to due it’s diseases, of kind these with treat I children all almost but hand, my in statistics have don’t I meningitis… nutrition, poor see you Here Cuba. in AIDS with somebody treated never have I before; this seen never have “I Thus, away from a socialist system where doctors are deeply embedded in the communities communities the in embedded deeply are doctors where system socialist a from away Thus, check thatrulesarebeingfollowed...ButCubansadapteasily.”(Pascoa,pers.comm.) the with them I as help nurse, have to are,take surgical into account the a rules and rules hygiene. as Whether they are Mozambican profession the or Cuban, I my have to what in Especially here, language. local done and are language Portuguese things how them tell to need we “Yes, . “It’s something cultural” something “It’s Dr. Heyner continued on his understanding of AIDS, AIDS, of understanding his on continued Heyner Dr. portunhol 75 , and and ,

101 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions As . A few weeks Dr. Carlos, a high-ranking “The government takes part of your salary, about half. “The instruments, the logistic, the resources, the materials.” “how natural it is for us (Cubans) to work here” “There is a big difference between the private and the public sector” To a large extent, solidarity is embodied by the public system, where the afflicted bodies of The gap between non-intervention principles and the daily interaction between these two communities two these between interaction daily the and principles non-intervention between gap The The corpus of interaction Lisbett Pereira (2009) has written an extensive manual for Cubans participating in the medical physician at the Private Hospital told me. the of any or Marcos, Elena, Maria as scholarship medical same the by moulded was he Bárbaro, Dr. with biggest the of routines busy the through way their manoeuvre to had who Hospitals Central the at Cubans to where decide to able are system Cuban the from apart are who Those country. the in centre healthcare work, for how long, and receive their entire salary. years (they would ask each other about their families, their holidays or future plans). What shiny did all hotels, get like more look infrastructure private the make which conditions, the was attention my with places quiet were they humidity, of smell deep the or queues, long the Without decorated. and to offer the same service for free. just a few patients waiting for the same Cuban doctor who used company, followed by a test on an elderly lady who suffered from a weak heart. Effectively, these consults did not demonstrate anything unusual or with chatting first distinct arrived, patient The institutions. other from in observations participant during witnessed other medical procedures I had the doctor in Portuguese, who initiated the treatments while he explained each step. The patients did not demonstrate any note of surprise or discomfort; after all, they had known the physician for working inside and outside government control is strongly marked by their working conditions. Dr. ago years few a contract individual an achieved bar, Dominican the at met I cardiologist a Bárbaro, at CLINICARE, a private institution. After our long interview at a cafe, he offered for me to visit him at his workplace, to see for myself later I joined an early consult of a young woman doing her yearly check-up, sponsored by her those most in need are to be found. On the other hand, private institutions are outstanding places professionals Cuban all previously, mentioned I As capital. the of nature bipolar the highlighted that in the medical field of Mozambique are, orthose havebetween disparity the been,Nonetheless, Africa. partof part this ofto arrived they thehow is internationalistthis – government missions of the presents a complex and multi-layered encounter which, beyond the literature on the topic, highlights the rapidly changing borders that surround this form of cooperation. Beyond positive and negative attitudes towards Cuban participation in the medical field, their professional and personal paths are terms in especially landscape, care health Mozambican fragmented still the within evolving constantly traditional healing in comparison with biomedicine.of the public and private sector, and answers I received from Cuban interviewees in Maputo. However, this apparent distance an ethnographic perspective. is problematic when analysed from local environment from the its intent is to help interfering medical professionals adapt more without easily, stressing the importance of neutral, knowing the somehow remain to need the emphasizing but background, same and the culture follows local This 63). (Ibid., religion or politics as such topics questioning nor dynamics, local the in approach found in other academic analyses concerning Cuban medical internationalism worldwide (see Kirk and Erisman 2009; Dahrendorf 2015; Miramón and Martínez 2010), and matches with the internationalism program in Mozambique, including political, geographic, and various cultural factors, cultural various and geographic, political, including Mozambique, in program internationalism Mozambique “characterize to is goal main The country. African the of picture comprehensive a creating inside security measures such as with practical information, provide workers manner”, to in a general Furthermore, 6-7). (Ibid., country diverse this of background historical a and hospitals, the outside and

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 102 77 and thuscanbeconsidered as‘delicate’information. government the by regulated is it as especially uncomfortable, occasion on and direct question this found matter) that for myself (and interviewees 76 that shapethemovement ofdiverseresources,ideasandpeople. relations power the in participants active are Cubans and Mozambicans both approach, socialist a where they are embedded (Dilger 2012, 3-8). Although this thesis departs from scientific medicine with dynamics historical and economic political, cultural, social, the to reaction a as adapting increasingly between one sector and another, or even across biomedicine and other means of pursuing health, are borders the fact, In private. and public like dichotomies beyond landscape, wider healthcare a to medicine and of terrain the expanded have globalization and neoliberalism transnationalism, as such Movements well-being. offer and seek to network multidirectional a of part is matter) that for regions national andglobalhealthcare(seeBach2008;Kalipeni et.al.2012). over control most the has capitalism where context a in uncommon not are comm.) pers. Sergio, (Dr. Borders...” Without Doctors like from the deep inequality that tears the nation apart, comments such as experience and qualifications, but is not limited to their contributions to the public environment. Aside fertile ground despite the recent economic crisis. The reputation of Cuban doctors is attached to their represents Mozambique and over, be may Period Special The exchange. medical the of foundations the chapter, last the remarkable in differences mentioned between working As in revenues. Cuba and their abroad increase have had to a possibility strong impact attractive on an the as socialist sector environment (where they are restricted more than their national colleagues) has highlighted the private Everyday Icanseemyimpact.” says solidarity of expression an is institution the at role her how asked when Hospital, Central the at nurse medicine internal an Delvis, example For community the with debt their settle to experience an of part as hospitals public in working years at of part-time private and public institutions, work and even part those who are who solely part of the private as sector, Cubans refer to their of identify number Mozambicans increasing an as Moreover, well community. working as unified Cubans a as contact, in sectors both from staff kept professionalism remainsthesamedespitetheirworkingenvironment,asDr.Carloscontinues,arguing: comm.). This refers to the economic benefits gained from working abroad, while acknowledging that their more!” for ask they euros, 2,000 for here down come don’t they Europeans… with this are free to work as many hours, in as many places as they want. That isn’t too dollars 700 about earn you Then, bad, right? But if you compare It was hard to obtain concrete answers concerning the wages of doctors, both Cuban and Mozambican, in the private and public sectors. The sectors. public and private the in Mozambican, and Cuban both doctors, of wages the concerning answers concrete obtain to hard was It Recallingthesocialist approachtohealthcare,contributing tothepublicsystemisseen asaduty. One cannot forget that Mozambique (as well as the rest of the continent, and other Southern Southern other and continent, the of rest the as well (as Mozambique that forget cannot One working own their within including face, staff Cuban that issues economic the Furthermore, has fragmentation, public-private the of spite in professionalism, medical on perspective This afford it,andthisisthecapital.Therearenoprivateclinicsinruralareas…whatwouldtheybefor?” Even now the hospital is almost empty, we have 40 beds and we only use 19. Not many people can Mozambicans mainly whose companies pay for this. treat Otherwise almost nobody would be able we to afford this. sector), private the (in Here sector. public the and private the between difference a at public treatment hospital and a good treatment at a private one. bad Yes, the conditions change and there is a big have will you that think to mistake a it´s opinion, my In patients. the to rude be still late, be still will He anywhere. way this be will he mediocre, is physician a if but gold, of made “A good doctor can be found anywhere, and the same goes for a bad one. You may have a hospital (Dr. Bárbaro pers. comm.), or comm.), pers. Bárbaro (Dr. 76

, which I think is closer to what Mozambican specialists earn. But they they But earn. specialists Mozambican what to closer is think I which , hr I el ih h poet f h poorest. the of poorest the with deal I “here “I would like to find a job in Australia” in job a find to like would “I “if I could join other programs, (Dr. Carlos, pers. pers. Carlos, (Dr. 77 .

103 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions help the system; it’s better 78 “We need them because there because them need “We Even though I did not have the opportunity to visit or a bigger dose… there is the belief that the more the better. Then, they arrive here intoxicated, here arrive they Then, better. the more the that belief the is there dose… bigger a or in a critical state….” This kind of conversation did not concretely negate “traditional healing”, but there was a fragile “[I]n Mozambique there is a big delay in bringing children here. Most mothers follow the culture, the follow mothers Most here. children bringing in delay big a is there Mozambique “[I]n and they first go to the healers to get traditional remedies. It’s“Sometimes signals: onlydisapproving whencertain heard thingsI get voice, of worsetone that her to Listening here.” come they these remedies are dangerous, the mother may not know the exact quantity. For example, they teaspoon a is it if ask doesn’t she But night. and noon morning, each spoon one give to them tell In 1992, the Mozambican Traditional Medicine Association (AMETRAMO) was formed to unify During my fieldwork, I could not help noticing constant references to local or “traditional” modes of modes “traditional” or local to references constant noticing help not could I fieldwork, my During A Portuguese word for traditional healers in his analysis of borders and healers in Mozambique, presents a kind of mirror study to this thesis, this to study mirror of kind a presents Mozambique, in healers and borders of analysis his in using the stories of healers to understand (Ibid.) how West they Agrawal, have Arun been quoting able By to abilities. deal healing with their the physical strengthen and to order in borders intangible highlights the still unequal interactions, where indigenous knowledge is expected to be absorbed, 78 interrelation between the medical environment and more diverse methods of healing. West (2006), often describe the existence of other alternative methods of treating illnesses. Nevertheless, there was a somewhat unclear relationship between these concepts, Western medicine and “traditional healing.” For instance, nurse Sonia, in her open profession, added how: description of the emotional challenges of her and recognize the role of “traditional healers” in the country. how expressed Sergio This Dr. as institutions, has medical by degree) been certain acknowledged (to a aren’t enough hospitals to treat everybody who needs it. Curandeiros that people see them, it’s better than nothing.” would routine) daily my in met I Mozambicans mention to (not hospitals at interviewees healers, local with a need to support serious post-traumatic affliction at both an individual and group level in a post- a in level group and individual an both at affliction post-traumatic serious support to need a with individuals, with engages healing Traditional 2009). al. et Igreja also see 78; 2007, (Igreja context war kinship and other communal networks, considering the agency of the spirits treatment (for for example possession), thus through creating a path to reconciliation by acknowledging the Mozambique (Igreja 2008, 368-369). cosmological sites of well-being in beliefs and primarily a social phenomenon that establishes an alteration in the normal course of the individual’s life, individual’s the of course normal the in alteration an establishes that phenomenon social a primarily a holistic thus has healing Traditional body. physical the on reflection its find not may or may that and approach, combining both the social and the physical dimensions of the malady to treat the person as a whole. The individual is never treated as a singular entity, but (Honwana 1997, rather 297). This as community-based part approach to of well-being has a been strongly community” associated biomedical practice which seemed most effective and most impressive – the injection” (Vaughan 1991, qtd in West 2006, 4). The work of healers the has, throughout the historical most obvious being evolution of health in Mozambique, been an intrinsic part of deconstructing borders within the field of asonly not arose healing to approaches indigenous war, the of conditions harsh the Under medicine. the main alternative available, but also as a holistic understanding where “health is considered to be healing. Mozambique has been part of an African, and more specifically Southern African network of themselves showed systems healing “African described, has Vaughan Megan as healing”; “traditional to be remarkably resilient and adaptive. Far from being destroyed by the joint assault of colonialism and bio-medicine, they tended rather to absorb and internalize, to ‘indigenize’, those elements of

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 104 context ofhealthandmedicine,thusthewidersocio-culturalbackgroundbehindit. their how Mozambican the of diversity greater the considering of face the in rigid remained training and experience positive, solid less seemed staff Cuban of participation the dialogue, apparent this Within infrastructure. healthcare the within out carried treatments biomedical the to contribute can it how and for, stands afflictions treating of method widespread a such what of understanding this topic,answeredthattheymustrecognizethepresenceofthesewayshealing: on view a expressed openly who physicians few the of one Carlos, Dr. principles. non-interference rarely of role hand, the mentioned other the on Cubans, environment. medical the by) reciprocated not (but to parallel as described mainly was patients their by treatments different of use alternating the healthcare, of dynamics national the of part a is healing how expressed doctors and nurses Mozambican As 24). 23- 2006, West in qtd. 327 1980, Chambers and (Howes brain” scientific a to sears eye as act to made science, of stewards the to subordinated perpetually knowledge indigenous of bearers the and approved, by its scientific counterpart. This is thus “a process fraught with power – one in which 2008, 144-145). (Hernández other each to blessing a offer and agreement their express to Christianity, in amen to way similar a in ache term the used Santeria 78

Ache Nicolás Guillén (1974) 6 Son número unrío” formando toda lasangre lo tuyo es mío; lo míoes tuyo, de laesperanza: Adivinanza Atiendan, amigos, mison,que empieza así: soy congo,carabalí. mandinga, y cuando nosoy yoruba, estoy,llorando Yoruba soy, cantando voy, que sale de mí. llantoyoruba que subael alegre quiero que hasta Cubasubamillantoyoruba, Como soy de Cuba, unyoruba “Yoruba soy, lucumí. en lloro yoruba Ache deeper a for effort little is there answer, diplomatic and respectful this in even Nonetheless, cannot goagainstit.” You it. respect should one and comfort some gives It something. or ceremony a do to want they if them ask and families their call I so state, delicate a in are who patients have I example, For are There part. complementary people a with a high educational level It´s who follow such beliefs. It´s something cultural. rooted in their blood. something is medicine traditional think I “Well, in Santeria and other religions of Yoruba origin, refers to the pure energy that drives the universe and guides everything. Those who follow 79 forLuisito! curandeiros

in their stories; when questioned on this, they would stress their stress would they this, on questioned when stories; their in

105 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Ocadiz Miriam Photo - ba . This led me to request an 80 , those recently converted to Santeria of my host in Havana. Luisito is a former physician, who has devoted has who physician, former a is Luisito Havana. in host my of 81 iyawo . in Yoruba) must wear white clothing, including a veil or hat for their heads, and specific jewelry according to their their to according jewelry specific and heads, their for hat or veil a including clothing, white wear must Yoruba) in iyawo in Yoruba) who, due to their function and experience within Santeria, is able to lead the ceremonies in his/her own home (Linares 1993, 3). in Yoruba) who, due to their function and experience within Santeria, is able to lead the ceremonies of thunder and the equivalent Saint of Barbara. The details, quality demonstrate altar the of beauty and a deep devotion and commitment to the religion (Linares 1993,3-4) The disruption between dishes, musical instrument, jewelry and urns materials. made For instance, from here one can see at specific the centre a red textile, a wooden urn and important a symbols sword, of all the Changó, king of the orishas, owner orisha orishas, the saints in Santeria. Each Santeria. in saints the orishas, orisha has a particular personality and thus he or she is worshipped with specific elements. Therea meticulous is and colour, as such lengthy orisha, per elements list of taste (sweet, salty) and variety of This is the altar for Manuel’s one year anniversary, or birthday, his of conversion to Santeria. mentioned As in I the introduction describe to my first encounterCaridad, each detail must be taken with into consideration to please the All converts (knowns as (knowns converts All Santeria is characterized as an individual, non-official religion. There is no hierarchical institutionalization, however, there is a guide or godfather ( godfather or guide a is there however, institutionalization, hierarchical no is There religion. non-official individual, an as characterized is Santeria rituals for the orishas – to request their benevolence, to appeal to their divine power over mortals´ lives, including health and overall well-being. 80 orishas, for an entire year. Thus, one could distinguish them easily in the crowd. 81 balawo his life to the practice of Santeria. He converted in 1990, his at future with such the precision and passion age that ever since of it has become 21, his way of when life. I met his him at godmother his read hundredone than more his for centre meeting the as well as tourists, for residence a also is which house, godchildren, who come to visit him from all around Cuba, Mexico, Spain, the US and Germany. Our first encounter was during the birthday ceremony of Manuel, my host, as he introduced me to the meticulous of Cuban society. Along with topics like racism and gender, Santeria has been constantly underrated as an underground system of beliefs, rather than as an expression of resistance that enriches the national culture. In the winter of 2016, despite the extensive Cuban noticed healthcare the system, large numbers as of soon as I arrived I godfather the Luisito, with interview is said to have “restarted” time,“restarted” have to said is I was lucky enough to glimpse a historical moment, where the socialist guidelines that restrict health to the realm of science simultaneously sought to erode both the Catholic and the syncretic veins Cuban medical and cooperation other paths for pursuing health is not a concern that is exclusive to Mozambique. revolution the In where itself, Cuba

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 106 known as 81 be must healthcare surrounding elements socio-cultural these solidarity, of name the in cooperation contagious diseases, as well as language and cultural barriers. If there is a claim of horizontal medical of treatment the as such challenges, professional overcome to order in staff local alongside humility, with contribute, must foreigners where environment biomedical hierarchical the within friction constant the from arises also analysis ethnographic an Furthermore, charismatic. and flexible hardworking, as Nowadays, in both public and private institutions, Cubans are a well-known group, generally level. described grassroots a at Mozambicans with work to professionals of hundreds send to opted has nation form of cooperation. Unlike mainstream forms of aid managed by Western world powers, the Caribbean met the socialist approach of Cuban medical internationalism with the aim of constructing a sustainable has Mozambique in medicine and health of landscape fragmented) (though diverse the right, human basic a as health of of premise the Under women. and men of encounters notions daily the in present are health complex where cooperation, medical in present dynamic multi-layered the with engages dancing andsingingritualsthatstrengthenthefaithofLuisito,orishas,themselves. free services from the government – trace the path of diseases, of health and even of death, through the cardiovascular afflictions.with At Luisito´sAIDS, home with diseases, congenital with problems, social with those need, in those or preparing elaborate offerings is a small part of what is an entire religious methodology for embracing warning me to erase all thoughts of witchcraft I might relate with Santeria, arguing that reading the future this gives me a better life, it makes me happier. I even feel I help more people with this” path. own its creating time same the at while with, up grew Luisito tells me, while I attempted to understand the faith that seems so close to the Catholic culture he Which, thanks to the Santeria and the tourists’ hosts, was the biggest and most luxurious house I saw in Cuba. The home of the godfather is godfather the of home The Cuba. in saw I house luxurious most and biggest the was hosts, tourists’ the and Santeria the to thanks Which, Reflecting these findings in Cuba and the fragmented healthcare system in Maputo, thispaper in Maputo, system healthcare thefragmented and Cuba in findings these Reflecting “I used to be a doctor, I finished my studies and everything... I still remember all the ethics classes”, ilé-ocha inYorubaterminology. 82 , I witnessed a remarkable network of believers, who – without ignoring the “But I felt a call to this. I´m not going to lie, lie, to going not I´m this. to call a felt I “But , he continued, , he continued,

107 The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions Photo Juan Manuel Diez Tetamanti. Manuel Photo Juan The gardens ofThe gardens the Central Hospital. A further exploration of this sociocultural background of the Cuban medical cooperation in By collecting life stories and conducting participant observations, the routine encounters between various degrees and forms of embodiment are constantly reshaped through the way in which Cubans which in way the through reshaped constantly are embodiment of forms and degrees various their words, their silences, and their beliefs on a daily basis.and Mozambicans direct their actions, Mozambique is presented in the next chapter, gender and social class.solidarity, as well as topics like race, dealing with the blurred borders that encompass principle of solidarity behind Cuban medical malleability a requires cooperation also this but ways; predetermined in in act then to and principles, certain Mozambique embody encourages the staff to of their self-perception. Cuban staff have a name, a face, a family, an idea of themselves and others, input the involving encounter, sentient a is this Thus, patients. and colleagues Mozambican their do as of a healthcare, great to deal related of sensibility, space whereby particular biomedical the procedures In allow groups. an both interaction of between bodies cultures human the in grounded intrinsically where physical and nonphysical lines meet, the concepts of body and embodiment can be seen as social phenomenons. At the same time as Cuban physicians, nurses or technicians transform their own bodies in order to provide medical treatments shaped by are also a a “ground form [for] perceptual of processes”, encountering partnership, the Mozambican their bodies that, bodies beyond the biomedical sphere, are also entities of social change (Csorda 1994, 1-12). In other words, the often those in a vulnerable socio-economic condition, where solidarity is expected implies to be embodied. Remembering a the notion of solidarity described deeper in the interpersonal encounter, previous chapter, such political metaphors are conceived as a force capable of altering the tangible physical bodies of those whose emotions motivate them to move of and tangible help and intangible others. forces Within that this sustains Cuban mix medical internationalism in the medical field, acknowledged acknowledged as a relevant part of the local dynamics of health and well-being. As such, the socialist such variables. flexible towards needs to be more scholarship of Cuban medical foundation Cubans and Mozambicans bodies, Mozambican treats highlights group foreign a that fact The death. and life of borders the to environment the personal and emotional attachment of the medical

The healthcare setting Transatlantic notions 108 how thisproblematisestheembodimentofsolidarityportrayedinSSCdiscourses. and struggles, similar within perspectives of diversity the acknowledge to platform a as exchange social constructions with epistemologies of the South to approach the these Cuban-Mozambican medical connect I end, the In contexts. different these with cope to journeys personal the in as well as colleagues, Mozambican and Cuban between interactions the in with, deal must staff medical interviewees the of lifestyles that medicine and health of notions the in present are elements social Such communities. their and the framing sharply and another one to attached deeply collected, stories life the in narrated constantly were that variables noteworthy are These gender. and class social race, presented: then are encounter Cuban-Mozambican the of aspects socio-cultural main Three differences. our rethink to us inviting spaces, intercultural approach to framework theoretical flow, I will briefly present some of the principal elements of epistemologies of the South as a relevant lives of individuals are affected by their mobility across both continents. To unfold this multi-layered a daily basis. It begins by stressing the human network behind this form of cooperation, and how the A bar in Havana frequented by medical staff. bymedicalstaff. frequented A barinHavana This chapter focuses on the articulated interconnections made by Cubans and Mozambicans on Photo: AlinaMacías Rangel. Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounters Chapter 6

109 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss November 2016, three days after I arrived in Cuba. At the top, top, the At Cuba. in arrived I after days three 2016, November th

This picture was taken on 13 on taken was picture This A human net A

Havana, of suburbs the in 2) appendix (see Lisa la in were We there. exhausted was I truth, In which took Manuel and I about three hours to reach from the centre of the city due to the lack socialist of labyrinth the in odyssey, an was apartment right the find to Even transport. public of by even decay, and infrastructure poor its for known neighbourhood a within compounds grey Cuban standards. When we finally found Jorgito, he took us to a tiny apartment packed with there is Yisel and little Angi, the daughter and granddaughter of Maria Elena, the nurse I met at at met I nurse the Elena, Maria of granddaughter and daughter the Angi, little and Yisel is there younger his Jorgito, is there left, bottom the On 5). chapter (see Maputo of Hospital Central the wearing centre, the in am I Havana. in host my Manuel, is there T-shirt white the in and brother, difference. time the to due eyes my under bags the of spite in smiling and blouse print flower a Photo: Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga. Ocadiz Miriam Photo:

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 110 (among others) Iinterviewed. connection that are part of the multidirectional flow navigated by the Cubans daily and basis. Topics such as Mozambicansrace, social class and gender function as points of disruption and this to thanks interweaved exchange, are which involves deep socio-cultural issues lives that affect the course of individuals their on a Relations, International of concepts abstract the Beyond cooperation. medical in involved Mozambicans and Cubans of encounters daily the last the in inplace takes that dynamic elusive the with engage to chapter this triggers what is sentence “just” the and “somehow” The ocean. the of side other on is just that similar, path somehow daily a is developed have room) who those living of faces humble human the every in mirrored granddaughter, reciprocally and home family experiences (every personal The participant ocean. each the of of side each on stories these interweave to chance constanta also is it position, biomedical a fulfil to requirement a than more entails movement physical their abroad, go staff Cuban When worked). has Elena Maria (where Venezuela or into abroad Italy,or Mozambique, of glimpse tales a catch to windows were there if as her imagination, daily their incorporated has Elena Maria towards thoughtfulness unconditional their as and time same the Yisel at Maputo, Jorgito, in out carried of cooperation the in lives involved also are The Angie the continents. of both strength across the stressing spread by interconnections other the personal on and Cuba, in the lived including being by conditions hand current one the on relations, Cuban-Mozambican to understanding of level another added This homeland. their to back Mozambique in staff Cuban of networks family the tracing when clear remarkably was this because part in SSC, of notions abstract behind affection, inspiteofthedistance. ofties powerful by linked remained they whom with and world, the of side other the on earlier weeksfew a met I lady the as roof same the under lived who Cubans young these face could I how at amused was I accent, same the in even language, same the in Speaking Havana. of outskirts the on home this of simplicity the with content and size in contrasted that apartment an in Marcos and Elena Maria with spent I afternoon other the of me reminding me, overtook daughter and playing salsa in the background to uplift the evening. Again, a feeling of déjà vu misses really she sun’, little ‘my her island. the on find to impossible practically are that hats party and plates paper napkins, some including granddaughter, her of party the for bring to me asked Elena Maria presentsof package a her handed I me. to next sitting daughter little her of hair the fixed she family.” the us, for also but them, for difficult It’s weeks. few a in old years twobe will she Angi, with was she wish I sacrifice, big a It’s here. working salary year’s one is theremonth one know, you but her… miss still we but year, a month one comes she her, miss that occur in their family routines that are somehow altered by the absence of their mother. “ the revolution”, nor the theoretical framework of my research, but by the very simple anecdotes it what stands is, for and internationalism what it medical involves. However, Cuban our conversation what was not led of by the aware “achievements ofwell were they detail: single every graspingof enthusiasm the with fatigue my for compensated I part, my For well). doing is she know they if (even works mother their where city the Mozambique, about hear to eager were why I ended up following the steps of those who left Cuba to look for better opportunities. They We then sat in the living room, chatting about my weremasters, the We long eighties. flight to the received with arrive characteristic from Cuban in hospitality: drinks, crackers, Havana, books and lots andof and cheerful questions. parts computer old photos, family furniture, wooden As mentioned in the preface, the aim of this thesis has been to highlight the human journeys

her.” Yisel thanked me, while showing the presents to herto presents the showing while me, thanked Yisel Yisel told me whileme told Yisel “She called “She We We

111 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss - Latin Americans 84 (1991) (2000)

83 In order to analyse the multiple layers Eduardo Galeano que la bala que los mata la bala que que Galeano Eduardo of the propose to Cuban-Mozambican use epistemologies of the encounter, South by Boaventura I de Sousa & Santos Santos (Meneses 2009, Santos 2007; Santos this 2015); is an academic and activist approach to recognising the diversity of knowledge in the world to both highlight and validate silenced Facing the South Facing the nadie, los hijos de Los nadies: nada. de los dueños los ninguneados, los ningunos, Los nadies: la vida, jodidos, corriendo muriendo la liebre, rejodidos: sean. no son, aunque Que dialectos. sino idiomas, no hablan Que religiones, no profesan Que sino supersticiones. arte, no hacen Que sino artesanía. sino folklore. cultura, no practican Que humanos, no son seres Que humanos. sino recursos sino brazos. cara, no tienen Que sino número. nombre, no tienen Que universal, en la historia no figuran Que local. la prensa roja de la crónica sino en Los nadies, menos cuestan que

Similar to the notions of Global South described in chapter 3, Santos and Meneses (2009) refer to the term ´South´ as a metaphor to encom The nobodies: nobody’s children, / owners of nothing. The nobodies: the no ones, the nobodied, / running like rabbits, dying through life,

superstitions. but / religions, have don’t Who / dialects. but languages, speak don’t Who / be. could but not, are Who / way. which every screwed / Who don’t do art, but handcrafts. / Who don’t practice culture, but folklore. / Who are not human beings, / but human resources. / Who do not blotter police the in but / world, the of history universal the in appear not do Who / numbers. but names, have not do Who / arms, but faces, have of the local paper. / The nobodies, who are not worth the bullet that kills them 84 the in located physically groups diverse including terms, geographical beyond goes This colonialism. to relation in capitalism of impact the pass subjects as conditions their stress authors the immigrants, undocumented and workers groups, indigenous to women from hemisphere; Northern of domination. Also, there are several cases of “little Norths” in Southern locations. Even in the colonized territories, there are elite groups that have taken advantage of social hierarchization (ibid. 12-13). 83 Santos reflects on the contemporary segregation and oppression of people aroundsomething the globe, that is often accepted as common knowledge. This theory is that a has complex been (though specifically flexible) framed within the so-called Global South. experiences, without aiming to impose the monopoly of a single, hegemonic epistemology. fieldwork. In a dream scenario for a researcher, Mozambican (and Brazilian) students suggested suggested students Brazilian) (and Mozambican researcher, a for scenario dream a In fieldwork. that I read Santos’ work when I discussed the topic of my thesis in a Brazilian PhD candidate, Santos visited Maputo in July 2016, my neighbour and friend Ridalvo, our daily chat. Then, when and Lusophone African scholars have constantly engaged with this approach to epistemology, and I was lucky enough to find this scholarship not through my former education, but during my Photo: Juan Manuel Diez Tetamanti. Diez Manuel Juan Photo:

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 112 ness ofdifferentcultures toenricheachother. 85 abysmal thinking of as a configuration phenomenon that the occurs alongside distinguishes tangible facts narration, of injustice historical and hardship. his throughout (2009), Santos line. the of side this on exploitation of structures economic colonial philosophy, Western theology, Christian a historical approach traces this phenomenon back to the colonial procedures of the 16 thinking,Western modern to exclusive not are practices abysmal such Although unthinkable. the on bordering invisible, almost is that point a to silenced, is discourse dominant the from differs on this side over the apparent absence, or non-existence, of what is on the other. Everything isthat what of establishment the by also but division, epistemological an by only not characterized is thinking Abysmal line”. the of side “that and line” the of side “this between division of idea the & Santos2009,9-13). the same time, this also reinforces the contemporary imposition of Western hegemony (Meneses allowed more visibility to different forms of knowledge, for instance through mobile technology; at have dynamics capitalist current Paradoxically, sides. both between dialogue little is there that degree the to thinking, of ways other and knowledge scientific between gulf a constructed have institutions that promote methods to define and test what is considered “valid”. These parameters of knowledge as valid has been attached to what is seen as science, which also involves specific conceptionthe centuries two last the during fact, In epistemology. dominant the limitedin participation their of terms in useful only beliefs, contextual local, but knowledge not as silenced or can be described as an epistemologically suppressed through colonial and capitalist imperialism. This forced imposition been have epistemologies non-Western and Non-Christian economics. and politics of field the in capitalism and colonialism of terms in and sense, cultural a in Christianity, modern of terms in world the views that epistemology dominant a as thinking Western modern of understanding an creating perspective, own its to according context by Santos, who points out that modern Western thinking has hierarchized social realities into put is situations different to according thinking different between discrepancy The rivalries. and tensions certain created have which small, or great validity, of notions dissimilar as well as own approach to cultural and political concerns, their have all that knowledge experiences has social on different based approaches is knowledge to of reality piece valid each as Then, power. intracultural or (intercultural create cultural always relations are spectrum, broad a across social seen relations, social These Different is. knowledge valid 9). what especially and is, 2009, knowledge what perceiving Santos of ways different &epistemologies, different (Meneses intelligible” become and relations social certain intentional that knowledge valid a through is It valid. knowledge certain make that conditions the about not, or reflexive idea, or “notion a as epistemology of concept the audiencestrugglewithonadailybasis. in individuals all and Cubans Brazilians, Mozambicans, to that experiences speaks confusing oppression and painful of practices the to attached intrinsically is knowledge of hierarchisation the how of analysis The beyond. and America Latin Africa, the in stressed topics these that of relevance debate current vibrant a in engaged crowd international the conference, the During advised me Santos (2009) makes a distinction between intercultural and multicultural, as this first concept expresses a mutual exchange and the willing the and exchange mutual a expresses concept first this as multicultural, and intercultural between distinction a makes (2009) Santos When Santos talks about talks Santos When the behind leave can one South, the of epistemologies the of layers different the Within “to come and listen to this cool character. It would help you to understand us better” epistemocide 85 abysmal thinking abysmal ) and political, meaning they deal with the (unequal) distribution ofdistribution (unequal) the with deal they meaning political, and ) , as other forms of thinking are devalued, underrated, and/ , he designates the term the designates he , abysmal thinking abysmal . This statement is based on an on based is statement This . abysmal lines abysmal to develop to th century: . -

113 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss . And there are also all all also are there And . favelas remains. There is still a division between the . In his own words, Santos recognises this is not a new abysmal thinking cognitive justice century; nowadays, Santos refers to a more abstract entity in global dynamics that exercises to a more abstract entity in global dynamics that exercises century; nowadays, Santos refers Under this analysis, Boaventura de Sousa Santos suggests a contra-movement to develop a Global abysmal lines have shifted throughout history. While former colonialism supposedly th that needed a dictatorship to support itself, but Santos nonetheless points out a cultural and social social and cultural a out points nonetheless Santos but itself, support to dictatorship a needed that apartheid social fascist where globe the around places are There people. segregates that fascism divides the ‘civilised’ from the ‘savages’. One can recall the physical borders between countries, from neighbourhoods wealthy safeguarding isolate, that walls the or indirect rule beyond the role of the States. New, powerful entities have taken control of the well-being well-being the of control taken have entities powerful New, States. the of role the beyond rule indirect of people through the restriction of basic needs such as clean water, land, transport, education, also has it rights, human hindered just not has elements these of privatisation The healthcare. and encouraged a global inequality where some parties are able to take advantage of certain groups 1940s the of State fascist harsh the not is it Perhaps fascism. of form a is this sense, a In people. of as a major threat and therefore harshly displaced to “the other side”, physically, epistemologically epistemologically physically, side”, other “the to displaced harshly therefore and threat major a as means something of creation the where division linear abysmal an still is There violently. often and the with plays that flexibility remarkable a with hegemony a imposing other”, “that of invisibility the corruptible nature of capitalism and democracy. The power to rule was named colonialism in the 16 came to an end in the 1960s and 1970s, thanks to independentist and decolonisation movements movements decolonisation and independentist to thanks 1970s, and 1960s the in end an to came on different latitudes, nowadays human and the sub-human. The approach of an epistemology of the South highlights the current the on ‘those of distinction the where cartography clear a beyond segregation. structures, colonial of existence fluid more a to territories colonial determined from expanded has line’ the of side other labelled been all have refugees and migrants undocumented decades few last the in instance, For lines while at the same time deeply interrelated. On one side, there is science and its monopoly of what is considered valid knowledge, along with the philosophical and the theological; on the the peasant, the of thinking of way (the opinions idolatry, magic, intuition, beliefs, are there other, (Santos 2009, 25-27). indigenous groups, the non-Christians) and peoples, the exploitation of natural resources, slavery, and genocide. oppression correlated with the nullification of other ways of thinking, reducing these ‘sub-human’ Inseparably, social locals to nothing more than tourist guides. Indigenous beliefs were but mediums to impose other forms of thought, languages were suppressed, new names had to be adopted, local beliefs had to be concealed. As a result, two main dichotomies can be presented, separated by abysmal When colonialism took place, the occupation of “new” land humanists presented and theologians of that time, a who not only neglected the perception peculiar of reality created dilemma for by the inhabitants of the New World, but also as questioned well their as whether very they nature possessed a as soul. Colonizers human understood beings, those other than themselves to be infrahuman. This perception facilitated violence, the appropriation of indigenous land self-reproduction (Santos 2007 & 2015). self-reproduction (Santos 2007 & 2015). to signs embryonic) and fragmented (still the perceive to needs one where thinking, towards post-abysmal change a promotes South the of epistemology an words, other In transformation. a glimpse social justice through blocked, then boxed in. In a configuration where the well-being of most people is in the hands of private entities, fascism is expressed by those who control goods and services as they can also control people (like the owner of a factory, who owns not just the machines but exercises power over the workers who use them). We have arrived at a time where abysmal lines are embodied within liberal democracy and open capitalism, allowing not only their perpetuation but even their the ‘invisible’ lines within the cultural, economic and social spaces from which people have been

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 114 2009), Iquotethe articlesintheiroriginallanguageand thus,inadifferentedition. 86 embedded withindifferent socialprocesses. the daily encounters of in Cubans faced and Mozambicans, power as well of as the notions way the their common dissect struggles areto wish I section following the in collected, stories life the the proposed I of debates, systems academic ethnographic approach to medical corporation current as an such example of sociocultural hardship. Through the by dismantling Inspired worldwide. for exploitation elements and remarkable oppression as labour and gender race, of constructions to interrelated relations power of conception his echo they though unrealistic, and anarchist as colonialism on vision Quijano’s qualified have 2017) 43) 2013, April (Martínez 6 Grosfoguel and conference, (video himself Santos including scholars, Other 24-26). 2007, (Ibid. non-European “inferior” and European “superior” the between humankind in abyss an create to historical constructions deployed in terms of power relations. These components have been used socio- as but qualities, “natural” or biological as not seen are work “intellectual” and “manual” of like sexuality and sexual orientation, qualities like skin colour or hair texture, as well as the division factors production, of modes capitalist of part central a is labour While gender. and race labour, on based constructions capitalist to due and throughout sustained exploitation and oppression Quijano (2007) has contributed a great deal to this intellectual process by stressing the continual Anibal relations. power of experiences contemporary of terms in analysed are dynamics social decolonization and modernity, from various perspectives. Here, colonization, political, domination, of topics economic with engage that world and the around scholars specifically outstanding from work of Santos and the academic effort of cognitive justice is placed within a collection of articles and Meneses2009,50). (Santos another one complement and dialogue into enter can that knowledge of forms different intercultural translation as the path to arriving at spontaneous and unexpected encounters emphasisesSantos categories. and symbols betweencosmologies, among also is it another, to language one from only not is context this in Translation world. the of experiences diverse knowledge, of where own, while realising the limitations and potential of each different perspective. It is this coexistence recognized; then, arethe goal is not just to acquire more “new” knowledge but also to remember our knowledge valid of forms different if definition malleable a became knowledge of lack a as understood is What ignorance. of sense unstable the is Santos Here, from epistemologies. observation interesting other an with dialogue horizontal more a in participate could but obsolete, experience that allows an encounter between all forms of thinking. Scientific perspectives are not all sees which from the monopoly of co-presence, scientific knowledge, an ecological approach radical inspires a social and scientific a of premise knowledge, before it was divided the by abysmal lines, as contemporaries on equal terms. Departing with diversity embraces which 2007), as theworldisinexhaustiblydiverse. inter-knowledge, actually is knowledge that recognition a instead but thinking, a hegemonic single for aim no is there Here, West. the of discourses dominant the of that besides world the diversity. The addition of epistemologies of the South is its defence of other of recognition ways the of and understanding equality for stand which hegemony, against movements social organized ( proposition Although the articles mentioned in the following paragraphs can be found in the Portuguese book In the Portuguese edition of Epistemologies of the South (Meneses and Santos 2009) Santos and (Meneses South the of Epistemologies of edition Portuguese the In term the by shaped is perception This intercultural translation intercultural Epistemologias , 6 April 2017); there are, and have been, several manifestations andmanifestations several been, have and are, there 2017); April 6 , takes place to perform a pliable articulation of many diverse forms diverse many of articulation pliable a perform to place takes ecology of knowledges of ecology (Santos, Nunes and Meneses and Nunes (Santos, Epistemologias do Sul (Meneses and Santos, 86 , the , new

115 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss of social relations” for axis It was common for Cuban to physicians highlight the African influence in the island, and indeed, Cuba has a Afro population wide Throughout the decades, discussions of race by European scholars have been enriched by the The colour of the South It is not a coincidence that one of the most noteworthy tensions in the daily relationships

Miles and Brown 2003). For centuries, different societies have experienced of diverse racial formations, expressions which in today’s world still impact the way a person is seen by themselves or others (Ibid.) as race “continues to exist as part of a common-sense discourse that encompasses the accumulated and often contradictory assumptions used by people to decipher and with the complex world around us” (Darder and Torres 2004, 10). contend by sociologists such as Michael Omi and Howard Winant (1994), who conceive the use of race as an abstract (yet broad and complex) notion that functions as “a central to refer to formation “racial a as phenomenon this denote They world. the understanding and seeing the process by which social, economic and political forces determine the content and importance of racial categories, and by which they are in turn shaped by racial meanings” (Ibid, 12; see also valuable voices of non-white advocates that brought the notion of race into other disciplines, such as sociology or politics (Murji and Solomos 2015, 16). These different to reveal perspectives the nature that and dynamics of attempt race display a diverse, and often contradictory analysis. For instance, the antiquated aims to solidify race as an innate quality have been strongly dismissed methodological concerns” (Murji and Solomos 2015, 16) . Since then, there have been significant significant been have there then, Since . 16) 2015, Solomos and (Murji concerns” methodological 2015, (Lee epidemiology or type blood research, molecular to race of concept the tie to attempts 26) that have led to an overall lack of scientificbasis to sustain the existence of race. However, while race may not be a biological fact, this does not mean it is not real, that it is not “certainly a social reality” (Darder and Torres 2004, 5). (2007) and Santos (2007 & 2015) mention race as a colonial imbalance of power relations. Phenotypical elements such instrument as hair colour and texture, eye shape used to structure the initiated labels racial with associated been all have colour, skin and features facial tonalities, and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, specifically among whiteEuropean males who studied non-white societies in a quest to explain diversity “through the lens of their own theoretical and between Cubans and Mozambicans is related to race and topics are racism. strongly attached If to biomedical we studies on reflectthe diversity onof this,humankind. Both such Quijano Copyrights photo: Alina Macias Rangel. Macias Alina photo: Copyrights

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 116 etrts h sca cntuto o rc a dsrbd y m ad iat 19) ad moves and (1994), Winant and Omi by described as (1997) race Bonilla of racism. construction on social discourses the sensible) reiterates times (at to point entry an often was exchange know howtodifferentiate them” we but explain, to hard it’s either… white that aren´t they times other But here. from be could they them mulungos, but we know they aren’t Mozambicans. Some of them are black characteristic: and at remarkable times, I a think as ambiguity this mentioned Pascoa Dr. instance, For and white,whichwasproblematisedbythepresence ofCubanphysiciansmixedraceancestry. daily interaction.SimilartoMaka,otherMozambican intervieweesreferredtoraceintermsofblack of element common a such on uncertainty feel to challenging still was it nonetheless, landscape; new a within race of perceptions different encounter to surprised not was I construction, a as race that highlighted drinks the magnitude and current relevance of over the issue. Following the socialist perspective of chat a but debate, philosophical a not was It answers. than questions more with seen asmainlywhite,exceptinsomecases: to?” closer it is which colour: skin your at look locations. other in non-white as me displaced who those as “side” same the on be name. white?” all are own they Filipinos… indigenous, my claim to specific location which with toa voice no had I if ofbelonging as process, historical and own awareness my considering without classified being of politics.” with do to anything got hasn’t Race sub-species. are there there, From discussion. of end White, and Black colour. skin on based races two only are whereby there different, is analysis race But primate. onabiomedical species, based view, his Maka in interculturality. firm of remained space a within contradictory became labels social and self-perception racial of notions where discussion, long a triggered This race. mixed as myself of perception my replied he as tense became interview merchants….” Arab is ‘pure’;therearepeoplewithindigenousroots,fromEuropeansettlers,Africanslaves, same?” the do you Don’t hybrid. aren’t who else, anything with mixed aren’t who People race. pure who the “black” call Hospital, we here well, Military the at gynaecologist a Jesús, identified Dr. himself as black and thus Afro-Cuban, while Maka referred to himself as “mulato”. about talked We ground. solid his more about talking After onto 3). moved conversation our chapter Americans, Latin and (see Africans between Ronaldo links cultural of of perception fan a be to happens who student medical Mozambican the Maka, with identity and race of question the confronted I when occurred this on moments vivid most the of One fieldwork. the of part confusing) as well (as important an became hs opiae qet o nesad h rca cnoain o te Mozambican-Cuban the of connotations racial the understand to quest complicated This As mentioned in the methodology section, the idea of what race is, as well as what it should be, “I had once a Cuban professor who was black… but Dr. Jesús has whiter skin… he wants to wants he skin… whiter has Jesús Dr. but black… was who professor Cuban a once had “I As the evening ended, Maka and I moved on to other topics and finished our conversation our finished and topics other to on moved I and Maka ended, evening the As skin colour.” opinion, he should be treated like a person, not as black, or about colour. It isn’t nice to label people by my In wrong. be could identity His opinion. my saying stop to going not am I reality. the that’s differences, our have we opinion, my In differences. our have but We reality. is thing racism, one against am I race. is another and nationality is thing One not. is he but black, be This clear-cut dual perception of race left me with a deeply uncomfortable impotence uncomfortable deeply a with me left race of perception dual clear-cut This I answered, wondering why Dr. Jesús´ own views counted for so little. The little. so for counted views own Jesús´ Dr. why wondering answered, I . Maka asked me. asked Maka “But you are white” are you “But I went on, trying my best to understand how I came to came I how understand to best my trying on, went I Moreover, under such a scheme, Cuban staff were staff Cuban scheme, a such under Moreover, “Well it depends, because it’s hard to tell what tell to hard it’s because depends, it “Well with a confident tone that clashed with clashed that tone confident a with tee s ny n human one only is “there “Then – Indians, – “Then “We don’t call don’t “We “Yes you are, you “Yes “Yeah

117 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss . To reach this status, Mozambicans needed assimilado (“Mozambique, land of blacks”) is a common depiction of the “Moçambique terra de pretos” serve the public order (Maloa 2016, 99). The only path for indigenous people to achieve a certain degree of power was through the title of to be more successfully than have 18 and years old, citizens speak Portuguese Portuguese, have the been from baptised habits and married “good” following acquired the have traditions, Catholic concept the that expression direct a was This 257). 2006, Thomaz (Ibid.; service military completed by their own tribunals. In addition, the colonial regulations recognised white people, which understood as European settlers, was as the ruling group in charge of bringing “civilisation”. From the was statute the metropolis, the in reinforced was fascism Salazar’s as 1950s, the to through 1930s followed by several proclamations that limited indigenous involvement in the economic, political and administrative dynamics, at the same time as it permitted the use of indigenous labour to 3. Moreover, the discourse of race can be clearly traced to colonial times, when official decrees established racial hierarchies through colonial institutions (Zamparoni 2012, 186). Statute of Political, In Social and 1926, Criminality of the the Indigenous of Angola and Mozambique officially descendants, their and Mozambique of people indigenous the for race´ ´black label the stipulated bodies and were processed who were thus not entitled to participate in the political or institutional lusophone territory on the streets of Maputo. In a way, this polarised depiction of race is reinforced reinforced is race of depiction polarised this way, a In Maputo. of streets the on territory lusophone 0.1 only while government, the by black as classed is population the of percent 99 that fact the by Mozambique 255). 2006, Thomaz 98; 2016, (Maloa Indian or race mixed white, as seen is percent chapter in described I as space, interrelated and vibrant a but landscape, static or isolated an not is definitive and universal. Rather, there is an urge for an interdisciplinary approach that recognises the premise, a such Under 14-20). (Ibid. behaviour racial and racialisation of dynamics diverse the racial structures presented in the fieldwork are embedded in the specific historical processesof represent racism and race both of notions between encounters moreover, Mozambique; and Cuba constructions. a challenge to the fluidity of social in Europe, and ethnic minorities, as occurs towards indigenous peoples in and Africa (qtd in Darder and Latin Torres 2004, 14). Considering this, Darder and Torres America, embrace the Asia globalised encounters that occur these days, and use the concept of multiculturality to stress the complexity of race and racism, at a time when capitalism has reached constant interconnection of people, maturity. parallel to political, economic The and cultural factors, presents a rapid and wide diversity among and between people, which challenges conceptions of race and racism as “other”. Thus, by removing the essential entitlement of humanity from certain individuals, dominant dominant individuals, certain from humanity of entitlement essential the removing by Thus, “other”. groups have justified the systematic oppression and (Balibar even genocide2003 qtd. in of Darder and “theTorres 2004, sub-human” other 7). Balibar and Wallerstein (1991) have analysed this explicit form of racism in terms of exclusion and extermination, and added a second form of racism they call inferiorisation. This can be the mistreatment of migrant labor, as has happened and effects. Additionally, Darder and Torres (2004) have reiterated the issue of racism of in racialised terms societies, where economic and political power reinforces categories of “superiority” and “inferiority”. With a long history in modern times, racism includes components like nationality, ethnicity and religion that crystallise symbolic projections and mediations, such and as prejudices, that stereotypes place individuals between the idea of “properly human” and the animal-like towards a theoretical structure for targeting racial issues. His proposal is to recognise racism not just just not racism recognise to is proposal His issues. racial targeting for structure theoretical a towards as an ideological product of society or an irrational ideology. When one group is seen as superior compared to others based on images of racial qualities, it represents an essential component of racial ideology that helps us to dissect the wider discourses of racialized social systems. a Once society is racialised, racialisation itself becomes a variation of hierarchy, with its own criteria

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 118 Third Island or wherever it was exactly, to die there far away, separated from their wives, never more to father children of Mozambican origin.(qtd inO’Laughlin 2000,5-6)¨ Mozambican of children father to more never wives, their from separated away, far there die to exactly, was it wherever or Island Third orIsland Fouri to him with deported were 1895, in defeat Gungunhana’s after who, those all (chibalo), labour forced did who those all are origin cestors or descendants were deported to Sao Tome and Principe, to Angola and to other an unknown whose anyone places. is origin And Mozambican Of I tax. hut would the paid say period colonial more, the in of who anyone Mozambicanis origin Mozambican Of (indígena). native a as ¨ a formermemberoftherulingparty saidpublicly: 88 black andwhitelabelsofrace,often seenasnot“authentic”Mozambicans,illustratedinthequotefrom MiaCoutoinchapter4. 87 theAfro-Cuban of part and as black movement, summarizedtheracializationinhishomeland asfollows: himself identified who Hayner, Dr. categorization. racial of (Omiand racialconnotation Winant 1994,12). anuncomfortable with category an unclassified as diversification potential disregarding while white, and black of labels through specifically imbalances, power of system racialized a promoted has process citizen historical This 45). 2015, each Meneses 104; 2016, (Maloa of prosperity the value properly or nation the of diversity the recognize to failing while ideology, hegemonic a of specifically imposition the reinforced process, have who FRELIMO, nation-building of supporters the the in involved those to ascribed still Mozambican are “authentic” relations an Power being to leverage as seen is race where landscape fragmented a constitutes residence of place and gender profession, language, culture, class, of game social the and hierarchical, highly remains society Mozambican Nevertheless, institutions. governmental within groups ethnic and racial different positioning by structures social racialized the in interwoven relations power the shifted has Mozambique contemporary Nowadays, 260). from Zimbabwe settlers and white South of Africa, influence who the supported example, RENAMO in for direct polarities: relation certain to highlighted apartheid actually (Thomaz It 2006, times. colonial since context national the in embedded been had that structure racial the demolish not rural areas), and dismantled lives across all sectors in of almost inhabitants a decade the of by conflict. However,felt itprincipally did was it (although nation the across groups social and ethnic anti- the support to racist project, which infrastructure was also prematurely of undermined by the lack civil war. significant The war affected a all racial, was there Furthermore, 101-103). 2016, hindered a deep transformation of the racial structure inherited from recent colonial times (Maloa elite economic and political a and members, mixed-race or white allow not did structure military new the instance, For lead. the took “indigenous” called previously were who those as dynamics racial groups into the cabinet and the governmental system. diverse of introduction Nevertheless, the into translated was This there race”. “no with people of were nation hegemonic a contradictory 2006, 257,262). Thomaz 267; 2000, (Zamparoni dynamics urban and rural both in participation consistent their of as seen minorities, miscellaneous ambiguous, as left peoples were race mixed and Indians, Arabs, Chinese, between, In indigenous. the by inhabited areas rural relegated the colonialism and settlers of location the urban, the between gap remarkable a to parallel was Portuguese the of racialization This savage.” “power-less and “uncivilized” imply to of “civilized” was intrinsically attached to those designated as white, while the term black was meant

If I were to define who is of Mozambican origin, I would put it this way: the original Mozambican is anyone who in the colonial period was known As FRELIMO took power, the notion of citizenship was problematised in terms of who is truly an original Mozambican. For instance, Hama Thai, For instance, Thomaz (2006) presents the case of Indians as a large, historical group in Mozambican society that remains in limbo between the skin and good hair (straight hair); jabao, those with lighter skin and bad hair (curly hair), mulatto, black nor white. Now, people interpret this differently: you have Indians, who are those with light “In Cuba, we call race in terms of black, white, and mestizo (half-blood) for those who are neither Contrary to the dualistic perspective of some Mozambicans, Cubans displayed a wider spectrum creating of goal FRELIMO´s under campaign anti-racism strong a brought times Post-colonial outsiders assimilados 87 Ii. 267). (Ibid. in spite in , and, 88 -

119 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss

sometimes you can find

“race is not fixed. I find it funny when I go to Mexico and they low class Mozambicans are allowed to enter as a workforce. There is no law or written rule on this matter, but the division of race of division the but matter, this on rule written or law no is There workforce. a as enter to allowed are Mozambicans class low and social class was certainly noticeable. globe, the of rest the and World New the between ocean the in speck a island, Caribbean The The diversity was one of the first characteristics I noticedMozambique whenduring the last I landedmonths I was in struck by Havana,how there was as a shownwider different in thisdiversity racial of picture.peoples groups. that In identify After living in themselves Mozambique, with certain locations and activities were example, informal markets or public primary schools on strongly the outskirts of the city were characterized by being mainly assigned to attached to specific racial groups. For black, low income people. While expensive restaurants or hotels were spaces for white (often expats) and elite groups, where which is known for its racist reputation, but I never felt this to be the case. White people helped helped people White case. the be to this felt never I but reputation, racist its for known is which me a lot…” features different with people of mosaic rich a seemed Havana Cuba, in arrived I when Indeed, who are closer to the indio, they have lighter skin than black people and they have bad hair…. that’s how we said it, bad hair and good hair, but all of this is disrespectful. For instance, the Indian has the best of both worlds, and each category has its own qualities. In Cuba, there are some places with a white majority, and there you may find someracism against black people, Camaguey, in studied I provinces… other in racism hidden some is There Holgín. in happens as

has its own process of racial structures as an overwhelming echo of the Iberian colonialism that all of them among the same group of friends, at school, or within your own family.” all of them among the same group places, live in the same neighbourhoods, study at the same schools, and go through the same economic hardships. Lisandra, a PhD candidate and advocate of the socialist party among the university students, talked of how me… to more much is there But mulatta. a mixed-race, myself consider I coast. the from I´m think Here, we have a large classification… you have chinos, jabó,mulatos… and skin colours, coexisted on a melting pot of an island where they would work in the same Photo Alina Macias Rangel Macias Alina Photo .

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 120 ht h rvlto hd lo rsd aim a scaim s h ebdmn o eult. She equality. of embodiment the then is added socialism as racism, erased also had revolution the that neighbour? next-door my smile. with pride her underlining Havana, old in living was I neighbourhood Rodríguez 2006,44-45). perspective, this From Cuba. and (Prieto itself revolution the to revolutionary obstacle an also was it shameful, morally solid, only not was racism a form to levels all at equality achieve and exclusion of form any overcome to was aim The citizens. all for to healthcare and access market job as the well as campaigns), literacy massive with (beginning education and housing to who peasants, accesspromoted structure socialist racialthe addition, In Cubans. mixed-race to and black mainly were land of the of kind ownership any giving dynamic, prohibited agricultural the explicitly reforming government exclusion, revolutionary the island; the of political structure and social the in changes drastic promulgated state new a mobilization, such Under away. taken were rights and properties their as emigrate to opted often and eroded, were severely sectors economic and political the in elite colonial The race. or gender, status, social to dueeither immoral, and obsolete segregation of forms all declared Castro of approach socialist the production, of means the of reconstruction a and property private of abolition the Through colonialism. of layers various the down broke revolution Cuban the of triumph the ocean, the of flow multidirectional a in blackness of vein intrinsic towards anauthentic the praised titan”, “bronze the as known also Maceo, Antonio mulatto the as such heroes National 7). 2001, Fuente la De 118-119; 2014, (Rodríguez crown Spanish the of resistance and rejection of act an as society Cuban of mixture anddiversity the highlighted that independence for struggle a by framed was century nineteenth foundation of a socio-cultural process to consolidate a sovereign nation and identity. Cuba in the when the British conquered Cuba for a year in 1846 (see Hu-DeHart 1999). This diversity was the foreign groups also participated in this process, for example Chinese labour migrants, who arrived as race of mixtures other and pardos, cimarrones, mulatos, slaves, black saw who settlers, white by ‘otherness’ for (Rodríguez 2014, 113-116). In any case, the presence of a non-white population became a target from society, Cuban of formation the citiesthe within services domestic to dominated, plantations sugar and coffee where areas, rural of levels all a in became well-embedded slavery was years, that hundred structure four robust next the to For birthmark inferiority. a mental became even skin and their social of denote colour the where race black a as labelled hegemonically various ethnic groups and fromlocations, arrived Africans, in the of Caribbean from the Thousands sixteenth century system. onwards, production the of part essential an as trade slavery the of use made soon population indigenous the of quasi-extinction the to led that labour and land of races was inaugurated by the of intense stigmatization the Hispanic Cuba, colonialism In Mozambique. of of Latin land faraway America. the The with Havana harsh of ports exploitation the unites hne h sbet A w mvd n o i eprec i Agl, e ne b describing by ended he Angola, in experience black women his as to on moved we As subject. the change blood” indigenous have they because ugly are women Mexican Angolan war in the Pinar of del Río, veteran who a started a met conversation I based on when my recall nationality: vividly can I colour. skin on based prejudices denoted that comments heard often I weeks, following the In conclusion. contradictory a with me left which Rcs? h rvlto eae ta kn o thing...” of kind that erased revolution The “Racism? By the middle of the twentieth century, at a time when slavery was still present on the other side “We are friends, even if she follows that thing… Santeria, the religion of the blacks” “monkeys...they only miss the tail.” coloured people coloured Cuba libre The black transgender?” the lady went on, giving voice to the idea the to voice giving on, went lady the transgender?” black The . , essentially different and a threat to white Cubans. Other Cubans. white to threat a and different essentially , Such aggressive and direct comments were n lel wmn od e n the in me told woman elderly an e od e wie tid to tried I while me, told he “Haven’t you see you “Haven’t “In my opinion ,

121 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss “I don’t . “Nowadays there is no preference; the thing is that many of us, Cubans, have African ancestry. Within the ethnic groups of Mozambique, like the Makuas of the North, in Nampula, there is a This disruption of racialization since the revolution is connected to the medical field with which this which with field medical the to connected is revolution the since racialization of disruption This This contradictory environment offers a fructiferous analysis of race and racism when social certainly certainly uncommon, but there were several acts and words that shared sentiments of racism, even among those who were kind and welcoming towards me. It was shocking to meet people who would collaborate day by day with people from different backgrounds, that would personal share and even intimate relationships, but would still be able to speak the phrase especially Afro-Cuban females (Blue 2010, 36-37). On this matter Dr. Marcela, the director of the Cuban cooperation in Mozambique, testified that: schools, especially high schools such as the Isla de la Juventud (where some Mozambicans studied) Mozambicans some (where Juventud la de Isla the as such schools high especially schools, social all in diversity promote to effort active an with together coexistence multi-racial the promote to sectors (De la Fuente 2001, 337). contribution The As approach. horizontal mentioned more a in claim the to people introduction, Cuban the medical of diversity internationalism the of has use made of Afro-Cubans has been described as particularly significant in their foreign policy towards Africa, generations, who point to an optimistic future through the intercultural exchange happening within within happening exchange intercultural the through future optimistic an to point who generations, different layers of society, especially in the conformation of mixed race families and friendships (ibid. 51-53). thesis is concerned by the national educational system, which reinforced the creation of boarding strong, hard-working and cheerful. Mixed-race people are also seen as a more neutral category, between black and white, which has inherited elements of both sides to be a “different” group. Such stereotypes and prejudices highlight the ongoing disadvantage of black Cubans, and to a hand, other the on is, There infrastructure. socialist the despite mixed-race, of those degree lesser a recognition of racialization in the socio-cultural landscape of Cuba, especially by the youngest was an issue from the colonial past, or when is compared to institutional racism in countries like the US. The image of black, white and mixed-race people at different social places like groups labour and family networks still recalls the colonial patterns of exaggeration and exoticisation, especially towards the black population, who are seen as violent, rude, arrogant, and linked to illegal misconduct. On the one hand, there is also the idea of Afro-Cubans as creative, athletic, have less access to the most profitable economic sectors, despite their access to education. At the same time, they are abundant in the low paid agricultural and construction job markets, as well as in tourist-related positions, as long as they are less visible to clients (for example inside the kitchens). In terms of alternative sources of income, white Cubans are the main beneficiaries of remittances, a reality linked to the racial background of migration (Ibid. 46-49). Furthermore, this study included prejudices and stereotypes, often hidden behind the assumption that racism by terms like “revolutionary” and “the Cuban people” (De la Fuente 2001, 355). It is only the since mid-1980s that racial problems have been seriously addressed, despite the legislative and institutionalized efforts towards equal opportunities. Prieto and Rodríguez (2006) describe these latent racial concerns through a demographic scope of anthropology. Their analysis points out that black and mixed-race Cubans have a greater propensity to inhabit low quality housing and structures, embodied in governmental institutions, are actively grounded and directed against segregation. The officially anti-racist claims of the revolution have preventeddialogues about open, conscious racial issues in contemporary Cuba. racism has become a As polemic term in public socialism arenas, often seen as spread a taboo topic cancelled a out sense of unity, want to sound racist, but…” want to

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 122 first Cubans here were white… and there is the belief that foreigners are more intelligent, more intelligent, more are foreigners that belief the is there and white… were here Cubans first the but Mozambican, look they Sometimes better. staff. are they think certain they foreigner, for a is who patients know the among preference I certain until was harmonious, there as if exchange them asked the describe to tended they Cubans Similarly, encounters. asked him,asIsatinhisneatconsultationroomaprivatehospital. citizen frame their dailyinteractions. that dynamics social the to attached deeply are which countries, both in race of notions the between differences the stressed they didsituation, threatening or critical they a as this Although describe not situation. unstable an in them places that position a power, and wealth with equated being as white as seen be to tendency their to referred often staff of Cuban Mozambique. context racial the to compared when omission, an as interpreted was island the on heritage roots areAfrican.InallofLatinAmerica…butespeciallyinCuba.” longest in Mozambique, on the positive social adaptability of Cuban staff in Maputo, answered: and cultural the spent has who to interviewee the Carlos, due Dr. instance, For slaves. especially African by made identity, contributions Cuban the of part as mixture remarkable this as Afro-descendant, even if they would also claim white ancestry. There was a tendency to highlight As a matter of fact, Mozambicans also had a hard time explaining the racial aspect of their of aspect racial the explaining time hard a had also Mozambicans fact, of matter a As with politics…it’shardtoexplainthiswholesituation.” promote xenophobia and who segregation, there they are out not interested people in change, are or they There don’t education. want to and get involved communication of lack a of because is this say would I racial. something as differences these interpret they here but opportunities, great has everybody where countries Nordic to this compare to hard it’s and Cuba, of context actually that’s poverty of the not it’s level mortality… high poverty, illiteracy, of here, issues serious are there that know I scary. a have they and white, is where everybody America, say Central would everybody in Mozambicans countries Cuba, some In have you context. And our education. of same the because to but access has race, of because not is difference the But a Cuban who is an engineer, an architect or a doctor than a Mozambican with the same position. background and they forget where one comes from. Of course, you have more chances to meet “ Mozambican a as years thirty almost living after perspective his me tell to on went Carlos Dr. the and We general. in accepted well are Cubans Mozambicans areequals.” say would I racism. as this see didn’t I but country’, your to back go here, you are ‘why me tell them heard I sometimes Here, white. yes, But accepted. aren’tCubans most population, mixed a are we Cuba in because that, in problem any is there well are we say would I thinkdon’t I and woman Mozambican a to married I’m against. discriminated feel I sometimes and community well-known pretty a are “We African of relevance the and homeland their of mixture the of recognition this Nonetheless, Among the life stories I collected, it was indeed common to find Cubans who described themselves Saharan area.” Sub- the and Africa of North the of parts many for goes same The Cuba. with connection strong That will always happen. Sometimes people think these advantages are because of an ethnic an of because are advantages these think people Sometimes happen. always will That “And what about the advantages, are there any due to your nationality or appearance?” or nationality your to due any there are advantages, the about what “And

Oc they “Once “Look, our I

123 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss “I would “in my opinion, opinion, my “in There were also prominent comments on how the This subtle tension related to racial behaviours was said Dr. Pascoa, speaking from her experience as a theatre nurse. ) The coins of the South 89 (Último?... The systematic racialisation of Cuba and Mozambique is a piece of the social puzzle, Despite the superficial picture of tolerance concerning racial recognition both and within I could translate this as: “Who is the last one?”; this was an odd question I heard all around Cuba.In most non-touristic places, from bus stations accordance with specific contexts. A Marxist analysis would define class in economic terms, 89 to ice cream shops, the queues tend to be so long that people would sit and chat around instead of wait in a line, then, one must literally scream to know who is the last person in the line, remember his or her face, or even ask their name to respect the streets laws. Although at the beginning I felt of system, the of laugh to humor, with take Cubans that dynamic daily a is this realized soon I arrived, I place each at scream to embarrassed of kind themselves and their lives waiting for something to come. resemblance or non-resemblance to each other according to certain criteria (and we are free to labour intellectual the through began race If 4-6). 1990, (McAll like)” we criteria whatever choose of white males in Europe, it is not surprising that social class was also framed in parallel, as a class, by understood actually is what of much explain not does this while and tool, classificatory it has become a distinctive element of social construction and thus must be analysed in close where class is inherently embodied in the roots of the history. As previously mentioned, the racial Iberian colonialism brought about segregation specific forms of social present throughout hierarchy, where physiognomy was interlaced with a system of oppression that often favoured modes of production. Class, as with race, can be dissected organize differences as by grouping things “a or people into concept different categories depending that on their allows us to medical exchange and interculturality. medical exchange and interculturality. observe, and sense, two different notions of what race is and how it is presented within the different different the within presented is it how and is race what of notions different two sense, and observe, layers of daily life based on their colonial inheritance. As Cubans and Mozambicans develop their shared spaces, their own perceptions of race and racism are constantly tested to (co)exist with their classmates, teachers, colleagues, friends and partners, who participate racialization. These in encounters other with diverse forms forms of of racism stretch the limits of their horizontal Cubans (Dorsh 2011, 301). outside the medical infrastructure, the encounter of Cubans with in Mozambicans a racialised is context. In also a sense, a they do clash share a complex concept of what race is, as hierarchical stigmas well attached to as constructions such as social class, while at the same time being to striking was It Atlantic. the of sides both on present dynamics historical specific the of product a professors still, like professor Palacio, he was my preferred my lighter favourite... skinned classmates.” but still, sometimes I felt they often resented by Mozambicans interviewees, who were aware of the racial issues, despite the claims of mixing and miscegenation by their Cuban colleagues. They Africa as exaggerated and weak, as well as the resentment towards black people, even among stressed the image of express it directly, but you can feel they aren’t comfortable. But others are very nice, and funny, funny, and nice, very are others But comfortable. aren’t they feel can you but directly, it express more open minded than the Portuguese.” Cubans who had trained future Mozambican doctors tended to have certain racial prejudices. that firmly stated race, on conversation long a had I whom with student the Maka, Cuban professor had preferences for those students with a lighter skin colour. They are good capable. It doesn’t matter if they are a nurse or a student and you are a doctor with a speciality, speciality, a with doctor a are you and student a or nurse a are they if matter doesn’t It capable. they are seen as better” Later on, she compared Cubans to the Portuguese and other European colleagues: like to travel more, maybe work abroad… but I’m afraid of racism. There are some Portuguese who are pretty racist, but the Spanish are calmer. And with Cubans… it depends. They don’t

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 124 afford private hospitals. Elements such as access to water, nutrition, sanitation, violence or working treatment were as far as possible from the slender middle and upper Mozambican class, who could interviewees as two different the pharmaceutical worlds, the by of as portrayed was if institutions public the and backing private peasants between financial division and The industries. remarkable inhabitants medical and of the the against slums set that arrived right, to human seek a as health of paradox a in staff medical the positioned power, of imbalance daily the of reflection unhindered an constant motion within the fissures of the social scenery of Maputo. The national healthcare system, “Nationalism, UrbanPoverty”2010,1-12;Congura andHanlon2010,25). (Sumich landscape fragmented the delineates that division social a to contributed has Maputo, of the in government of presence agricultural sector and weak the failure to deal The with increasing urban poverty, rural-urban. especially in the largest of city dichotomy the in appear still that class working the and elite the between differences deep the confront to failed have parties international Reduction of Poverty (PARPA II in Portuguese). However, with a background of corruption, local and for Strategy the as such Mozambique, in inequality tackle to policies been have There 696;). 2010, State” the and Party “The (Sumich poverty in lives population the of half than more while position, concentration of wealth in the hands of the devoted followers who are the able to reinforced secure their also privileged have adopted means capitalist the nonetheless, nation; democratic a in entity of hands FRELIMO. the The party in may power be recognized, centralized in national has and international model arenas, as capitalist the legitimate a ruling to adaptation gradual the Nonetheless, economic was There development. for inequalities. search the satisfied social which processes, of peacekeeping with – hand in hand resolution growth, a to exactly translate not does which – the during small sustained improvements seen in been human development within have Mozambique and intervention the actual reconfiguration international this of Critiques 680). 2010, Sumich 5; 2011, Gunvald and (Motta aid welcome and demands international suit to democracy of pursuit a and market world the in adjustments through pattern “development” the fit to FRELIMO of dogma socialist initially the cornered which measures, neoliberal for playground a became Mozambique overall promote Post-war and war. devastating the by then and 1970s, the in crisis a by frustrated became soon growth industries Mozambican principal the nationalize to efforts their tendencies, socialist its and FRELIMO of entrance the With 150-153). 2003, Trindade and (Santos world the in rates mortality highest and expectancies life lowest the of one with inherited nation independent 1960s broken, and a 1950s the during recovery economic poor the Africa, Southern in presence weak its by characterized was rule Portuguese While Mozambique. in development human of level questionable a to led has class that structure social economic unstable the and to imbalances parallel racial run have power by constructions drawn aforementioned divisions the systematic by The histories. constrained respective severely their been throughout has Cuba, in as well as of inequality(Reay1998,260-266). edge the on account own their frame to classes working the of agency the limits which groups, dominant by bounded mainly are class social of discourses the fibres, economic and political individuals of sense-making to attached Strongly relations. and power with dialogue direct self-making in is which whole, the a as societies in and role crucial a has class they Social who become. and others, by portrayed are they how themselves, see people pathhow identity – individuals the of of part crucial a as depicted been has analyses recent more in stratification social Moreover, 11). (Ibid. exchange and production of system social a in survive to perform individuals that activity the from arises consciousness how and production, of forms on based The Cubans and Mozambicans I met, both inside and outside the hospitals, were individuals in individuals were hospitals, the outside and inside both met, I Mozambicans and Cubans The Mozambique, in privileges and services basic to access opportunities, income, in gap The

125 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss

Photo Marina Costa Masetti. Costa Marina Photo Photo Alina Macias Rangel. Macias Alina Photo she told me when I asked Inocencia answered with a “I’m a clean person” “I’m not sick, I’m just exhausted…” to cover a night Behind the walls of the Central Hospital, Mozambican staff were well aware of this sort of It’s that. to adapt must you and poor, the of poorest the treat “We me. told Pascoa easy” not “It’s a very different atmosphere to a private hospital, and some doctors are only looking for money. During my time in Maputo, difficulties: world outside the neat, high class neighbourhoods. her if she wanted to go to a hospital sarcastic smile. In her view, a visit to the doctor would be of little use if she did not have the means to provide for herself and her family. the day. This working rhythm, the stress of arriving safely each night, and her daily efforts to provide the means and care for her baby led her to a weakened health condition that caused her to she lose if her her job. hire In only addition, would she who was family, expat an for work to tried she when “undesirable” as dismissed took a medical test – i.e. if she could dispel their fears of tuberculosis, AIDS and all the evils of the mother in the city’s Inocencia slums, had to public take transport in the the dark, work the entire night, take care of her then baby during young lady who worked at my at worked who lady young student residence in Maputo, was suddenly transferred by Clean Africa single a As airport. the at shift I came face several stories on the to impact face with of lifestyle conditions. on A good example the was health when Inocencia, the poverty of but also to Mozambique, addressing unstable the that social enclose health (O’Laughlin 2010, 5, 17). overall tissues and its quality are, constantly in fact, constrained modes by of interconnection inequality; is their essential to not only recognizing the conditions conditions are all of particles social narratives, solidify which the that daily routines The support access to well-being. healthcare

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 126 (Mesa-Lagos 2016, 201). 90 support people where state, sovereign and socialist a as Cuba of uniqueness the recognized Once in Havana, the narratives of daily social struggles were part of a bipolar speech that at home times on the other side of the ocean a that for softened the love conditions their I accentuated encountered in that the tone Caribbean. melancholic a voices, their in aura nostalgic a was there Nonetheless, depart. to decision their influenced heavily that one nation, their of characteristic poverty andinequalityhasmadefragilethedream ofanequalandharmonicisland. Lagos 2005, 184, 200-202). There has been some improvement in the last years, but the scar of of the economy, has led to an imbalance that has eroded social dynamics among on Cubans (Mesa- focus the Nevertheless, sustainabilityinefficient the neglecting while healthcare, and education as such elements social equality. preserve to promise socialist its and the state undermine the however, of not, control did reforms These 145). 2008, (Prieto remittances of gradual the allowance and sector, touristic the in especially initiatives, private of relaxation a measures, rationingfor opted state the of hand visible the , decayed economy national the As inequalities. social of re-emergence the allowed society Cuban of restructuring a arena, international the in island. It is not surprising that, as a result of financial hardship and political instability, especially theon dynamics social eroded Period Special the of crisis economic the when 1990s, the since pers. comm.). The position of Cubans in their internationalist missions has been deeply reformed situation. equal more a as with pride, often described, interviewees that society Cuban the of nature socialist the on emphasis an was there hand, other the On chapter. previous the in mentioned I approach horizontal the Mozambique, is a topic that highlights the weak economy of the Caribbean island and promotes comm.). On the one hand, a comparison of social class struggles, within and between Cuba and that conditions critical in result expectancy collaboration in terms of the low human health indices: the high levels of mortality and the low life (Dr. Teresa,pers.comm.). with Cubans most nevertheless, life; of quality temporary contracts good are actually seen a by their colleagues established as been and have decades who for those Maputo are in There group. malleable a represent Cubans space, working medical hierarchical the Within status. economic and social comfortable a of examples prominent most the as positions higher occupy who or sectors private the in working those with person, to person from varies course of This time. leisure some afford even could they and covered, were needs their all stability, andasmostintervieweeshadseveralyearsofexperience,theydepictedalifestylewhere institutions public at workers and patients the of most and themselves between gap the of conscious were they elite, they (fortunately) left behind. Although they did conditions not harsh the recognise portray and areas rural themselves in origins as humble their described being Cuba, in part studied of who a those especially Mozambican them, of some fact, In Maputo. of dynamics social the to relevant equally is as an integral element of their health. Furthermore, their own performance as suppliers of healthcare Just between 1989 and 1993, GDP fell by 33 percent and the production and export rates remained more than fifty percent lower than in 1989 Those who are currently working in Maputo did mention the economic struggles as a crucial a as struggles economic the mention did Maputo in working currently are who Those their of importance the stressed Mozambique in cooperation Cuban the for authorities The patients their of background social the handle must staff medical other and nurses Physicians, need toexplainmanythingsthem....” you patient, be to need you and situations, harsh in people poor, the with be to have you Here 90 . The fact that they have a profitable profession gave them a certain financial certain a them gave profession profitable a have they that fact The . “Life is hard, but nobody dies of hunger in Cuba” in hunger of dies nobody but hard, is “Life “you simply cannot find in Cuba” in find cannot simply “you “people who want to get out of poverty” (Dr. Alexis, pers. Alexis, (Dr. (Manuel,

127 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss , people in (yes, with a a (yes, with 91

92 solares And at the same time, time, same the at And 93 la Habana “could you help me to get “One is there depending on the were not uncommon in the recurrent Dr. Ricardo told me, while he compared his first mission during the “next month I’ll try to cross to the US” or There is a significant difference in economic contexts between Mozambique and Angola, but “Now, we are the poor” of the world and move forward” (Fieldwork notes, 2 December 2016, Havana, Cuba) of the world and move forward” Comparing this kind of remark to the governmental descriptions of medical internationalism, the “I don’t think Cubans are extraordinary. But I greedy feel like they are stuck in because in the supposed peculiarity of the they “Cuban” as a crave certain heroic. and invincible chameleon, “luxuries”. a like creature, mythological of kind This is nothing rest the with themselves compare to able be to travel, to change, to grow, to will this have they The slums of old Havana, which were once enormous colonial houses and are now literally crumbling down, providing poor and sometimes This game with the English and the Spanish name of the city is used to mock the touristic image that has made the historical centre a bubble or political struggle. Here I refer to their pride behind the self-perception of Cubans as resilient to overcome any economic 91 unhealthy living conditions to thousands of Cubans. 92 of renovated colonial buildings, “traditional” Cuban music and cigars, while a few blocks away most inhabitants lack proper housing and prefer reggaeton over Buena Vista Social Club. 93 centres they and there and are colleagues, more between expats… celebrate investors, from to China, dinner, Russia, a America. have I would remember how we holidays Christmas the during Russians the and Chinese the So salary. my of half was that person… per dollars 100 ask would poorest in the group…” said: you don’t have to pay, Cubans come for free! We were the government. For example, I got only 200 dollars, but I knew I earned way more. And 200 dollars dollars 200 And more. way earned I knew I but dollars, 200 only got I example, For government. in not enough in Angola. The cleaning staff earned 300, I got less than them. Nurses with less preparation and experience than me earned much more. For them, I was poor. Nowadays there One money. much so with cars, new shoes, shiny with elite an is There hierarchy. social new a is shopping new highways, new infrastructure, more is There changed. has it much how notice can economic and political shifts in both countries have (re)shaped their own social class affiliations, groups. and thus their encounters with foreign war in Angola and his latest trip to Luanda from 2010 to 2014. family of Maria Elena comes to mind as an echo of the colleagues Mozambicans as a who migrant perceived group their with limited Latin means. This does not mean there was a sentiment pity, of nor did Cubans themselves ask for any kind of mercy. Nevertheless, they stressed how the complaints of the limited options for improving their lifestyle, as well as the great impediments to to impediments great the as well as lifestyle, their improving for options limited the of complaints moving to new destinations. When I revised the fieldwork I made in the Caribbean, I remember the overwhelming feeling of frustration and bewilderment with relationship love-hate their of stories their me with shared street when the in with chatted I people my neighbours, friends, and their country: each other to overcome any obstacle; in other moments, while living in the ‘Havana’ to see beyond me to look carefully invited the neighbourhood ‘b’), where people – even those who are most devoted to the party – must get up every day and hustle if they want to eat by the end of the month. Phrases such as a Mexican visa?” locals in their own daily lives to construct a better life. Cuban staff on internationalist missions have important financial restrictionstheir thatawareness haveof class impacted and identity. Closely related to other social variables grassroots such participation as of race, Cubans the place women and men within a of fragmented social stratificationand inerratic which theyland must negotiate their position throughout their encounters with

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 128 Photo Juan Manuel DiezTetamanti. other latitudes,even ifthatmeantlearningandpracticing newlanguages. ce were not only outstanding students, they were also enthusiastic friends who were eager to meet and exchange ideas with young people from 94 of terms in women of disadvantage historical The basis. daily a on experienced inequality gender the socialrealitiesinboth countries,andwasarelevantconcerninthehealthcare environment. race and social class,thetopicofgenderbecame an important pointofdiscussionthat contrasted professionals, Cuban by which highlighted their approach to the patients, came to mind. Although less visible mentioned than issues of principles ethical the voice, Diana´s to listening was I While years.” few a in leave will she and me… judges she like feel don’t I gynaecologist, my visit to like I it at all, but I cannot tell my parents. I mean, they pay my bills, right?! Hahaha, but maybe that’s why me her favourite moments of the latest lesbian show was Diana with sharing humour, students. even and joy with local homosexuality, her state to with hesitate not did she discussion and there, a began community LGBT the of part as themselves In fact, this was the only interview I conducted in English during my time in Mozambique. Diana and other Mozambicans student at my residen Moreover, it is difficult to talk about gender in Mozambique without stressing the high degree of degree high the stressing without Mozambique in gender about talk to difficult is it Moreover, Orange is the New Black. “I am not ashamed of at the student residence of of residence student the at discretion” feel… more I her with Mozambican but doctor, a or Cuban a there is no difference between we English in talked only Portuguese, practice eagerness to my despite and the end of the Southern winter, at avenue Mondlane Eduardo the at lunch having were We her.” trust Diana, my interviewee, smiled. I her, like I Yeah, woman. a doctor, Cuban a is appendix 2), my gynaecologist tdns h defined who students Brazilian several of arrival the one case afternoon in the August, when was As debating. even and steps, for dance new learn languages, environment practicing the and was perfect exchange It Mozambicans internationals. student with enjoying city, the the around go to used we and friends, common Eduardo through Mondlane of University the “There in Xai Xai (see (see Xai Xai in “There The shapesoftheSouth . We met met We . 94 . “I feel feel “I -

129 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss said Lindberg, as an innovative an as “The audience said it was Organização da Mulher Moçambicana Mulher da Organização In terms of gender, I don’t perceive much of a problem. I work at the Ministry and here I work “ with more women than men. And there has been a change, now there is the Organization for the Mozambican Woman they are included more in politics… but socially, I see a lot of discrimination towards women. Here for instance, there is a department in charge of gender violence. We When discussing such topics with the staff, there was an awareness of how gender influences Furthermore, the sociocultural issues that interact with female bodies have been seen from a feminist a from seen been have bodies female with interact that issues sociocultural the Furthermore, Already in 1973, when independence was still a burgeoning achievement, Samora Machel consequence of the specific realities experienced in Mozambique, is a relevant issue in the national the in issue relevant a is Mozambique, in experienced realities specific the of consequence environment of health, and should be addressed by biomedical approaches. their performance: perspective as fundamental to the efforts to dissect the biomedical field, as well as contemporary notions of health (see Clarke and Olesen 2013). Thus, the multiple layers of Mozambican society are part of the question, and the answer, behind the treatments the needed due malnutrition to domestic of violence, or a children the as inequality, higher gender of rates words, other of In single AIDS/HIV 13-14). 2008, among (Tvedten mothers, women, twenties early their in those especially dynamics within Mozambique. Beyond notions of (under)development, elements of patriarchal and matriarchal structures that, together with variables like age, religion and culture, demonstrate various layers that underlie the constant claims of poverty as an intrinsic adjective for (black) Mozambican 2011, 3; see also Amadiume 1987). women (Tvedten 2008, 15; Arnfred driven attempts supported by the UN and Northern countries, have tried to address the empowerment the address to tried have countries, Northern and UN the by supported attempts driven of women in order to support the complex configuration of gender in the widely diverse landscape of Mozambique. From Maputo to the Northern province of Nampula, and from the war zone in Sofala to the South African border at Manica (see appendix 2), the have ethnic been particularities reconsidered of by each recent location analyses as a crucial way of better understanding the gender is the Organization of the Mozambican Woman that should bring the millions of women in our country 138). 2007, Iglésias in (qtd translation) own (my fight” revolutionary the and emancipation their towards This socialist goal to value female contributions to the revolution is a common ground in independent and local several in captured been has initiative this nation, Lusophone the In Mozambique. and Cuba II, PARPA as such Programs country. the within development human improve to projects international the New Partnership of African Development (NEPAD) by the African Union (ibid. 141-142), to donor- is widely recognised, although poorly addressed. although poorly addressed. is widely recognised, the inaugurate to conference first the opened governmental organ, a “structure of FRELIMO as a new arm of the revolution that must reach all the It of the transformative process that is taking place in our country. woman that have been at the edge mother’, with a heavy package on her head, and groceries on each of her arms, walking to the bus station while holding her baby on her back. Right without by any her weight side, on her his husband shoulders, would nor walk a lightly, cloud on normal, his how it’s conscience. supposed to be. That’s the place of Mozambican woman...right?” that matter a on discussion a start to ready was who students, exchange Brazilian young the of one access to education, the labour market, wages, proper working conditions, vulnerability to violence violence to vulnerability conditions, working proper wages, market, labour the education, to access along oppression, and segregation of element crucial a often is relations power in position their and with the construction of race and social class (Tvedten et. Brazilian and Mozambican students were discussing the al. acceptance of the LGBT community, and 2008, ‘Mozambican 12-13). a of idea The the performed same actress an evening, where experiment school a of told story a was there

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 130 Photo Alina Macias Rangel. of the 2010, 37), the participation of Cuban women from different backgrounds is another component Blue in qtd 106 Cuadro 2007: Estadístico Anuario (MINSAP, 2007 in female percent 70 being field medical national the to profession, biomedical the dominated males white when century, 20th the of beginning the From drastically. increased has descent, African of those especially issues, based on the free access to education. In the medical field, the participation of women, internationalist the Furthermore, mission, a pillar of foreign agenda, has been used as an expression of the advances in gender 134-136). 2010, national al. the et. of proof (Castañeda valuable overall as structures authorities social by noted been have women, and men both for wages, fair and professionals of number the for figures Positive equality. pursue to programme Castro´s of goals the of one as stipulated been has healthcare and government education, as as inherited from colonialism and imperialism. The feminine role within and towards sectors such has reinforced policies and social strategies to challenge the gender dynamics, that it considers if by a small margin. Based on closed socialist premises such as FRELIMO, revolutionary Cuba even equality, of terms in better ranks revolution, the to thanks Cuba, how advances: of terms governments. revolutionary the by addressed been has women Cuban of role the aforementioned As Havana. of pier the in officers Police The constant comparison between gender roles in Cuba and Mozambique was often seen in change thatinaday.”(Dr.Alexis,pers.comm.) don’t You it. of demonstrations several still, are, there and misogynist is culture Latin to this. change hard worked have we and revolution of decades four have we Cuba, in Look, it. perceive still of process entire can you but equality… about then and an now posters see You disclosure. and divulgation dialogue, needs change This to next. the hard to It’s day one historically. from happened patterns social has patterns, this behavioural but now… right on going efforts are There work. sustainable good pretty some done have that medicine legal in specialists have (Cubans) Cuban way ofperformingmedicalcooperation.

131 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss “Gender “Gender (Blue 2010, 38). In (Blue 2010, 38). In 95 “at least in Mozambique they would ( to express the malleability of this social condition. condition. social this of malleability the express to time “ I used to tell myself). Once again, the policies of inclusion, solidified I found it notable how both Dr Alexis and Dr. Marcela, the main representatives of Cuban are remnants of inequality. African women, not only mistreated. They don’t Mozambican have the space they deserve. women, And then I arrived, a have woman in charge… really been But well, I have managed to win their recognition through my professionalism and my respect you can much how months; ten here been only have I things. doing of way Mozambican the for time?” change in such a short period of “It hasn’t been easy, I´m here thanks to my earned education me the and respect of my my colleagues. knowledge, It’s hard that because you must is there face But respect. them their what earn and must really let You has capabilities. them equal have women and men that know proud of it, everybody is proud of it. proud of it, everybody This was the answer of Dr. Marcela, the president of the Cuban mission in Mozambique. During “Fifty one percent of the (Cuban) cooperation are females; there are more women in Mozambique Mozambique in women more are there females; are cooperation (Cuban) the of percent one “Fifty than men. Our country has strongly defended the status of women, and the independent, Cuban self-sufficientwoman andis fights for herself. So, we have broken many barriers, we have years, forty In abroad. work to leave, to and prepared be to education the opportunities, the had really I’m and country, this in internationalism Cuban managed ever has who woman first the I’m This disparity has not been an impediment to sending more women on internationalist missions, for instance in 2004, Operación Milagro in also deconstructed and strongly challenged by several Cuban men and women (Hernández et. al 2014, 236-239). Still, the stereotypes and bias of gender do exist on the Caribbean island. It leaves a notable gap within the ostensibly egalitarian laws, which allow maternal leave but have 95 Venezuela included 72 percent female ophthalmologists (Blue 2008, 38), and as Dr. Marcela mentioned, there are also a remarkable number of Cuban women in Mozambique. individual. The image of masculinity as the “strong sex” is still part of the social construction of gender, affecting everyday life in the constant expectation of men to carry the economic burden of the household, to be physically promiscuous, and ready to strong protect, often through control, the powerless (though kind) femininity and emotionally incorruptible, sexually active of the Cuban woman. and This imagery is, of course, not a standard guideline; on the contrary, it is (Lebron 2006, 771, 778); single mothers are particularly vulnerable to poverty (Espina 2008, 138); 138); 2008, (Espina poverty to vulnerable particularly are mothers single jobs, 778); 771, technician 2006, (Lebron and nursing within found are women of majority the sector, medical the in even and while high-ranking specialisations like surgery are mainly performed by men are there migrated, have who those including Cubans, of life daily the on reflecting when addition, manifestations of gender inequality that emerged in the individual perceptions of the life of each discrimination? The revolution erased that kind of thing…” admit they have a problem” by new institutionalized efforts, tended to be seen as definitive solutions to social stratification. Nonetheless, only a third of political positions are held by women in the socialist party, who are more prone to be unemployed, which was especially true during and after the Special Period cooperation in Mozambique, not only compared gender dynamics in their current workplace with with workplace current their in dynamics gender compared only not Mozambique, in cooperation word the mentioned also but homeland, their harassment sexual recurrent the where Cuba, in experience own my with merged testimonies Their in the streets or the common stigmatization of homosexuality clashed with phrases like view as a female in a high-ranking position. view as a female our interview at the Ministry of Health, in between confident the andconsistent in office each of rush her answers. and Then, without thinking morning twice, shecoffee, expressed her she was

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 132 Photo Alina Macias Rangel. and hasfunctioned asacommongroundintheirdiplomatic ties. undeniable, is countries both of structures social the on systems colonial of influence strong the Nevertheless, segregation. of process several mics, before and after colonialism, are unstable processes where locals have been actively taking a role in the construction and maintenance of 96 humour how Cubans saw him as an icon from ´Africa´ when he studied there in the 1970s, while Dr. with remembers Bernabé Dr. Mozambican And patients. Afro-Cuban young his among especially domestic violence; Dr. Ainiel, who works in a polyclinic in the slums of Havana, has similar concerns, worried about the multiple cases of girls that she must treat at the Central Hospital of Maputo due to in money is Milagros nurse Cuban earn. for neighbours his of most what of him quarter a earns he when streets, the ask people why understand not does surgeon, Cuban a Arleti, Dr. colour. skin the dailyinteractionsinmedicalfield. way around. And it is highly challenging to unfold and approach these different perspectives within other the and colleagues, Mozambican their of notion the from differs gender) and class social as well (as racism is what and race of self-perception their cooperation medical perform to Maputo to characteristics and roots in colonialism situation in the lives of the interviewees. The way race and racism is seen in Cuba may have similar every nightintheparksofoldHavana. occurs that trade a tourists, for trade sex the in working up end may disadvantages, economic to Then there are the hypersexualized misrepresentations of black and mixed-race Cubans that, prone 81-82). 2006, (Lebron diseases transmitted sexually for responsibility their of awareness poor characterised a by also are men care; family in males of participation the encouraging of intention no Here, I do not mean to simply blame colonialism and Western imposition for the unequal realities in Cuba and Mozambique. The local dyna local The Mozambique. and Cuba in realities unequal the for imposition Western and colonialism blame simply to mean not do I Here, Maka, the Mozambican student, feels upset when his patients prefer his colleagues with a lighter Adiche Chimamanda Ngozi asingle story of danger The rather than how we are similar. It emphasizedhow we are different, ourequal humanity difficult. It makes ourrecognition of isthis: itrobspeople´s dignity the single story consequence of The The (multiple)storiesoftheSouth 96 in comparison with Mozambique; still, when Cubans arrive constantly notice how Cubans and Mozambicans xeine f hs ocps s n ongoing an is concepts this of experience daily and understanding the racism, and race is what of definitions generic the from depart can one while and context; each in embedded are thus and constructions social are racism, instance for segregation, of forms certain how notice to possible is shown it pages, previous As the in manner. distinctive a in societies other by experiences are concerns same this but at times they struggled to acknowledge how countries, own their in gender and class social race, of terms in issues daily describe would hogot hs eerh rjc, would I project, research this Throughout -

133 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss , where some (elites, white settlers) have abysmal thinking Dr. Raquel told me this anecdote while continuously laughing. For her, it was simply ridiculous visits Mozambique…” And the teacher started crying, it was such a drama! She left the that room said she first, right, were they but ah!... Ahaha, us. to talk to director the got and screaming Africa is Mozambique, and then she told us that we don’t have real houses and we live in the trees… They were so angry with us, but as a group we helped each other, because we were also offended.” have houses….” But first let me tell you that the Cubans love their president, you cannot speak ill of him at all. So she went on: “you don’t have a home, you are from Africa so you live in the trees”. The guys from Beira said “Yes professor, we don’t have real homes, thank you for the information. But you know, we have a really big tree in our country, and there is a another one a bit less tall, but our president Samora Machel would leave the tallest tree for Fidel when he female professor of history. There were two classmates from Beira and they were so undisciplined! undisciplined! so were they “Once, and I think I was Beira in the 10th grade… I from don’t really remember. We had classmates a class with a two Cuban were There history. of professor female That day the poor teacher showed us a documentary Mozambique. about So she told us “I ‘Africa’... saw that in Africa you and live like this, in the here trees, you don’t really ‘Africa’ was As this thesis aims to highlight the current and remarkable connections between Africa and other and Africa between connections remarkable and current the highlight to aims thesis this As to treat an entire continent as if it were a single, backward country. I felt a similar concern when I of view My Maputo. of photos my with impressed were there over friends my and Havana in arrived the city clashed with comments like “weren’t you scared?” or “why, if you live in Europe, would you indebted to Africa”. In theory, this shift may seem a radical advance towards equality and stopping and equality towards advance radical a seem may shift this theory, In Africa”. to indebted that lines abysmal the However, effort. remarkable a indeed was it 4, chapter in noted as and racism, have divided people for centuries are still (painfully) entrenched on the island. The Mozambicans who studied there do not regret having spent image of Africa that people attempted to overlay on them. uncomfortable with the stereotypical their youth in the Caribbean, but they were also poverty are embedded in the self-perception of the interviewees, other(s)”. This process and is related to their colonial and imperialistic descriptions patterns, elements that of are also part “the of the historical process of both countries, and therefore deeply rooted in the social structures that remain present these days. For example, I mentioned how colonialism in Cuba made use of high numbers of slaves, who were seen as subhuman; this was contrasted with offered equal rights to all citizens no matter their the race, and the internationalist discourse of “we are revolution, which setting for dehumanising discourses, of taken advantage of power imbalances, relegating certain groups to live in harsh conditions based on superficial elements suchas colour, skin, or gender. This division has not onlybeen physically carried through the centuries, it has eroded much more intangible society. The polarisation and of divides such durable as rural-urban, elements black-white, traditional-modern or within wealth- regions, I appreciate the work of Santos (2007; Santos Nunes and Meneses 2007, Meneses and Santos 2009; Santos 2015) as an academic recognition of the world’s diversity, without attempting to create a hierarchy. The concept of epistemologies of the South has been useful in approaching the been have Mozambique and Cuba Both days. these Maputo in lived encounters intercultural the Arceli, the new Cuban lady in his department, now tells his colleagues how her hometown is more than the image of Cuba as a poor and isolated place. Each of these experiences, from across two continents, describe individual perspectives of a reality; they spell out complaints, is confusion experience which tell and can who all, after view; of point their criticise to guts needs One frustrations. more “correct”? more valuable,

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 134 backward, but also inferior, while adopting urban and foreign knowledge and costumes are a form of upgrading social status and improving and status social upgrading of their lifestyle. form a are costumes and knowledge foreign and urban only not adopting as while seen inferior, is also lifestyle but Bantu backward, the where thinking abysmal of view Santos´ from analysed be can and colony, Portuguese the during cess Cuba: pro then, assimilado the of description a and to close are remarks These Spanish…”. capital speak to how properly, eat the to how shower, to how to me taught “They arrived he when “civilised” was he how pride with described Cuba, in studied who Machava, Dr. instance, For 97 means ofunderstanding arealitywithintheircommonframeworkofsocial struggles. with each other they have the opportunity to acknowledge other forms of knowledge, experience and and Eurocentric forms of knowledge have been reinforced, when Cubans and Mozambicans interact Although perspectives. local encountered and Mozambique to moved permanently or temporarily of have Cubans time context same the at social while Cuba, the with face to face come have Mozambicans solidarity, on based cooperation directly or indirectly, to other forms of knowledge from the Global South. Within the goal of horizontal exposed, are that lives human of network a on built been has internationalism medical of form this decades, For interaction. direct in are affiliations) political or religion as such variables other as well (as gender and class, race, as such construction, social of perceptions particular their other, each have an active role in the social dynamics each through Mozambicans which and Cubans they contexts. develop different their with cope lives; to when order in they environment, encounter medical the knowledge where phenomenon a being as Mozambicans and Cubans of encounter the analyse to order in framework theoretical this utilize to to activismandsocialmobilizationindistinctiveslocationsaroundtheworld. wide diversity of knowledge in humankind. Such propositions are a theory that serves as an invitation also oppositions or but contradictions (Santos 2009, solutions, 53). The essence similar of this lies perceptions, in recognising that there different is a across concerns common out point to dialogue a makes use of for aiming emancipation (Santos life, and Meneses experiencing 2009, 50; and Santos, “Ask understanding Boaventura” of 2015). This modes outstanding goal diverse knowledge, spaces of up forms open diverse to and reflect re-valorise, to order in knowledge, of forms Eurocentric of dominant, of concept the on reflect to space a knowledge as of encounter of kind this propose to want I story, of her experience, the different layers of her years living within another society. Following Dr. Raquel´s perfect, like everywhere else, but I would be happy to go back” she still remembers it, after all these years, to describe her time in Cuba as a that fact The her. stereotype to intent an of mockery a was it complaint; a beyond was This humour. and experiences different seeing to us) of all tentative improvementsonsuchissues. (and them blind these times, at and lenses, own their through issues such of nature and origin the perceive Mozambicans and Cubans struggles, common their Despite South. Global the and SSC of concept the problematised realities Southern violent outrageous impositions from one group to times another; nonetheless, postcolonial the poor and recognition of colonial other between or urban, the with areas rural the illustrated in previous chapters. Even with themselves, they would use the term “civilised” to contrast have I as Indians, or Chinese of representations misleading the on also but Cubans, of poverty the European settlers, endured within the socialist capital. There were similar trends in Mozambique, on choose to go there”. This left me thinking how the simplistic images of Africa, mainly constructed by I was concerned with how some Mozambicans interviewees referred to the term ‘civilised’ to describe the transformation to a “better” lifestyle. While the details of the epistemologies of the South are not the principal focus of this thesis, I wish her Raquel: Dr. of anecdote the in highlight to wish I that element particular a is there Moreover, . The mobility of these peoples implies a negotiation of meanings, both inside and outside . This notion within the epistemologies of the South represents the deconstruction deconstruction the represents South the of epistemologies the within notion This . intercultural translation intercultural translation intercultural , as a form of articulating different perceptions and establishing epistemisides takes place, building a path to an to path a building place, takes have been committed in both countries, countries, both in committed been have . This comment reveals the undertone 97 “place that I like, it isn’t . I cannot say I faced I say cannot I . ecology of of ecology ecology ecology -

135 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss of . On the On . 99 Cuban way Cuban and recognise parties recognise and 98 in the Cuban-Mozambican exchange may lead to fruitful to lead may exchange Cuban-Mozambican the in intercultural translation intercultural In a more concrete manner, this overview of Cuban medical aid through epistemologies of the Further analysis of analysis Further Throughout Throughout the past chapters, the life stories presented demonstrate the similarities and For example, the advantage of foreign doctors in the healthcare system of Mozambique. For instance, the aggressive land expropriation of Afro communities in Northeast Brazil by PETROBRAS, a Brazilian company that has arrived and the ‘other’ is unstable, even liquid, as if an ocean separates both entities? Can they (Cubans, Mozambicans and even other participants) see each other, despite the tangible and intangible 98 99 and Den Boek 2016). in Angola and Mozambique under the guise of South cooperation (see De Freitas 2009, Koomen South enters into an analytical criticism of solidarity. The ethnographic approach of this chapter gives chapter this of approach ethnographic The solidarity. of criticism analytical an into enters South a face – or rather faces, names, families, colours and textures – to the emotional discourses of “the recognise to embodied, is solidarity how of understanding an to relevant is It poor”. the helping poor desire overwhelming an have somebody can How process. internalising this frame that variables all ‘self’ the of notion the when solidified be solidarity can How against? discriminated feel they if help to carrying out healthcare, we can also draw attention to the division of healthcare that occurs in Cuba itself, including the stigmatisation of religious beliefs that are related to social forms of segregation, as well as the financial shortage experienced there. These local dynamics must be pointed out as background to the national and international biomedical structure. social changes are born. Just as Dr. Hayner needed to acknowledge the sociocultural dimensions of dimensions sociocultural the acknowledge to needed Hayner Dr. as Just born. are changes social professionals Cuban of adaptability the 5), chapter (see performance his improve to order in HIV/AIDS entails (at least) a certain knowledge of the cultural diversity of the lusophone nation (e.g. language and religion). Their willingness to recognize local peculiarities has already been seen as a helpful the investigating By 5. chapter in mentioned as environment, work their within attitude the boundaries of their profession. Here, there is space to analyse a highly relevant search for access for search relevant highly a analyse to space is there Here, profession. their of boundaries the to quality healthcare and medicine. When concepts such as communal levels of disease and well- can Mozambique of landscape fragmented the biomedicine, scientific with dialogue into enter being grassroots The found. be both can cures and sickness where background, elemental an as seen be where bodies, individual with contact direct in staff their places already cooperation Cuban of nature other hand, such perspectives can also reinforce the social movements that have used the flexibilitythe used have that movements social the reinforce also can perspectives such hand, other of the Global South to unite issues like race and gender with transnational modes of resistance. In to effort remarkable a is knowledge of forms diverse of recognition the medicine, and health of terms address the local circumstances of healthcare and how each society develops this environment. In discover the treatment of bodies, the change between illness and disease, life and to death, already presents a degree, minimal a to only if even acknowledge, must professionals that reality chameleonic reflections on the broad field of SSC.Outside of the International Relations approachinteractions as toa Southern characteristically horizontal and “win-win” postcolonial alliance, epistemologies of South Global the among found prejudices the uncover to help can South the oppression and exploitation reinforce that goals pursue to SSC of cover the used have that how the interviewees could describe a recognition acknowledgement of of human the diversity ‘other’ that beyond contributed the to dominant movement of the stereotypical, people across simplistic the Global depictions. South high is a demands The a that one multidirectional undercurrent, subtler flow,a is whichothers at atwhile action, and timesfacts by isrepresented clearly dissected. to be glimpsed and academically level of awareness differences differences between Cubans and Mozambicans, centring phenomenon around International a Relations, mobility is life of interpretations diverse between dialogue daily the Nevertheless, health. and that affects each of these layers. Despite the scarcity of research focusing on the contemporary highlights approach ethnographic this regions), both even (and countries both of interconnections

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 136 solidarity encouragesprejudicetowardsMozambicans,misleadingCubanstaff. within mentality us” need “they a or pity of sense a including Nevertheless, environment. medical the in pitfalls significant are they but wrong, unequivocally are perceptions such that claim not do I Mozambique. in standards health inadequate the to contribution a as solidarity their perceive that simplistic view in the testimony of this Dr. illustrated Raquel, have though I it imperialism. capitalist can against also is be it found if in even the help”, stories to of urge Cuban “an staff awaken to used to the African continent, the stereotypical image of poverty and hegemonic backwardness has been solidarity stands for helping another “undeveloped” or “even worse than how us” considering nation. by With exchange specific aid socialist this of principles an the reframe SSC, can of critique epistemological expression remarkable a of portrait this studying carefully When action. of principles as solidarity like values with phenomenon static a as cooperation Cuban portray that approaches are there Algeria, to sent was mission first the the after decades problematise Four solidarity. of experiences discourse political everyday these collected, stories life the on Focusing distances? pcue f auo ht y ua fins ad epe rm te ntoaiis ue o ecie as describe to use “unexpected” from anAfricancity nationalities) other from people (and friends Cuban my that Maputo of picture A

137 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss proposes a ecology of knowledge Following these reflections, I would like to end with a quote from Dr. Belquis, a Cuban psychiatrist psychiatrist Cuban a Belquis, Dr. from quote a with end to like would I reflections, these Following Furthermore, it is this focus on daily encounters where the I think I should start thinking of my economic interests as they do. When I look at my colleagues, at colleagues, my at look I When do. they as interests economic my of thinking start should I think I is a capitalist country!” the life here... this This was the answer of Dr. Jesús concerning the discourse of solidarity in his current work in “Forget the image of Africa of hunger and poverty. Now you see a lifestyle very different from the image that is exported, the picture of a topless woman breastfeeding a baby with snot and tears. Once they asked, how is Maputo? I told them, ´an improved Havana´. It clashes with the image of to myself, asked I Then now. found I Africa the and had… I idea that poverty, and hunger in Africa, altruism?... know, you of, view of point the from everything give and solidarity in be I can extent what how spirits are related to mental diseases. and long a was It fashion. the food, the Guineans, She the to compared Angolans the of physiognomy also told us of the landscapes, and how a than meeting family a like more comments, and questions had everybody where chat, pleasant the research interview. Then, Caridad asked about her relationship to the Angolans, her colleagues and her patients. I met through my friend Caridad, who is Dr. Belquis´ neighbour in Pinar del Río, Cuba. She visited visited She Cuba. Río, del Pinar in neighbour Belquis´ Dr. is who Caridad, friend my through met I Caridad´s home the day after her birthday party, so I sat down with Caridad´s family over some birthday cake and ice cream to hear of Belquis’ adventures: the differences between the elite in Luanda and the peasants in rural areas, the traumas of war, the common abuse of drugs among the youth, the Spanish accent in Equatorial Guinea, and how it was hard for her to understand their lives, the medical cooperation that I had read about in policy papers became a vibrant reality. reality. vibrant a became papers policy in about read had I that cooperation medical the lives, their When fulfilling their agreements in the biomedical field, Cubans and Mozambicans not only carry out medical procedures to “do their job”; beyond their differences, they also have the opportunity of each other’s stories. to realise the humanity they share, and at times, to become part simple words, she narrated the essence of this chapter (and in some ways the whole thesis). Africa Africa thesis). whole the ways some in (and chapter this of essence the narrated she words, simple is not a single story, nor indeed is Latin America, or any part of the world. On the highways that this fieldwork took, tracing the prints of solidarity in the journeys their ofto Listening Cubansencounters. these andof part Mozambicans,are that I narratives multiple the seeing of honour the had life stories, participating in their routines and prowling around the spaces where they have built their differences. This reveals a more personal level of analysis on SSC, one that deals way with the people treat each other (and themselves) on the streets of this of beginning Maputo the at quote the As life. and experiencing and living of forms alternative Havana acknowledge when they from speech This humanity. of sense our emphasise what are stories multiple summarises, section Adiche has been a great inspiration throughout this project. In her characteristically eloquent yet that is intended to frame their encounter. Throughout their daily life, they rethink its principle unity and consider the nature of the current injustice they are standing for, in now diffused in a multipolar, and rapidly globalised world. where Cold War dichotomies are a contemporary context more basic, more translucent reflection. When Cubans and Mozambicans live among each other, they have the chance to hear each other’s stories, and tell their own – their similarities, as well as and complex context that demystifies their distorted image of Africa. Similar remarks can bemade agency little them granted has solidarity” of weapons “the as position their where side, Cuban the for to address the socio-economic and socio-cultural struggles element an they as problematised been must has concept, crystalline and overcome static a being far than rather Solidarity, from home. solidarity of form political the de-construct to able are Mozambicans, as well as Cubans, socialism. of Mozambique. In his voice, there was a courageous claim of how Cuban staff must face a diverse

Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 138 of theirdifferences. Belquis telling this story, I perceived how this iconic element of Cuban culture worked as a shortcut to establishing a human connection, in spite respect and empathy towards everyone in the name of peace. I don’t know the exact relationship this man had with Cuba, but as I looked at Dr. praisesalso it but identity, Cuban about song a is It chapters). previous in mentioned I as hero, national (a Martí José of poems the by inspired 100

Guantanamera me every time he passes through the consultation room.” me everytimehepassesthroughtheconsultationroom.” him. He nodded, and I talked to the nurses so he could meet his family. After that, he always greets asked I behave?” to going you “Are crying. started he Then, loud. so singing were we because us laugh so much! We started to sing together, and all the patients came, all the families came to see Guantamera…” guajira “Guantamera, singing started and Cuban?” you ¨Are said He it? believe you Can smiled. he then, And him… told I Cuban” I’m no! “No Portuguese. or I asked him, “why are you making all this noise?”. And when he saw me, he see asked if to I was happy American was He him. told I somebody finallydia” come“Bom to seenoise. him,that and Iall triedmaking to calmman hima down fromsaw aI distance. “Whatand happened?” there went I anyway but section, male the in was It there. went I so focus, couldn’t I And walls. the hitting and shouting somebody heard I and office my in was I So aggressive. get they when patients put you where rooms some are There anecdote. funny a have I wait, but foreigners… as us see they “Well is one of the most iconic songs in Cuban culture (see Manuel 2006). It was written by de Joseito Fernandez in the 1930s, and 100 God, it made me me made it God,

139 Sociocultural factors Daily (dis)encounterss 140 a better recognition of intercultural exchange, especially in defence of health as a human right, to right, human a as health of defence in especially exchange, intercultural of recognition better a allow could that questions further propose I Lastly, cooperation. daily of narratives further promote thus and diversity human wider a aknowlegde to opportunity the offers that phenomenon complex Moreover, I suggest rethinking the concept of solidarity itself and recognising this form of SSC as a is embodied in daily life, challenging political discourses while adapting to interpersonal encounters. it how – level personal more a on encounters Cuban-Mozambican in solidarity of nature current the on reflect I realities, micro and discourses macro the of landscape the admire to moment a taking After solidarity. of embodiment the concerning question research the these affect throughout they how presented and arguments pages, the summarise briefly and back look to moment a take I Then, locations. two in collected stories life the within collide that layers multiple the on reflection This chapter is the final stop on this journey. The beginning of this particular end starts with a with starts end particular this of beginning The journey. this on stop final the is chapter This Dawn fallsinHavanaandpeoplewaitfortheprocessionwith remainsofFidelCastro. Arrivals and departures are parallel paths are anddepartures Arrivals Conclusion Chapter 7

141 Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths , Fidel Castro Ruz, Castro Fidel , el comandante en jefe en comandante el of November 2016. I was in a place called th , Fidel, , Fefe , the 2016 hit of the summer in Latin America, the music 101 La bicicleta ) , 2017 Lo prometí This what I through the night of the 25 they told me. I did not understand what that meant, nor what was going on, but I knew I , in Pinar del Río. This was not the sexual “paradise” that I had seen in the movies, but an During the following days, a rigorous period of mourning was applied across the entire island “What a chance! What a shock! Can we recognise a crucial moment, a decisive one, when it is “Cuba es solidaria aunque la dejen sola, la dejen solidaria aunque “Cuba es Angola.en murieron que Cuba son aquellos la profesora.” Cuba es médico, el Cuba es ( & Yasel Lachy The day Fefe died The day “Cuba is solidarity even when it’s left by its own, Cuba is those who died in Angola, Cuba is the (male) doctor, Cuba is the (female) teacher” with places of leisure like cinemas and theatres closed, a calmness overtook the streets of Cuba. Cuba. of streets the overtook calmness a closed, theatres and cinemas like leisure of places with Meanwhile, all the energy was concentrated on the tributes presented in each city and village. 101 (my own translation). This verse are part of the the song “I promise dreamed off. it” that express the loyalty of the Cuban youth towards the Cuba Fidel´s To be honest, I was first amazed at the use of the military to literally stop the entirecountry because of this event, but then, when I saw Narvis and Caridad’s faces filled with confusion, I realised that I was not able to completely understand what this meant for Cuba. alcohol, on ban a with transport, public Without tourists). for made allowances some with (though had just died. The cause of his death was not specified; he died at the age of ninety, in his home in to Cuba of people the to speaking officially was Castro, Raúl successor, and brother his and Havana, call for mourning. When we arrived at Caridad’s home, she just couldn’t streets believe it. the I was in in a murals similar the on face the character, historical a that think to strange so seemed just it state; of Havana, the title I heard throughout almost all my interviews, such a famous man, was just gone. towards the crowd. Nobody panicked, but a wave of whispering shook the party mood out of me. “Fefe died” had to leave as soon as possible. More soldiers arrived and removed the tables, leading everybody out of the club in a strict, though not violent, of: sort it, manner. got finally I home When back drive to we friends entered the car of one of Narvis´ been more excited. At my side was Narvis, the daughter when but of open, Caridad. was floor We dance were The warmer. with and her warmer getting colleagues was atmosphere the and work from they played the Shakira song suddenly stopped. First, it was quiet: everybody was confused, the dancers gazing at each other. Then, a group of soldiers dressed in green and brown outfits entered in a long line and spread out open-air theatre, large and well illuminated, with chairs and tables a surrounding Friday night, the so stage. it It was crowded. was There were some families, lots of party, the of essence the is (this dance to enough comfortable but outfits, fashionable and hairstyles couples; all with impeccable not the alcohol or the talk). The idea behind these places is that one can sit for the first part of the night, talking and drinking, watching the dancers on the stage, and then join the party until sunrise. I was dressed up, celebrating being in Cuba, being surrounded by friends, and I could not have right in front of our faces? Are we able to see the consequences of history right of there, seconds?” in a matter Rumayor problematise stereotypes and acknowledge the diversity of human understanding and experiences, experiences, and understanding human of diversity the acknowledge and stereotypes problematise a better life. and pursue

Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 142 Photo Lisandra Bravo Ilisástigui arises fromacknowledging thehuman livesthatgivemeaning tohistoricmoments. of my fieldwork, I came to clarify how this research is more engaged with the power of empathy that weeks last the During life. daily by shaped be and shape can chamber, international an in shouted or newspaper governmental some in written idea wider a intangible, something how project: this time by the same individuals, same reflectedthe theat complexfelt sometimes humanconfusion, natureand thatfrustration Igrief, and soughtanger toof captureemotions throughout distinctive The rule; the feelings towards such a system is something that has taken a lifetime for the Cuban people. experience, their individual characters and wishes. It is not my position (nor wish) to judge socialist own their within them frame to concepts intangible such internalise individuals how time, same the Castro allowed me to closely admire the impact that political dynamics have on people´s life, and at Fidel of funeral the Witnessing it. conducted had I how and it chose I why research, my of essence presidents fromaroundtheworld,crowdfiercelyscreaming and ministers to listening ceremonies, of days nine observed which Guevara, Che of portrait the the in Havana, in was mourning of expression greatest The government. the from scholarships received had who world the over all from students international including condolences, their present to waiting people of lines long by surrounded half-mast, at flags several saw I leader. deceased their to gratitude their of write to places working or schools their from brought was young, or old child, or man woman, Every Seeing a historic moment alongside local men and women made me reflect deeply on the very the on deeply reflect me made women and men local alongside moment historic a Seeing Plaza de la Revolución, la de Plaza the last few years. He is a military man, he is not normal. to back “Nothing’s changing, go Raúl has been in power to for things wanted Cubans simply most because unnecessary, found I Which control. of out was nothing sure making sunset, at and morning early the in Havana in silence. Police and soldiers would make rounds mostly was there her, told I as However, 1989. in Berlin in were there as riots or fire on cars no were there that fine, was I sure make to called they worship a saint. they worshipasaint. reminded me of the behaviour people use when that movement hand light a and voice of tone knew” he men… other like not was He congress. last his in so said he us, leave would he knew “He profound. and emotional highly sometimes and frustrated, or neutral times at opinions, their to listening revolution, the on documentaries long alongside my neighbours and friends. I watched to) try least at (or mourn and sit simply to opted I circumstances, such under interviews more to Fidel’s memorial. As I was unable to carry out flowers bringing children small watching porch our leader” Fidel, but he knows how to rule. Even if he is not My mother, restless follower of my journeys, journeys, my of follower restless mother, My an elderly lady told me, with a delicate delicate a with me, told lady elderly an the socialist-style main square with square main socialist-style the Caridad told me while we sat on her ‘Yo soyFidel’ , ‘IamFidel’.

143 Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths Chapter four inquires on the act of moving itself, as a multi-faceted aspect of humanity, and as a as and humanity, of aspect multi-faceted a as itself, moving of act the on inquires four Chapter After describing my ethnographic approach and methodology, I presented the “road”, composed “road”, the presented I methodology, and approach ethnographic my describing After Retelling the journey(s) Retelling with thesis this planned I solidarity, to path the on Mozambicans and Cubans of footsteps the trace To in political terms, specifically by the socialist approach of “new men” and the “chosen people” who would stand up to colonialist and imperialist injustice. Moreover, when embracing a philosophical analysis of solidarity, the historical use of this term is attached to an internalized process at a very intimate and individual level. I thus introduced the notion of embodiment as a useful image of how a wider narrative can affect people’s deepest states, and drive their actions towards certain goals. development of Cubans and Mozambicans. In their paths across tangible and intangible borders, the concept of solidarity has been widely used as a cohesive force behind transatlantic mobility. I then consider solidarity as an ancient word, originating from Latin, that has been disposed through different discourses to promote a sense of unity, either through religious beliefs, framed firmly kinship is cooperation, Cuban-Mozambican or the in sports. announced explicitly solidarity, of notion The an outstanding opportunity to work abroad, as it represents one of the few legal routes to crossing the is cooperation of form a such of idea the Although Cubans. to open is that borders international temporary mobilisation of people, once abroad, the interpersonal networks connections have and driven personal and the professional professional long-term the of migration part decisive of a Cubans. been has In mobility to any due case, societies and this environments contact with different point to another, the concept of mobility entails a deeper multidirectional flow that has intertwined the intertwined has that flow multidirectional deeper a entails mobility of concept the another, agreements, to point governmental on Based slavery. transatlantic beyond Mozambicans and Cubans of lives hundreds of Mozambican students have acquired primary, secondary and tertiary educations in the Caribbean, to then be reinstated into the national healthcare system of their homeland. On the other side of the agreement, Cuban personnel have been part of internationalist missions. This is focusing on the historical processes of Iberian colonialism, independence and the post-independence post-independence the and independence colonialism, Iberian of processes historical the on focusing periods in Cuba and Mozambique. Here, I stress the political attachment to Marxist-Leninist trends in Mozambique, which led to their first sovereign meeting. by the Cuban revolution and FRELIMO constant element within African and Latin American societies. More than a displacement from one of the macro theories of the Global South and SSC Relations, as in constructions chapter in three. the While field such of concepts International have largely “underdevelopment” been as used traces to of colonialism, conceal they notions have of also been useful movements based terms on resistance and for decolonisation. The second international part of this chapter narrows the before dynamics, regional American Latin and African the to South term the of approaches multiple backgrounds, to acquire a medical related degree. This approach to cooperation has been applied in Mozambique, firstly through theircommon socialist background, but also sustained by an emotive discourse of unity assistance biomedical against the relationship, the stable a been colonialism not have War and Cold the during imperialism created ties political that harmed both nations. Although the increased despite the fall of the Soviet Union. of Cuba in Southern Africa has actually by the revolutionary government of the 1960s as a form of internationalism. For decades, the Caribbean the decades, For internationalism. of form a as 1960s the of government revolutionary the by country has sent extensive medical aid around the world, based on its human resources rather than its revenues. Under rigorous governmental control, physicians, nurses, technicians and other medical staff have contributed to both shorter and disadvantaged more from often students, lengthy international of thousands allowed projects has exchange educational at time, a grassroots level; at the same inspiration inspiration from the road movie genre, which allowed me to display the multiple layers of this research inaugurated was exchange this how introducing by began I journey. metaphorical and actual an both as

Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 144 social dynamics of each country, and aside from their similar roots and characteristics, they are they characteristics, and roots the similar to their from according aside nature and country, particular each a of dynamics have social oppression and inequality of forms other and racism thathave social constructions are imposed systematic three elements segregation through the historic process of Cuba and Mozambique. Moreover, how these I depict Briefly, inequality. gender oppression. and class, social of racism, and race Mozambicans: and Cubans among and within experienced are forms diverse legitimise to that issues main three on focus I world, the around thinking struggles social on retrospective this Following Western modern by established hierarchy the aforementioned constructions of the Global South as a term of resistance against the hegemonic with line in is This knowledge. of forms different between dialogue horizontal more a examines and encourages perspective academic This spaces. intercultural approach to framework theoretical a that are part of such a phenomenon. At this point, the epistemologies of the South are presented as specific environment where it occurs, chapter six offers a closer study of the sociocultural filaments solidarity, toproblematisetheencounterofCubans andMozambicansonadailybasis. out the notion of embodiment, and how bodies become a sensitive ground of social change, including pointed then I tissues, sociocultural in embedded deeply is environment health the how highlighting By HIV/AIDS. as such diseases contagious with dealing when especially performance, their through challenges personal and professional their within non-intervention of guidelines must their circumnavigate Cubans healing, ´traditional´ and biomedicine scientific of lines blurred the Between context. Mozambican fragmented the throughout process adaptation the in them assist who staff, local with interaction their through achieved been has This profession. their out carry to order in context local Chinese or North Koreans. However, Cubans are still seen as an outside group that must adapt to the the as such conditions, and similar under humour groups foreign language, other to compared their when especially as openness; such similarities constantly cultural was by This assisted work. skills, the social their of to regulations attached and rhythms the with cope to able and experienced have preferred to cover the demand with local personnel. Cubans were often regarded as hardworking, solidarity, andguidedbyaframeworkofpoliticalnon-interventionadaptability. Cuban professionals have been trained to all the follow nevertheless, highly regulated regulated contracts; working conditions individual highly inspired by under working within Cubans stated also are are there Nowadays which contracts. requirements, and rules their follow to Mozambique in in harsh ordisadvantageousconditions.Thisentails the entrance ofCuban staff to publichospitals those especially possible, as people many as to services their supply to order in structures, local a within work to resources human Cuba send to opted has island Caribbean the Thus, making power. health world of aim the to extended been has healthcare national of network broad a build to an alternative contribution to the Mozambican biomedical field. The promise of Castro´s government as out stands cooperation medical Cuban right, human basic a as healthcare of principle the from been replaced by a shift towards capitalism and a weak state heavily reliant on have affiliations socialist foreign as fragmented, deeply is system aid. healthcare actual the result, a Departing As nation. this transformed deeply have that dynamics cultural and political economic, social, the with deal to struggled have structures healthcare how presenting era, post-war current the to times colonial death is blurred through the treatment of bodies. Here, I focus on the Mozambican landscape, from and life between line delicate the where space a is This found. be to expected is solidarity where solidarity intheCubanandMozambicanencounter,withvariousperspectivesonissue. of embodiment current the presents four chapter of part last the analysis, ethnographic an Through fe saig h wdr icuss urudn te ua-oabcn xhne n the and exchange Cuban-Mozambican the surrounding discourses wider the stating After Mozambican colleagues did in fact stress the contributions of Cuban staff, even though they would environment medical the on inquiring to dedicated is five chapter focus, concrete more a With

145 Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths ecology of . As Cubans and Mozambicans have been exposed to a variety of environments, their From broad historic processes and political discourses down to the minutiae of everyday life, this life, everyday of minutiae the to down discourses political and processes historic broad From The magnitude and nature of Cuban medical internationalism has been praised as an outstandingan as praised been has internationalism medical Cuban of nature and magnitude The (De)constructing solidarity (De)constructing Inspired by the work of Jamie Monson (2013; 2009) I began this research with the single idea solidarity sustained in the Cuban revolution. This entitles a sense of coherence, whereby solidarity is the and decades the throughout cooperation medical of principles the guides that entity remarkable a Soviet Union.many changes faced during the twenty years following the fall of the project has been a journey to answer the following research question: have subsequently gained individual contracts. According to the heads of this exchange, the Cuban contribution covers approximately a quarter of total medical staff in than were sent the during the Cold country, War (Dr. Marcela, efforts three Dr. Alexis governmental pers. comm.). of times Moreover, consequence this consistent a more as regarded only not is Mozambique in Cubans of participation to effectively manage scarce resources, it has also been described as an expression of the spirit of biomedical assistance. This is especially true in countries such as Mozambique, which has been deeply been example has of which how Mozambique, a as small such country countries in with true low especially income is can This produce assistance. and biomedical maintain an alternative form of weakened war civil harsh a and colonialism of system dysfunctional a since aid foreign on dependant their national structure. Nowadays, over under three governmental hundred constraints, Cuban in personnel addition to work those in who Mozambique, arrived through such agreements who have created a broad and solid presence of Cuban biomedicine on the continent. In narrative practice, this has resulted in a grassroots level possible, as of people many as serve to structures local within cooperation, work specialties different from physicians where Cuban nurses, technicians and beliefs, political affiliations or any categorisation whatsoever.irrespective of race, gender, religious different narratives of resistance met. On the one hand, the notion of Global South as a construction same the under were who those with unity of principles socialist the joins “underdevelopment” beyond internationalism Cuban by down narrowed was this hand, other the On oppression. of forms systematic and the establishment of health as a basic human right that revolution, which, should combined with the notion be of a “debt” pursued owed to Africa worldwide due to their by history of slavery, the of documenting the connections, both historical and contemporary, between countries labelled ‘underdeveloped’. as Cuba and Mozambique have articulated a remarkable medical exchange since the Cold War era, a time when “development visions were shaped by global rivalries” (Monson 2009, 148). Similar to the work of the Chinese in has been the framed TAZARA’s by powerful constructions, narratives the of “the medical poor aid helping the of poor”, or Cuba slaves”, the as Fidel “slaves Castro meeting stated in the his first visit to Mozambique in 1977 (Gunn 1987, 3).At that point, paths are a constant negotiation of similarities and differences towards coexistence. negotiation of similarities and paths are a constant SSC, and subsequent claims of brotherhood between Southerners. Secondly, a further analysis can analysis further a Secondly, Southerners. between brotherhood of claims subsequent and SSC, also arise through an understanding of medical cooperation as a platform towards an knowledge This reality. experiencing and understanding of forms other of recognition the entails interaction daily does not mean that their encounters are simply harmonic and horizontal; rather, their intersected thus also perceived and experienced in a distinct manner in different locations. The gap between the through approached be can struggles common in found otherness the and self the recognising concepts found within epistemologies of the South. Firstly, by existence The pointing Mozambique. out and Cuba the between experiences abysmal diverse lines of acknowledgment that the hinder of stereotypes and prejudices in their exchange problematises the notions of the Global South,

Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 146 as an embodied entity, it is part of a personal journey by Cubans and Mozambicans understood to engage with When acquisition. dogmatic simple a to reduced be cannot solidarity settings, social various and continents across movements, communal and personal their In wishes. and limitations families, personalities, with men and women by performed medical is SSC, that of example stress an as I cooperation, exchange, of form this on face” “human a drawing By phenomenon. this variable in a as necessarily perceived still as is solidarity Moreover, altruism environment. healthcare global uninterested today’s within of lack this perceive negative, but tended to accept this not form of exchange of services and revenues did as a natural dynamic interviewees demands. local Furthermore, the with cope professionally and socially to willing and able degree, certain a least to at are, who specialists qualified necessary the obtains system healthcare Mozambican and the abroad, life a beginning of chance higher a have and income their increase staff Cuban the They agreement. “business” revenues, obtains this government Cuban the situation: win-win a as SSC of motivates form so-called this portray that advantage economic the primarily is it that and exchange, medical current the for motivation secondary or background a is solidarity that answer political shift to learned have affiliations inordertoreceiveabetterincome. who interviewees, the of lives daily the in variable remarkable a Mozambique, or Africa for that matter. The capitalist transformation of healthcare also represents job” is often seen as a duty rather than an the emotionally driven action professionalism, towards the specific their people of reinforce to importance of adding a valuable contribution to their work environment. However, doing a “good solidarity of forms coexist political must referencing parties by both navigated where is ground fragmented current, The exchange. medical behind force stable and constant a as it experience not do they discourse, a such of extent and scope the recognise personnel individual the while and colonialism, and imperialism under oppressed of the Cuban and Mozambican governments can be understood as a term used to unify all those speeches the in presented solidarity political of notion The humanity. to solidarity of form the in reframed often agendas, daily their fits that construction personal a as embodied subsequently is nowadays constantly de-constructed from its political use by Cubans and Mozambicans, to be the broaderconcepttoamorepersonalpath. cope with such dynamics, they are able to play with the malleability of the notion of solidarity, fromto order In communities. their and themselves for encounterlifestyle, better a for search their in Cubans other each and Mozambicans where context complex a display all segregation social and shifts, political globalisation, crisis, economic contemporary The others. tosupport to able borders be intangible and tangible crossed have who women and men of tissue emotional the solidarity as a personal process, an individual action that internalises certain elements that affect understand to need a is there aid, medical given actually have who those of voices different the analysing carefully when Nevertheless, system. healthcare national the to agreements these of know the historical ties that have shaped claim their particular form that of SSC, recognising speeches the contribution political professionals the Mozambican and Cuban Both of path. transatlantic their of aware essence the as solidarity well are stories their hear to me allowed who men and women The Mozambicans. and Cubans of encounters daily the in solidarity of discourses current CubanmedicalcooperationinMozambique? As quoted in the previous chapters, Cuban and Mozambican professionals can unequivocally can professionals Mozambican and Cuban chapters, previous the in quoted As By recognizing the agency of the interviewees, this thesis proposes that the discourse of solidarity Through an ethnographic approach, this thesis has presented life stories to dissect the macro in involved those of experiences daily the in embodied solidarity of discourses macro are How

147 Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths Photo Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga Miriam Ocadiz Photo . Coast ofCoast Mozambique Inhambane, Through Through an analysis of the social tissues involved in the current practice of medical cooperation, I their lives and their communities on many levels. to recognises the dignity of each human life.embody solidarity in their daily lives Cubans and Mozambicans have the means to their encounters are not a horizontal utopia. There are remarkable gaps among the social processes social and gender race, on based segregation of modes sharp including location, each in experienced class. Nevertheless, they have also developed friendships, intimate relations, and camaraderie with their colleagues. Focusing on the stories presented throughout this thesis, the Cuban-Mozambican encounter is a space where a sense of self and otherness is negotiated, an intercultural encounter where participants are capable of making deeper human connections through empathy to transform use of social solidarity to humanity as a more accurate reading of contemporary medical cooperation. medical contemporary of reading accurate more a as humanity to solidarity social of use This perspective also highlights the coercive nature of solidarity, but beyond the political guidelines or a sense of injustice, it warrants a more basic sense essence of humanity (Scholtz 2015, 728-730). When collaborating with each other inside and outside of unity, despite differences, based on the of medical institutions, Cubans and Mozambicans experience friction, as well as diverse interests; would add that the deconstruction of solidarity does not mean that Cubans and Mozambicans lack oflack Mozambicans and Cubans that mean not does solidarity of deconstruction the that add would solidarity where phenomenon multilayer a is encounter Their cooperation. voluntary or propose unity of sense I a Here, differences. and similarities their of paradox the stabilise to bridge pivotal a as functions to question the definition of solidarity itself. The strong governmentalinfluence on this phenomenon still involves a form of political solidarity that I have described earlier; however, I would suggest the the world (Csordas 1994, 12). Their physical and internal beings are in constant movement to cope cope to movement constant in are beings internal and physical Their 12). 1994, (Csordas world the with their encounters, particularly when this takes place in the peculiar environment of health and change, social of bodies are but treatments medical of objects just not are bodies where medicine, social dynamics. to these intrinsically connected illness are thus of health and and notions

Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 148 to analyse within the field of healthcare in Africa, as well as how mobility is reshaping modes of modes reshaping is mobility how as well as Africa, in healthcare of field the within analyse to topic interesting an be also can China, as such for parties, similar aim of contributions that The sustainability. healthcare of mechanisms the within analysed be can have administrators and staff Cuban that experience of decades the addition, In shift. political important an is there if or end, an to comes rule Castro the once island the of position future the study to relevant be will it although Fidel Castro, it seems that Cuba’s internationalism will continue under the leadership of Raúl Castro; does remain a valuable resources element when considering human the field ofon international aid. Despitefocus the death of the and cooperation grassroots of nature the moreover, thesis; this in human right. The and social to resistance epistemological segregation,andhowtheyevolve withtheincreasingfluidityofourtimes. of movements current address to interesting be would it humanity, and experiences different enter into dialogue with on these people matters. By engaging how with notions and such as social struggles, solidarity similar with countries among encounters intercultural to approaches academic these expand to enriching be could it agenda, international the of part form still “underdevelopment” and “development” of labels While perspective. attention global and wider local deserve a that from segregation of gender modes race,current the to of some related just issues are class aforementioned social the and addition, In basis. daily a on dignity human harm that depictions simplistic and stereotypical of face the in similarities and differences bridge people how with engage that projects multidisciplinary more support to compelling be would It life. acknowledge diversity and the dialogue between different means of understanding and experiencing the with world of blurred artistic expression, nowadays activism and is other social initiatives academia worldwide, I of consider it role imperative to the As decolonization. with engage that analyses to addition valuable a are South, the of epistemologies the as such efforts, Theoretical globe. the around locations other with communities and individuals African intertwine currently that paths the and intangibleboundaries. a in tangible questioning increasing, rapidly are mobility especially of modes different where reality contemporary world, the in regions imaginary of construction the and SSC perspectives South, different Global the encourage on to interesting be would it Therefore, constraints. such beyond world the experiencing of capable are they but frames, such with engage and recognize do they as “underdeveloped” and the idea of SSC that portrays flow them as “weapons of multidirectional solidarity”. In practice, a of part are Mozambicans across continents. In their daily lives, they are and able to challenge both the discourses that label them Cubans as static, not is embodiment how highlighted have I approach, ethnographic an Through 2013,156). exchange (Huis Cuba” changed form ofhorizontal inequity anidealistic as of system global the has neither but landscape health global the changed not has “Cuba participation, whereby Cuban the specifically and SSC, of professional and personal the affects inequality sharper encounters. Next in of line, an ethnographic context analysis of medical a cooperation confronting the how depictions and Mozambique of environment rural the considering scale, larger a on project similar a conduct to possibility a all, of a with analysis descriptive more a presented multidisciplinary scope to contribute to the have field, but also to propose further questions. There I is, first Here, extensive. are cooperation medical Cuban-Mozambican the compose that layers the and goal, complex a is This SSC. of field growing Finally, I found it highly relevant to analyse the topic of health, its quality and access as a basic a as access and quality its health, of topic the analyse to relevant highly it found I Finally, of some just are mobility working transnational and exchange, student cooperation, Medical the behind faces human the present to effort academic and personal a been has thesis This Constructing (new)horizons Cuban way of performing biomedicine has its strengths and pitfalls, as mentioned

149 Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths healthcare healthcare worldwide. Based on the work in this thesis, I would suggest reinforcing the importance approach careful A medicine. and health of concepts the surrounds that context sociocultural the of projects diverse of reinforcement the and initiatives proper to contribute would framework a such to that are sensitive to local perspectives, beyond the idea of biomedicine as the only valid process overall well-being. for achieving

Conclusion Arrivals and departures are parallel paths 150 (Translation Aoki2016, 171). Of yourreturn Until theday I willforgetyou If youforgetme I willwriteyou If youwriteme Of theislandofSãoNicolau Sodade, sodade,sodade This pathtoSãoTomé 102 something, missing of pain the names It sadness. a yearning, a nostalgia, of feeling a is it translate; word the use would people Mozambique, in was I When being. our of essence very the in up springs wound As Ilefthisapartment,savouredlastphraseto reflectdeeplyontheedgesofthisresearch. pronunciation to end our meeting: and exchanging stories, by the end of our talk, he switched his Cuban accent for a smooth Portuguese exchange stood for this and his work what in foreign of affairs put him aware on a parallel well path as a was migrant. After hours he of anecdotes Cubans, most with as but cooperation, medical the of part not was He countries. other to compared diplomats Cuban of salary poor the Malabo, in Guineans of learned that word: saudade.” suddenly transform into a great singer and the celebration starts... It’s funny because that´s how I really can there anybody them, inside music have Verdeans Cape And night. at late until colleagues my with out hanging around, walking there, over life simple a had I calm. very and deserted of kind town, small journeys. many his during had he adventures many the about me tell to happy was he and apartment, small his in chatting were We diplomat. a as years several for Brazil and Verde Cape Guinea, Equatorial visited had who and Angola in Cuba Whoshowedyouthedistantpath? When departing and arriving, constantly, there is something disrupted deep inside, as if a beautiful for ambassador an was who man middle-aged a Omar´s, was collected I that story life last The saudade “Yes, one has saudades after being abroad” being after saudades has one “Yes, to give kind voice to this sensation. this to voice kind give to We keep talking, of the crowds and luxury of Luanda, the Spanish accent “The best of all my missions was in Cape Verde. I was in Praia, it’s a a it’s Praia, in was I Verde. Cape in was missions my all of best “The “Tô com saudades do Cape Verde” Omar told me on a winter evening in Havana. Havana. in evening winter a on me told Omar Saudade Emto fsaudade (E)motion of is a Portuguese word that is hard to to hard is that word Portuguese a is Quem mostra’ boess caminholonge? ; I have Dess nha terra SãoNicolau Dess terra nha Ess caminhopaSãoTomé saudades Sodade, sodade, sodade Si bo‘screve’ me Si bo‘squece me ‘M ta ‘squece be ‘M ta ‘screve be Epilogue for Cape Verde. Qui bo voltàQui bo Cesaria Evora Sodade Até dia 102

151 Epilogue as of the Portuguese, in the saudade , who in creole Portuguesecreole in who , , I couldn’t help but recall the fado mornas is also a state of bittersweet incompleteness, a la diva aux pieds nus pieds aux diva la of the Brazilians, in the as an anthem to her country Cape Verde (see Aoki saudade samba Sodade of Cuba, as if diverse artistic voices were trembling with the same in the son of Mozambique, which share lusophone roots. There are many parallel song call 103

saudade morna “...yes, yes; you can use use can you yes; “...yes, marrabenta and timbla is a traditional music and dance genre from Cape Verde that originated at the beginning of the 20th century. It is a popular element of of element popular a is It century. 20th the of beginning the at originated that Verde Cape from genre dance and music traditional a is Then, on the last evening of my fieldwork I remembered how, by searching for the I have never been to Cape Verde, but every time I listened to Morna

Me? I´m doing fine, working hard. You know, still with lots of saudades…” Ah! You will finish. And when are you coming back?... okay, But then. you see I’ll can you worry, don’t write about me… who participated in this thesis. Inocencia, for example, who softly answered our last a with call phone doing are you hope I problem. No story. my well, have you finished your studies?... to our complex nature. On that last evening, when a Cuban man chose to speak a a speak to chose man Cuban a when evening, last that On nature. complex our to more once became vu déjà of sense a feelings, his express to language foreign stories life the of essence human the illuminated that aura omnipresent an as I collected. It is an essence I like to confirm every time I call or write to the individuals they would talk of blurred dreams in a communist block that for a time seemed invincible; the painful the sensation that life passes by faster than we can realise. print of war and scarcity; but also embodiment of solidarity, a journey across continents, I encountered one more way of capturing human experiences, to give name, sound, and texture blue and yellow image of Mozambique, and the sonority of a silent Havana in Inocencia and mourning, the the laugh face of of Caridad, next to the clarity of the sea that them separates at the them same time. and It reminds me connects of how Cubans would tell me how much they miss their homes, their families and the ambience of the streets in their hometowns. Mozambicans would also depict with melancholy their past in other areas of their country, or in a distant town in the Caribbean. Even more, fused expressions of deep sorrow and happiness, pulling the soul in different directions at the same Although time.they use different terms, such emotiveness persists in the courage of Arabic lamentations, the Blues of New Orleans or the elemental emotion. 2016). Cesaria´s torn throat charismatically spelled out the image of her home, an island in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, its spirit shrouded in the anguish and hardship felt by the slaves brought from West Africa, in the nostalgia of those who had left incomplete to and migrate the to happy overcome memories sunk poverty, by in the the deep love blue playfulness with the word of stories the sea. One can find a similar some place, somebody, even yourself. It is a mixture of the sorrow felt for something you loved that may that loved you something for felt sorrow the of mixture a is It yourself. even somebody, place, some never return, from a distant time or place. But sense of ‘missing’ mixed with the bright joy of having loved once. I remember hearing this word for the Evora, Cesaria of voice profound the through time first performed a simple 103 the national identity that can be found at any moment, in several places, to recall a cheerful but melancholic tone that the poet Gabriel Mariano defined as “an expression of the soul of the people” (cited in Gonçalves, 2007, 72 qtd. In Aoki 2016, 164).

Epilogue 152 Maya Angelou (1990) than we are unalike. We are more alike, my friends, than we are unalike. We are morealike, my friends, than we are unalike. but we are morealike, my friends, between andtype, each sort I note the obvious differences we’rein major the same. waysIn minor we differ, anddie inMaine. are born We seek success inFinland, and thrive onSpanishshores. and laughmoaninGuinea, we weep onEngland’s moors, We love andlose inChina, while lying side by side. and lovers think quite different thoughts although their features jibe, twins are different Mirror who really were the same. but I’ve notseen anytwo not yet onecommon man. the world I’ve seen the wonders of land, and stopped inevery I’ve sailedthe uponseven seas tan andblue andwhite. andpurple, brown andpinkbeige can confuse, bemuse, delight, ourskintones varietyThe of the real reality. and othersclaim they really live profundity,as true Some declare their lives are lived some thrive oncomedy. usareserious, Some of in the humanfamily. I note the obvious differences Human Family called Jane Jane, andMary I know ten thousand women

153 Epilogue 154 well as with private companies. well aswithprivatecompanies. as Languages, Indigenous of Institute National the and Crimes Electoral of Office Persecutor’s the in Autonomous University of Mexico, and has a broad experience working with the Mexican National government the from design graphic of graduate a is He thesis. this designing by me supported kindly Lisandra Bravo Ilisástigui: Tetamanti:Diez Manuel Juan Rangel Macías Alina Masetti: Costa Marina Garrido: Jay with metheirperspectivesandfriendshipduringmyfieldwork. shared who individuals, outstanding also are them of each professionals, remarkable only not are José deJesúsOcadizArriaga Cover Design Victor father my donated, images the and text the to coherence give to order In Ocadiz: Victor Graphic design board ofthesocialistparty. youth the of member active an is and Engineering, Informatics in PhD a holds She Spanish). in he where Maputo, to Manuel Juan brought what collaborated asapost-docwiththeUniversityEduardoMondlane. is This areas. rural isolated of Geography Social the on focuses He Geography. in PhD a obtained he where Argentina, Bosco, Juan San with thedelinquencyonmetroofMexicoCity. concerned project a of part is Alina Currently, nightlife. and transport public as such moments, and spaces specific on especially dynamics, urban and portraits on is photographer a as focus principal Her Montréal. of University the as well as Mexico, of University Autonomous National and Sub-SaharaAfrica. Eduardo of University Mondlane the in Maputo, at where program she focused exchange on student history, language a and in the philosophy participated of Mozambique she 2016, In Paulo. The Dot,acreativeaudiovisualcompanybasedinMaputo. Writing at the University of Cape Town. He is currently a senior partner and managing director of Some of the photos presented in this thesis were donated by the following talented people. They Photographers Jay is a professional Mozambican photographer. He studied Film History & Media & History Film studied He photographer. Mozambican professional a is Jay Aia s gaut suet n omncto ad oraim rm the from Journalism and Communication in student graduate a is Alina : Marina is currently doing her bachelors in History at the University of São of University the at History in bachelors her doing currently is Marina Lisandra is a researcher at the Technical University of Havana (CUJAE Juan Manuel is a researcher at the National University of Patagonia of University National the at researcher a is Manuel Juan Appendix 1

155 Appendix 1 An elderly woman in the train station of Maputo. Copyright Juan Manuel Diez Tetamanti in the train station of Maputo. An elderly woman Macías of Havana. Copyright Alina her granddaughter on the outskirts A woman carrying Copyright Juan Manuel Diez bus on the highway of Mozambique. Passengers in a Copyright Alina Macías Rangel Two boys in Havana. Rangel in Havana. Copyright Alina Macías Sellers in a market Rangel of Havana. Copyright Alina Macías A man near the port Nurse Olga in the Central Hospital of Maputo. Copyright Miriam Ocadiz Arriaga. Copyright Hospital of Maputo. in the Central Nurse Olga Rangel Alina Macías Havana. Copyright A child in Costa Masetti Copyright Marina in a red t-shirt. Mozambican girl A young Rangel Tetamanti • • • • • • Photos on the 153 page: Photos • • •

Appendix 1 156 Data source:Gooogle Maps Maputo Data source:UnitedNations.DepartmentofFieldSupportGeospatialInformationSection Mozambique Maps (overviewof the placesIvisited) Appendix 2

157 Appendix 2 (overview of the places I visited) Data source: Google Maps Havana Cuba of Texas at Austin Data source: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. University

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