REFLECTIONS OF A NATION Antigone on the Modern Greek Stage Andria Michael Royal Holloway, University of London Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD in Classics 2015 2 Declaration of Authorship I, Andria Michael, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Andria Michael 18 December 2015 3 Abstract This thesis is a study of performances of Sophocles’ Antigone on the modern Greek stage, their political and social resonances, their cultural contexts and their role in the formation and presentation of modern Greek national identity. It is the result of research concerning the revival of ancient Greek drama, in accordance with modern Greek theatre history as well as with the broader history of the modern Greek nation. As a play political in its essence, Antigone has been widely used as a political statement in the Greek revivals from the second half of the nineteenth century onwards. To attempt an examination and analysis of such performances covering this long period of time means to simultaneously examine the key events of the country: the liberation from Ottoman Rule, the early process of formation of the new state, the hotly disputed conflict of the Language Question, the modernist Generation of the 1930s, the Greek Civil War, the Dictatorship of 1967-1974, as well as many other significant events and movements of modern Greek history. The approach of the work is qualitative rather than quantitative. The aim is to choose the specific moments when theatre and politics cross paths, to examine the connections between artistic choices and political incentives, and to highlight the moments which eventually reveal that Antigone has been repeatedly used as a platform for political or politically charged issues, conflicts and agendas. The ultimate goal of this research is to reveal that the intense political, rather than aesthetic, interpretations of modern Greek revivals have frequently neglected the performances as such, as well as the text of Antigone itself, and have instead concentrated on the issues and conflicts of each period in question. 4 Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis could not have been possible without the help and support of many. Firstly, I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor Professor Ahuvia Kahane whose expertise and support has been immense during my academic odyssey. His sharp but always well-aimed comments have been of great significance for the shaping of what initially was an enthusiastic idea into a complete piece of work. I am also grateful to my academic advisor Dr Christos Kremmydas, senior lecturer in Greek History, as well as to the rest of the academic staff in the Classics Department at Royal Holloway, notably Professor Jonathan Powell, Dr Nick Lowe and Stavroula Kiritsi. Their advice at different stages of my research helped me reconsider and re-evaluate aspects of my work. I must also thank all those who have taught, guided and inspired me throughout all these years I have been studying in London, notably Professor Paul Hamilton, Professor Miriam Leonard, Dr Shahidha Bari and Dr Katherine Fleming. A special thank you to all the dedicated people who work at the archives, libraries, museums, theatres and universities in Athens, and beyond. I am not naming them individually as they are more than one can imagine but I do recognise and appreciate their help and guidance in the process of collecting my primary materials. I want to pay my particular respect to Maria Hintiraki for her eagerness to share with me invaluable rare photographic material. I am also indebted to my friend Thanassis Dovris whose involvement with the theatrical scene of the country has given me the chance to meet and discuss with some of the most notable figures in the field of theatre in Greece. Last but not least, I want to express my gratitude and unconditional love to my beloved ones. To my nearest and dearest friends who have supported me throughout this adventurous journey. To my partner, whose patience and devotion is admirable in more ways than I can ever express. To my sister who I admire and love unconditionally, my strictest and sincerest judge. To my father who, unfortunately, is not with us. And to my mother, who has always been here, and taught us that with passion and hard work we can achieve the unachievable. 5 Contents Declaration of Authorship 2 Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 Contents 5 List of Figures 7 Introduction: Modern Greek Antigones: Where, When, Why and How 8 Part 1: Why Tragedy, Why Antigone 13 Part 2: The Pursuit of National Identity and the Revival of Tragedy 21 Part 3: Current Literature and Contribution to the Field 38 Part 4: Methodology, Research Methods and Presentation 59 Part 5: Chapter Breakdown and Brief Summary 66 Chapter One: The First Antigones 1863-1940 76 Part 1: The First Greek Revival of Antigone in Constantinople 1863 79 Part 2: The First Revivals of Antigone in Athens 1867-1986 86 Part 3: The First 'Modernised' Revivals of Antigone 1900-1939 95 Part 4: The First Antigone of the Greek National Theatre 1940 118 Chapter Two: Antigone on the Metapolemiki (Post-war) Stage 1945-1974 129 Part 1: The Antigone Performances of 1945-1967 135 Part 2: The Antigone of the Junta in 1969 154 Part 3: The Return of Antigone after the Fall of Dictatorship 1974 165 Chapter Three: Antigones of the Metapolitefsi (Regime Change) 1974-2000 177 Part 1: The 'Fiasco' of Antigone in 1984 182 Part 2: Foreign Antigones and the Identity Confusion 203 Part 3: The High Expectations of a National Antigone in 1990 209 6 Part 4: From Dionysian to Christian, Antigone in 1992 221 Conclusions: Antigone Performances in the Absence of Antigone 233 References 248 7 List of Figures 1.1. Scene from the First Delphic Festival in 1927, organised by Angelos Sikelianos and Eva Palmer-Sikelianos at the ancient site of Delphi. p.110 1.2. Overview of the National Theatre Antigone performance in 1940 at the Odeon of Herodes Atticus in Athens. p.126 2.1. On the left, Eleni Papadaki in her 1940 National Theatre Antigone costume and on the right, Anna Synodinou preparing for the 1956 National Theatre Antigone holding the cloth-belt given to her by Papadaki's family to honour the death of Papadaki by the leftists during the Civil War. p.139 2.2. On the left, Anna Synodinou in the National Theatre Antigone at the Epidaurus Festival in 1956 and on the right, a postage stamp printed by the Greek government in 1975 resembling Synodinou in the iconic Antigone costume. p.141 2.3. Announcement of the Junta officials of the prohibition of the music of the communist composer Mikis Theodorakis, starting with the infamous apefasisamen kai diatassomen (we have decided and we order). p.155 3.1. Scenes from the National Theatre Antigone performance in 1984 at the Epidaurus Festival. On the left, Messenger and on the right, Antigone. p.192 3.2. Cartoon in leading newspaper of the time, portraying director Giorgos Remoundos outside the National Theatre as being 'executed' for his National Theatre Antigone in 1984. p.194 3.3. On the left, Aliki Vougiouklaki in Minos Volanakis' Antigone in 1990 and on the right, a caricature sketch from the contemporary press portraying Vougiouklaki as a combination of Antigone and a 'kitten'. p.218 3.4. Scenes from the National Theatre Antigone performance in 1992 at the Epidaurus Festival, with the chorus wearing costumes which resemble Christian Orthodox monks. p.226 8 Introduction Modern Greek Antigones: Where, When, Why and How 9 This thesis is the result of research concerning performances of Sophocles’ Antigone on the modern Greek stage. The performances in question have been studied under the lights of the broader subjects of ancient Greek drama revival and reception, and the history of modern Greek theatre in accordance with the broader history of the modern Greek nation. By examining and discussing their political and social resonance and their cultural contexts, I attempt to show the role of these performances in the formation and presentation of modern Greek national identity and vice versa. The thesis covers a period of time of almost one and a half centuries: the first recorded Greek revival of Antigone dates back in 1863.1 Since then, during the second half of the nineteenth century and throughout the whole twentieth century more than sixty productions of Antigone have been staged.2 The aim of this thesis is not to provide a list with each performance of Antigone that has ever been produced on the modern Greek stage. It is rather to choose the specific moments when theatre and politics cross paths, the moments which eventually show that Antigone has been repeatedly used as a platform for political or politicised issues, conflicts and agendas. Therefore, a selection of these performances is closely examined and discussed mainly in chronological order and in accordance with the development of the social and political scene of modern Greece from the beginning of the nineteenth century onwards. It is also worth noting that many of the performances during the period in question have been staged in many different places across the country as well as abroad. Without excluding from discussions any other performances, this thesis pays specific attention to the performances produced in Athens, the capital and cultural centre of Greece, as well as performances which were staged elsewhere but were produced by prominent Athenian theatrical companies. The revival of ancient Greek drama in Greece has always been closely related to and influenced by the history of the formation and development of the modern 1 Giannis Sideris, 'Η Πρώτη Αντιγόνη: Πριν Εκατό Χρόνια στην Πόλη', Θέατρο, 12(1963), 31-33.