In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* by Christodoulos Zekas

Modern Greek state in 1830.1 This is Abstract especially remarkable in that, as regards Ancient Greek and the Language its position in the first three grades of Question In this article, I examine features of secondary education, the subject has the current methodology employed in the enjoyed an astonishing continuity down The precedence of classical over teaching of Ancient Greek in compulsory to the present, with a comparatively brief modern Greek culture is furthermore education in Greece. After considering interval of sixteen years (1977-92). The signified by the creation and imposition the historical dimensions of the subject reason for the endurance of the course in of an official national language that as well as its association with the modern the Greek curriculum may well be traced was based upon and resembled classical Greek language question, I highlight one principally to one element: the strong Greek. This led to the so-called important aspect of the current teaching admiration for the classical era harboured language question and the emergence of practice as revealed by the textbook of and promoted by the modern state in modern Greek diglossia. This archaistic the first grade of the junior high school the attempt of the latter to construct a ‘exemplary’ language, called katharévousa (gymnásio), namely, the diachronic strategy, common national identity for its citizens, (‘purifying’), was conceived by the which focuses on the study of the Greek both distinct from that of other nations in intellectual elite, following primarily language through time. I argue that the the Balkans and potentially respected by (though not always faithfully) the ideas of principle of diachrony is superficially 2 western European countries. The policy Adamantios Korais (1748-1833), and was intermingled with the ‘modern’ technique of the admiration of antiquity was first used as the official language of the state of the ‘genre approach’ in parallel with put into practice by the Bavarian Otto for almost a century and a half (1834- a traditional method, which I discuss (1815-67), the first king of Greece, who 1976).4 Katharévousa aimed at eradicating under the term Altertumswissenschaft. This inter alia formed an educational system ‘foreign’ elements that had managed to compound methodology results in a according to the standards of German permeate Greek during a four- to five- training philosophy that not only seems Hellenism, which idealized the classical hundred-year occupation by other peoples ineffective but also reflects the uncertainty language and culture and included a heavy (principally, the Ottomans but also the surrounding the teaching of the ancient 3 load of teaching of Ancient Greek; and Italians and the French). However, since language. second, by the Greek elite, who came this hybrid idiom was never spoken from various places within the Ottoman actually by its contemporaries, it had to Introduction empire, but mainly from the Fanari be learned at school, and the best means area in Constantinople (Istanbul), and to achieve competence in this ‘laboratory- progressively immigrated in the liberated The Ancient Greek language born’ linguistic form was an intensive part of Greece mainland after the War of training in Ancient Greek. Therefore the has played a central role in the school Independence in 1821-28. syllabus since the establishment of the subject was initially taught in place of

22 In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* the vernacular (‘demotikí’), and for many and syntax.8 All in all, the common principle as regards the texts chosen and years undermined – and possibly still does denominator in this reform and its tends towards a more moderate grammar- – school training in Standard Modern overall argumentation was the necessity translation method, which principally Greek (SMG)5 (in terms of the hours of (and hope) for the improvement of the focuses on classical Greek. teaching per week and the emphasis given linguistic education of a much larger by the curriculum). Naturally, this decision number of pupils than ever before, but Ancient Greek Language and kept up with an educational system that still falling short of eradicating ancient lacked practical orientation, did not Greek culture from the last stage of Current Methodology regularly address the needs of the people, compulsory education.9 and often served the dominant ideology The tendency to employ the of the elite.6 Re-introducing Ancient Greek into diachrony principle was further explored The next significant stage in the in the next series, commissioned by the history of the subject would go once the Gymnásio Greek Ministry of Education in 2006. again hand in hand with the evolution On the one hand, the principal feature of the language question. With the In the 1980s, however, concerns were of these textbooks is that they make educational reform of 1976 / 77 the raised about the removal of the ancient extensive use of the diachronic strategy first democratically elected Hellenic language from the junior high school - that is, the study of Greek language government after a seven-year military curriculum, because it was thought that through time - but with a particular dictatorship (1967-74) abolished the the new generation of young Greeks were emphasis on etymology and the formation training in the ancient language from the becoming linguistically impoverished. of ancient words. On the other hand, the junior high school (gymnásio), thus marking These concerns, which took the form of teaching of grammar and syntax, which the end to the uninterrupted presence of a campaign led by Georgios Babiniotis, I do not examine in this article, ought to the course in the first grades of secondary professor of linguistics at Athens be conducted – despite the statements of education for one hundred and forty University, resulted in a revision of the the official guidelines – according to the years (1836-1976). This act was not seen original planning,10 and, in the school year traditional classical or grammar-translation as any kind of regression at the time; in 1993-94, the subject was re-introduced. method. These principles are superficially fact, it came as a result of the since long The teaching philosophy now took a intermingled with the genre approach in expressed and much debated proposition different direction in that the newly order to present a methodology, which of progressive parts of the intellectuals to written school-books (entitled The Greek seemingly conforms to current norms replace katharévousa with demotic as the Language through Ancient, Byzantine, and of (language) instruction, but essentially official language of the state.7 According Learned Texts) focused on a linguistic results in a mixture of practices which, as to the new reform ancient Greek literature training in all periods of Greek. It may I maintain below, seems awkward as well was now studied solely in translation in be argued that the combination of as unsuccessful. the gymnásio, and since katharévousa was texts from very different eras of Greek It becomes obvious that one major abolished, there was no longer any need literature was innovative at the time, but problem in dealing with this issue is to learn the ancient language at this stage the perception of the proposal could that there is no reliable data available (which was actually the concluding one be regarded as unfortunate, chiefly to underpin any robust argumentation. of compulsory education). Thus, the because the comprehension of so great Thus, the views expressed here rely on teaching of the Attic dialect would be a linguistic and textual variety required personal experience from everyday school confined to the first and second grades a basic knowledge of the Attic dialect, practice and theoretical research. The of the senior high school (lýkeio) with an which ought to have been acquired at lack of official evidence is admittedly additional year of instruction for pupils an earlier stage in education. Therefore, no coincidence, and seems to reflect the studying humanities. The arguments it is not surprising that the application uneasiness of the education bureaucrats brought forward in support of this major of the diachronic method was heavily to touch on this delicate issue. It is change focused on the following factors: criticized by teachers and pedagogues striking that the Pedagogical Institute first, the cognitive development of the alike for its superficial engagement with (now Institute of Educational Policy), average pupil in the gymnásio was thought language and the confusion it caused to which is the government organisation as inadequate for the proper learning learners.11 As an outcome of the 1997 responsible for curricula and subjects, of classical Greek. Second, the teaching / 98 educational reform, which aimed has been refusing any survey that could hours saved from this reorganisation of to modernize and Europeanize the reveal the place of Ancient Greek in the curriculum could instead be devoted curriculum,12 the ‘diachronic’ textbooks schools, the evaluation of the textbooks to further training in SMG. Third, the were replaced in 2000-01 with a more and the teaching practices they sustain.14 practice of approaching literature in ancient-Greek-centred series bearing the Other than the study of the views translation was deemed to be of higher title “Ancient Greek Language”. Although on and the position of the subject in educational value, because it would poorly justified in terms of methodology, contemporary education, which may be help learners become acquainted with material and expectations,13 this useful to a certain extent, I would suggest a more profound meaning of the texts replacement seems to incorporate some that the main emphasis should be placed as opposed to the previous practice of of the criticism on the previous series in upon the development of a language superficial engagement with morphology that it attempts to mitigate the diachrony acquisition theory applicable exclusively

In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* 23 to (the teaching of) Ancient Greek for Isocrates) or from later authors that structure, content and style of texts as native speakers of SMG.15 Since many wrote in the Attic dialect (Lucian, Aesop, opposed to the traditional grammar- words that date back to classical times are Diodorus of Sicily, Arrian, Antoninus translation method.22 Accordingly, the integrated in commonly spoken Greek Liberalis, Saint Basil), and almost all have teacher should place emphasis on fabric or have become part of a more scholarly been modified, except for the passage of as this is represented by key words (mainly form of the language under the influence Saint Basil (p. 126), which has been left verbs and their subjects). Thus, in the of katharévousa, this theory would shed unaltered. In the case of grammar (taught present passage pupils should be able to light on which elements of the Attic from Unit 3 onwards), the book mainly recognise at first sight words that would dialect, for instance, can be taught at covers the active and passive indicative, direct them to the meaning of the text as certain levels of secondary education. the participle and the infinitive, the first, a whole, even though they don’t have any This premise could then serve as a basis second and partly the third declension Ancient Greek at all. But can this ever be for further discussion by experts (linguists, of nouns as well as a few adjectives and possible? Hellenists, pedagogues and active pronoun-forms. Syntax parsing (taught As already stated, there are no classroom teachers) of the best means from Unit 11 onwards) includes the acclaimed criteria for safely assessing to achieve competence in the ancient analysis of the basic noun and verbal which elements of ‘old’ Greek can language. The construction of such a phrase structures, that is, subject, verb and normally be understood by native new theoretical approach is particularly complements (object and predicate), plus speakers of ‘new’ Greek, and especially important nowadays, since it is common the examination of the various syntactic by 13-year olds whose language potential knowledge among both teachers and functions of the participle as well as of is still in progress. Therefore, in order to academics that the pupils’ performance the infinitive clause (AcI).18 evaluate to what extend the above excerpt in the subject has been deteriorating in Teaching is supposed to start with from Plato can be grasped by learners the last twenty years.16 This period of the main text in section one and then I would employ a general principle of time is not only adequate enough for moves on successively to the next parts similarity in morphology and meaning the production of reliable data, but also (i.e. etymology, morphology, and syntax). between ancient and contemporary marks a significant terminus post quem, for For the presentation of the proposed linguistic forms (and exclude syntax the school year 1993-94, as mentioned methodology I have selected the text which would require a more sophisticated above, is the time when the ancient in Unit 2, which signifies the very first approach). For instance, the words language was essentially re-introduced into contact of pupils with Ancient Greek.19 διδάσκουσι, πρῶτον, παῖδες, καλόν, γονεῖς, compulsory education. The passage, which is an adapted excerpt and γεγραμμένα are easily understandable, The absence of any reliable research from Plato’s Protagoras (325c-326c), reads since they occur in the same (γονείς) or on the teaching of Ancient Greek reflects as follows: similar form in SMG (διδάσκουν, πρώτα, a vague and perplexed situation, which is παιδιά, καλό, γραμμένα). The same is exemplified in the relative school-books Ἐν Ἀθήναις τοὺς παῖδας μετ’ ἐπιμελείας perhaps valid for words that may not be for contemporary gymnásio. In order to διδάσκουσι καὶ νουθετοῦσι. Πρῶτον μὲν καὶ in current use, but their sense could be illustrate my point, I will employ a few τροφὸς καὶ μήτηρ καὶ παιδαγωγὸς καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ deduced with recourse to both etymology examples that reveal the way in which πατὴρ ἐπιμελοῦνται ὅπως βέλτιστος γενήσεται and context (e.g. γραμματισταί, though the prevailing diachrony approach ὁ παῖς, διδάσκοντες ὅτι τὸ μὲν δίκαιον, τὸ δὲ not τροφός). Likewise for terms that have undermines the proper instruction ἄδικον καὶ τόδε μὲν καλόν, τόδε δὲ αἰσχρόν a different meaning in contemporary of classical Greek. The examples are ἐστι. Εἶτα δέ, ἐπειδὰν οἱ παῖδες εἰς ἡλικίαν Greek, but can be grasped in terms of drawn from the first two sections of ἔλθωσιν, οἱ γονεῖς εἰς διδασκάλων πέμπουσιν, context only (e.g. γυμνασίοις). On the the introductory textbook, which is ἔνθα οἱ μὲν γραμματισταὶ ἐπιμελοῦνται contrary, when an ancient word shares intended as a primary means for the ὅπως γράμματα μάθωσιν καὶ τὰ γεγραμμένα the same root with its modern derivative, initiation of 13 year-olds into the study ἐννοῶσι, οἱ δὲ κιθαρισταὶ τῷ κιθαρίζειν but its etymology is not obvious (e.g. of the ancient language.17 The book is ἡμερωτέρους αὐτοὺς ποιεῖν πειρῶνται καὶ πέμπουσιν) or the contemporary meaning divided into eighteen units, and apart τὰς τῶν παίδων ψυχὰς πρὸς τὸν ῥυθμὸν changes dramatically (e.g. πονηρία, from the opening one, all the other καὶ τὴν ἁρμονίαν οἰκειοῦσι. Ἔτι οἱ παῖδες ἐν ὅπως), I would register it as material units comprise three main sections: A. γυμνασίοις καὶ παλαίστραις φοιτῶσιν, ἔνθα οἱ incomprehensible to pupils. Therefore, Text, B. Etymology (often divided in B1. παιδοτρίβαι βελτίω τὰ σώματα αὐτῶν ποιοῦσι, according to the above criteria, there are Table of words, and B2. [Ancient Greek] ἵνα μὴ ἀναγκάζωνται ἀποδειλιᾶν διὰ τὴν τῶν 81 different words or different ‘tokens’ Etymology), and C. Grammar-Syntax. σωμάτων πονηρίαν. of the same word (e.g. παῖς, παῖδες, There is also an Addendum (pp. 141- παίδων, παῖδας) in Plato’s excerpt; 46 of 82) that includes the following parts: A. As the curriculum and the official these (almost 57%) are known or may Parallel texts (pp. 142-61), B. Vocabulary guidelines determine, the text should be comprehensible without much effort; (pp. 162-73), C. Tenses of verbs (p. 174), be taught according to the diachrony 35 of these (roughly 43%) should be D. Tables of grammar (pp. 175-9), of strategy and the genre approach.20 unknown or not straightforwardly clear.23 syntax (p. 180), and of etymology (pp. Initially developed in the 1980s under the If we look closer, the evidence is even 181-2). The texts in the first part of every influence of the work of M. Halliday in more discouraging: although 78% of the respective unit are drawn from authors linguistics,21 the genre approach is mainly nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and articles of the classical period (Plato, Xenophon, concerned with the examination of the may be recognized easily, another 71%

24 In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* of the verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and p. 14) it would not be particularly hard to to the traditional classical or grammar- conjunctions are not normally intelligible. answer the two content-specific questions translation method, in which “much So, on which basis should the teacher that currently constitute 40% of the total vocabulary [is] taught in the form of lists apply the genre approach in order to grade in the assessment of the subject.24 of isolated words”,26 it is generally agreed shed light on the basic structure of the The fulfilment of this condition provides that when it comes to language teaching, passage, given particularly that many of the only indication that learners have words cannot be taught out of context.27 its most fundamental constituents are grasped what the passage talks about, In discussing the methods for vocabulary incomprehensible? The official answer since there is no translation requirement instruction, in particular, Tricia Hedge would require the employment of the in the first and second grades of the summarises some of the arguments of diachrony method, that is, the guidance gymnásio. It becomes thus evident that Schouten-van Parreren’s related research to the correct or at least to a tentative the curriculum aims only at a very as follows: “If the words are presented meaning of the unfamiliar words by relative familiarity with the text and is not as isolated elements, there is no point means of stressing their resemblance to concerned with any real knowledge of its of support, no ‘cognitive hold’ for them SMG. But this is certainly not an easy task discourse or of the ancient lexicon itself. in the learners’ memory, so despite for 13 year-olds, so on the facing page On the contrary, the only understanding sometimes considerable learning effort, (p. 15) one finds a selective translation that ought to be developed has to do with they are quickly forgotten again.”28 Even of words, phrases and even sentences, etymology and, to be more specific, the though the above point refers to second which corresponds to nearly 50% of the relation of the modern words with its language acquisition, there is no reason to text. It is as if the writers of the book ancient base forms. question its application to our ‘diachronic secretly admit that the combination of the The diachrony strategy is further employed in the next section, which list’ either. It would therefore not be too genre and diachrony approaches can by great an exaggeration to maintain that no means lead to a decent understanding accumulates in one table dozens of derivatives of a single word. For instance, this lexical chart is practically of no use of the content even in general terms. the related part in Unit 5 reads as other than persuading learners that an The ineffectiveness of this compound follows:25 ancient base form may have a plethora of derivatives across the whole spectrum of ἡ γῆ Greek. In consequence, the way in which Ancient Greek Ancient Greek/ Modern Greek vocabulary is integrated in the teaching [List 1] Modern Greek [List 2] [List 3] process does not lead to its active use by pupils, while the few exercises that follow ὁ γεωρύχος [the one who digs γήινος γεωλόγος (geologist) up the earth] γεώδης (& γαιώδης) γεώμηλο [potato] cannot make up for this deficient method ὁ/ἡ γηγενής, τὸ γηγενές γεώτρηση (drilling) in language instruction. It is obvious ὁ γεωμόρος [landowner] ὁ γεωπόνος γεωτρύπανο (drilling then that the focus here is again on the γεωργέω, γεωργῶ ὁ γεωργός machine) theoretical awareness of the history ὁ γεωγράφος γεωδυναμική of Greek, and the three lists do not ὁ γεωτόμος [the one who cuts ὁ γήλοφος, γεώλοφος (geodynamics) contribute to the proper training either of the ground] [small hill] γεωπολιτικός τὸ γήπεδον (-ο) (geopolitical) the ancient or of the modern language. ἔγγαιος (syn. ἔγγειος) [AGr. piece of land, γηπεδούχος (the home However, this table is revealing for the [local, indigenous] MGr. sports field] team) background of the diachrony strategy, ἡ γεωμετρία περίγειο (Astronomy, since it recalls the ideas of Adamantios ἐπίγειος the farthest point in Korais about the creation of a new idiom ἔγγειος the orbit of a celestial μεσόγειος body or of an artificial (the so-called ‘middle-way’) that would ὑπόγειος satellite) resemble classical Greek, a mixture that is απόγειο (zenith) evident in List 2.29 υδρόγειος (globe) The focus on vocabulary takes a ισόγειος (the one on the somewhat different route in the next ground) part (B2. [Ancient Greek] Etymology), υπέργειος (the one above the ground) which highlights the formation of ancient απογειώνω (to elevate; words. Particularly illuminating for middle voice, to take off) the examination of this practice is the προσγειώνω (to land) related section from Unit 4, which deals with nominal derivatives: diminutives, methodology is also reflected in the In the above table one can see collectives, and ‘locals’ (denoting place, ensuing “interpretative comments” (p. derivatives of the word γῆ (earth), which establishment or edifice).30 After a brief 15) that restate parts of the passage. With has been drawn from the main text in explanation of the terminology used, one the assistance of these comments and the previous section. The derivatives are encounters a list of several ancient Greek through a general familiarity with the text divided into three lists corresponding to endings per category followed by one (supported by the introductory note and the evolution of Greek. Apart from the example for each of them (p. 31): the image of an ancient school scene on dedication of this kind of instruction Some of the base words in the

In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* 25 in junior high school. The uncertainty Endings of diminutives Endings of collectives Endings of locals surrounding the subject is well illustrated -άριον ἀνθρωπάριον < -(ε)ών ἀμπελών < -ιον ἐμπόριον < by the officially proposed teaching ἄνθρωπος ἄμπελος ἔμπορος methodology, which struggles to combine ἐλαιών < ἐλαία -ιον σωμάτιον < σῶμα -(ε)ῖον ἰατρεῖον < ἰατρός tradition with innovation. In this context, -ιά μυρμηκιά < μύρμηξ the extensive application of the diachrony οἰκίδιον < οἶκος -ίδιον στρατιά < στρατός principle undercuts the genre approach -ίς νησίς < νῆσος and even influences the historical way -ίσκος νεανίσκος < νεανίας of reading antiquity, with a view to highlighting the evolution of Greek. This -ύδριον νησύδριον < νῆσος teaching practice, however, seems to -ύλλιον εἰδύλλιον < εἶδος undermine proper language instruction after all. table (ἄνθρωπος, σῶμα, νῆσος) occur influenced schools and universities across in the main text of the related unit, so Germany and England.32 As mentioned Christodoulos Zekas, Open that teaching can start off from material earlier, the antiquity-centred ideology University of Cyprus previously taught. Once more the pervaded the Hellenic state from the emphasis here is placed on the continuity outset, and imbued, albeit for different of Greek, and particularly on the reasons, its school syllabus. Consequently, Bibliography† dependence of the ‘new’ language upon it may not be surprising that the its classical ancestor, since most of the application of the Altertumswissenschaft * Argyropoulou, Ch. (ed.) (2002). endings as well as some of the examples principle is evident in the present Guidelines for the Teaching of the Philological provided are used in contemporary textbook, particularly since the latter is Subjects in the Gymnásio (School Year Greek too, albeit slightly simplified (e.g. concerned with the study of classical 2002-2003): Ancient Greek, Modern Greek εἰδύλλιον > ειδύλλιο, ἀμπελών > αμπελώνας, Greek. However, although the practice Language and Literature, History, Athens: ἐμπόριον > εμπόριο). It is surprising then of forming ancient words usually points Organismos Ekdoseos Didaktikon that this section aspires to offer an in- to a historical approach of linguistic Vivlion. depth look into etymology by requesting matters, here one does not witness any the construction of ancient words by thorough and systematic effort towards * Baslis, G. (1997). ‘Ancient Greek in means of the endings provided. Although this direction. Nor is the technique of the Gymnásio: A Proposal’, Nea Padeia 81: 155-71. downplayed by the official guidelines, highlighting word endings embedded this tendency is revealed by one of the in a more well-rounded programme of Beaton, R. (1999). An Introduction to exercises that follow, according to which linguistic training. On the contrary, words Modern Greek Literature, 2nd edn., Oxford: pupils are called to form words they are once again taught in isolation from Oxford University Press. have never encountered before such as whatever could favour both vocabulary κιόνιον or κιονίσκος (<κίων) and ὀμμάτιον acquisition and reading comprehension. * Bezantakos, N., et al. (2006a). Ancient (< ὄμμα). Even if one ignores the obvious The only cognitive background that may Greek Language: A‘ Grade of the Gymnásio. lack of any prerequisite background serve as a basis for learners to familiarise Student’s Book. Athens: Organismos that is necessary for proper training themselves with new material in this Ekdoseos Didaktikon Vivlion. Also in etymology, this practice seems to section is the aimed relation to SMG. It available online: http://ebooks.edu. reflect the devotion of the textbook to a could be argued then that even this part gr/modules/ebook/show.php/ traditional way of teaching that favours of the textbook is transformed under DSGL102/458/3005,12074/ (accessed the reconstruction of the past, at least the influence of the diachrony approach, 29/1/2014) in its linguistic aspect. This method may and aims at reinforcing the idea of the * Bezantakos, N., et al. (2006b). Ancient ultimately be traced back to the German continuity of Greek with a particular Greek Language: A‘ Grade of the Gymnásio. klassische Altertumswissenschaft focus on its origin. , which is Teacher’s Book. Athens: Organismos usually translated into English as “the Ekdoseos Didaktikon Vivlion. Also science of classical antiquity”. The available online: http://ebooks.edu.gr/ concept was developed in Germany in Conclusion modules/document/document.php?cou the late 18th and during the 19th centuries, rse=DSGL102&download=/4bdada69lu with an aim to embrace a thorough In this article I have attempted w3/4bdada7e3g9g (accessed 29/1/2014) study of all facets of the classical world to show that different and conflicting in a single comprehensive discipline to practices and ideas are at work in the * Bouzakis, S. (2003). Education in Modern be used ultimately for the education of teaching of the Ancient Greek language in Greece (1821-1998): Dependant Development, the elite classes.31 Within this context, compulsory education in Greece. Ancient 5th edn., Athens: Gutenberg. the historical reconstruction of the Greek has been a heavily debated subject, classical past became a value per se, and often laden with political dimensions, Bouzakis, S. & Koustourakis, G. 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Frangoudaki, A. (1997). ‘The greek-language.gr/greekLang/studies/ Metalinguistic Prophecy on the Decline Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and guide/thema_e6/index.html (accessed of the Greek Language: Its Social Principles in Language Teaching, 2nd edn., 29/1/2014) Function as the Expression of a Crisis Oxford: Oxford University Press. in Greek National Identity, International * Rankousis, N. A. (2001). ‘The Ancient Journal of the Sociology of Language 126: Latacz, J. (2009). ‘Philology: C. Modern Greek Language in the Gymnásio: The 63-82. Philology (from 1800)’, in M. Landfester, New Books and Their Application to et al. (eds.). Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia Teaching’, Nea Paideia 97: 72-89. * Glavas, S. & Karageorgiou, A. (2007). of the Ancient World. Classical Tradition, vol. ‘Panhellenic Research on the Subject of IV, Leiden: Brill, 401-23. Richards, J. C. & Renandya, W. A. Ancient Greek Language in the Gymnásio’, (eds.) (2002). Methodology in Language Epitheorisi Ekpaideutikon Thematon 12: Liakos, A. (2008). ‘Hellenism and the Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice, 5-23. Available online: http://www. Making of Modern Greece: Time, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pi-schools.gr/download/publications/ Language, Space’, in Zacharia (ed.) epitheorisi/teyxos12/glavas.pdf (accessed (2008), 201-36. Schaps, D. M. (2011). Handbook of 29/1/2014) Classical Research, London; New York: Mackridge, P. (2008). ‘Cultural Difference Routledge. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as as National Identity in Modern Greece’, Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of in Zacharia (ed.) (2008), 297-319. Scott Morrell, K. (2006). ‘Language Language and Meaning, London: Arnold. Acquisition and Teaching Ancient Mackridge, P. (2009). Language and Greek: Applying Recent Theories and Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in National Identity in Greece, 1766-1976, Technology’, in J. Grube-Miller, (ed.). the Language Classroom, Oxford: Oxford Oxford: Oxford University Press. When Dead Tongues Speak: Teaching University Press. Beginning Greek and Latin, Oxford; New * Maronitis, D. N. (1976). ‘Ancient Greek York: Oxford University Press, 134-57. Hunt, A. & Beglar, D. (2002). ‘Current Language and Literature: Its Projection Research and Practice in Teaching and Reception in Education’, in Kentron * Sifakis, G. M. (1976). ‘Classical Vocabulary’, in Richards & Renandya Ekpaideutikon Meleton kai Epimorfoseos Scholarship and Humanistic Education: (eds.) (2002), 258-66. (1976), 40-2. Truths and Misconceptions’, in Kentron Ekpaideutikon Meleton kai Epimorfoseos * Ignatiadis, G. M. (2008). ‘The New * Ministry of Education and Religious (1976), 25-39. Textbook in the First Grade of the Affairs (1999). Curriculum for the Ancient Gymnásio for the Teaching of Ancient Greek Language and Literature in the Stray, C. (1998). Classics Transformed: Greek Language: Theory and Practice’, Gymnásio, Athens: Ethniko Typografeio Schools, Universities, and Society in England, Filologos 132: 255-64. [Government Gazette, 2nd Issue, no. 367, 13 1830-1960, Oxford: Oxford University April 1999]. Press. * Kelpanides, M. & Research Team of Postgraduate Students (2009). ‘The Views * Ministry of Education, Lifelong * Tsafos, V. (2004). The Teaching of of Teachers and of the Pupils on the Learning and Religious Affairs (2011). Ancient Greek Literature and Language: For Subject of Ancient Greek: The Research Curriculum for the Teaching of Ancient Greek an Alternative Apprenticeship in the Ancient That Was Conducted among Teachers, Language and Literature in Compulsory World, Athens: Metaichmio.

In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* 27 Tsakmakis, A. (2007). ‘Greece: II. 2 The literature on the impact of classical lýkeio” (Koxaraki 2000: 89); nor did it improve Education and Scholarship’, in M. antiquity on the creation of modern Greek their writing skills in Modern Greek, as this Landfester, et al. (eds.). Brill’s New Pauly: identity is rather extensive. See, briefly, approach had originally envisaged (61). Cf. Koliopoulos & Veremis (2007: 260-7), Liakos Tsafos (2004: 52-3). Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Classical (2008), and Mackridge (2008). The issue is Tradition, vol.II, Leiden: Brill, 746-60. closely related to the multifaceted and much 12 On the policy underlining the 1997/98 ellinikótita debated notion of Greekness ( ); on educational reform, see Bouzakis & this, see, more recently, Tziovas (2011), who * Tsopanakis, A. G. (1976). ‘The Koustourakis (2002). Problematics of the Teaching of Ancient explores the role of the literary Generation of the 1930s on the reconstruction of Greekness. Greek (in the Gymnásio and the Lýkeio)’, 13 It is suggestive that Rankousis, an advocate in Kentron Ekpaideutikon Meleton kai 3 Varmazis (1999: 32-5). of this change, argues vaguely that the new Epimorfoseos (1976), 49-57. series was required by new demands in the 4 The latest and most comprehensive study curriculum without providing any further * Tsoukalas, K. (1977). Dependence on the modern Greek language question is explanation (Rankousis 2001: 79). and Reproduction: The Social Role of the Mackridge (2009); see also Beaton (1999: Educational Mechanisms in Greece (1830- 296-365). 14 For instance, a project proposed in 2009 by the sociologist of education Kelpanidis to 1922), Athens: Themelio. 5 Let me note that throughout this paper investigate the stance of pupils and teachers I use the terms ‘Standard Modern Greek’ * Tziovas, D. (2011). The Myth of the towards Ancient Greek Language in the junior (SMG) and ‘Modern Greek (language)’ high school seems to have been hindered interchangeably. Generation of the Thirties: Modernity, by the Pedagogical Institute (Kelpanidis & Greekness, and Cultural Ideology, Athens: 6 Research Team 2009). Yet a research that was Polis. See Tsoukalas (1977: 529-71). carried out by the same state organisation in 7 This proposition took the form of 2007 (Glavas & Karageorgiou 2007) evaluated * Varmazis, N. D. (1999). Didactics of serious conflict, with political dimensions the teaching of the subject in gymnásio in Ancient Greek: From the Tradition to the becoming visible, soon after the imposition very positive terms. This evaluation was Renewal of the Teaching Method, Athens: of katharévousa. The controversy ran nevertheless deemed invalid and unreliable Patakis. roughly from the 1880s onwards and, apart in the following respects: although the main from ongoing theoretical debates, led to goal was to examine the teachers’ viewpoint Zacharia, K. (ed.) (2008). Hellenisms: some serious incidents such as protests in about the course and its effectiveness upon Athens (1901, 1903), the closing-down of a Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity from Antiquity pupils, fieldwork was carried out among progressive school in Volos (1911) and the teachers only, while the type of questions used to Modernity, Hampshire; Burlington, VT: persecution of leading defenders of demotic were not regarded as impartial (Kelpanidis & Greek (1914, 1941). For more information Ashgate. Research Team 2009: 41-51). on the above manifestations of the language

question, see Mackridge (2009: 247-54, 263-4, 15 306-10). The necessity to use applied linguistics in the teaching of the classical languages is also References 8 A collective volume was devoted to putting made evident by Schaps (2011: 97-8). For a this reform into practice in which academics, groundbreaking related theoretical application * This study is a revised and expanded school inspectors, and teachers expressed their as regards Ancient Greek, see Scott Morrell version of a paper I delivered at the ‘Classical views on the benefits of the new place of (2006). Association Annual Conference’ at the Ancient Greek in education. In this volume, University of Reading in April 2013. I wish to see, especially, Sifakis (1976), Maronitis (1976), 16 A suitable example, which nevertheless thank here the members of the audience for and Tsopanakis (1976). marks only one aspect of the situation, their constructive comments, and also Steven could be drawn from a brief examination Hunt for encouraging the publication of my 9 On the politics and values of the 1976/77 of the grades scored in the national higher paper. I would also like to add that this article educational reform, see, in particular, the education entrance examinations. Even reflects my experience in teaching Ancient contributions by Dimaras (1978) and Persianis though the Ancient Greek syllabus has Greek language and literature in a variety of (1978). schools across Greece, and also my theoretical been reduced significantly after the 1997/98 involvement with Greek curricula as part of 10 For the background of this campaign and educational reform and now learners study my lecturing at the University of Crete and for constructive criticism on the argument the subject for a total of six years, the results currently at the Open University of Cyprus. of language impoverishment (‘lexipenía’), see are far from satisfactory. According to the All translations from Modern Greek are my Frangoudaki (1997) and Mackridge (2009: latest official statistics for the years 2009-13, own. 321-7). approximately 50% of the pupils did not get a pass mark (0-9.99 out of 20), while 1 The subject was introduced in 1834 in the 11 Among a number of studies that criticise another 30% in average did not perform initial four-grade primary school, and in 1836 the philosophy of the new books especially very well (10-14.9 out of 20). The statistics in secondary education, which was divided illuminating are Pigiaki (1997) and Baslis are available online at: http://www.minedu. in the three-grade ellinikón scholeíon (Hellenic (1997); see also Mackridge (2009: 326). The gov.gr/publications/docs2013/statistika_ school) and the four-grade gymnásion, following results of the diachronic method were never bathmologiwn_g_takshs_2013_130625.xls the German system of the Lateinische Schule and the Gymnasium (Bouzakis 2003: 40-52, investigated or assessed officially, but they (accessed 29/1/2014). Tsakmakis 2007: 753-5). For a succinct seem to have been rather disappointing. historical overview, see Polkas (2001). More According to a research conducted by a 17 Bezantakos et al. (2006a). The textbook is detailed accounts include Varmazis (1999: postgraduate student over a body of 1,951 also accompanied by a teacher’s manual with 17-38), Chatzimavroudi (2007: 15-33), and pupils across Crete in 1995-96, “despite the general guidelines per unit (Bezantakos et al. Tsakmakis (2007). Particularly instructive is expectations of its advocates, the new subject 2006b). also the study of Tsafos (2004), which mainly offered no help to the pupils who attended discusses developments in methodology after it as regards their ability to approach original 18 For a detailed book review, see Ignatiadis 1976. (sc. not translated) ancient Greek texts in the (2008).

28 In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* 19 Online viewing of Unit 2 is available at: http://ebooks.edu.gr/modules/ebook/show. php/DSGL102/457/3003,12052/ (accessed 29/1/2014).

20 Ministry of Education (1999: 4880), Argyropoulou (2002: 16-7). The latest instructions too (Ministry of Education 2011) highlight the same methodology.

21 Halliday (1978).

22 See, in particular, Cope & Kalantzis (1993).

23 In the unknown/not easily comprehensible category I would list the following: ἐπιμελείας, παῖς, τροφός, πονηρίαν, παιδοτρίβαι (nouns); τόδε (pronoun); βέλτιστος, βελτίω (adjectives); τῷ, τάς (articles); νουθετοῦσι, ἐπιμελοῦνται, γενήσεται, ἐστί, πέμπουσιν, ἐννοῶσι, ποιεῖν, πειρῶνται, οἰκειοῦσι, φοιτῶσιν, ποιοῦσι, ἀποδειλιᾶν (verbs); εἶτα, ἔνθα, ἔτι (adverbs); ἐν, μετ(ά)’, εἰς, διά (prepositions); μέν, ὅπως, δέ, ἐπειδάν, ὅπως, ἵνα (conjunctions).

24 On this argument, see also Ignatiadis (2008: 256-7).

25 One can find this ‘diachronic’ lexical chart as well as the whole of Unit 5 online at: http://ebooks.edu.gr/modules/ebook/ show.php/DSGL102/457/3003,12055/ (accessed 29/1/2014). For the convenience of the Anglophone reader who may not be able to read Modern Greek I have translated (in parenthesis) the words in List 3. Square brackets indicate the meanings provided in the original textbook.

26 Brown (2007: 16). For a vivid account of the grammar-translation method, see Larsen- Freeman (2000: 11-22).

27 On current research and methods in vocabulary teaching, see Hunt & Beglar (2002) and Nation (2002).

28 Hedge (2000: 120).

29 For a thorough examination of the linguistic theory of Korais, see Mackridge (2009: 102- 25).

30 Online viewing of Unit 4 is available at: http://ebooks.edu.gr/modules/ebook/show. php/DSGL102/458/3006,12078/ (accessed 29/1/2014).

31 Latacz (2009: 404-17).

32 Stray (1998: 23-6).

† The asterisk (*) indicates references in Modern Greek. I have transliterated the authors’ names and translated the titles of these studies for the convenience of the Anglophone reader who may not read Modern Greek. As regards the titles of journals in Modern Greek I chose the transliterated form for reasons of consistency with the original title.

In the Shadow of Diachrony: Ancient Greek Language in the Contemporary Greek Gymnásio* 29