La Politica Religiosa Della Repubblica Popolare Cinese E Il Ruolo Dei Media

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La Politica Religiosa Della Repubblica Popolare Cinese E Il Ruolo Dei Media Corso di Laurea magistrale in Lingue, Economie e Istituzioni dell’Asia e dell’Africa mediterranea Tesi di Laurea La politica religiosa della Repubblica Popolare Cinese e il ruolo dei media Relatrice Ch.ma Prof.ssa Laura De Giorgi Correlatrice Ch.ma Prof.ssa Francesca Tarocco Laureanda Marta Ammirati Matricola 858882 Anno Accademico 2019 / 2020 导论 中华人民共和国摆脱了中国共产党执政最初几十年坚强的“反宗教斗争”,现 在与宗教机构保持着一系列广泛管制的关系。 只有不与官方政策和意识形态相抵触的宗教活动才能得到中共中央的认可,成 为国家建设进程不可分割的一部分。因此,五大宗教(佛教、道教、伊斯兰 教、基督教与天主教)的做法不断地受到界定和重新定义。 尽管中国共产党在一定程度上肯定宗教对推进和维护社会和谐的作用,亦认为 在特殊情况下,宗教有可能危害国家统一、破坏民族团结、威胁党的权力与社 会的稳定。许多学者强调党对宗教的矛盾态度:政府一方面想纳入宗教的积极 因素以确保社会主义强国的建设,另一方面又因害怕失去权力而不敢放宽对宗 教的管制。 习近平总书记指出:“做好新形势下宗教工作,就要坚持用马克思主义立场、 观点、方法认识和对待宗教”。 确保社会稳定过程中不可或缺的一部分是国家宣传和媒体审查。官方媒体常常 避免涉及“敏感话题”。 目前,所有可能污染和腐蚀中国人民想法的问题都被认定为“敏感”问题:色 情、暴力形象、民主、有关党员的新闻和八卦以及香港民主示威等。尤其是有 关宗教事务、新疆维吾尔族穆斯林宗教自治地区、西藏、台湾和天安门的新 闻。 做好宗教新闻报道的基础就意味着官方媒体要了解共产党的宗教政策,其基本 方针是四句话 :“全面贯彻执行党的宗教信仰自由政策,依法管理宗教事 务,坚持独立自主自办的原则,积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应”。 本论文的目的是展示官方媒体如何体现能够界定和描述宗教辩论背景的国家权 力工具,宗教及其影响如何经常威胁到中国国家的政治、社会和意识形态稳 定。此外,本文尝试了解当今中国官方媒体如何公开描述五大宗教。 本论文分为四部分:首先介绍中国文化中的宗教观念,让读者了解“宗教”的 一般定义,以及什么是 “中国宗教”的更具体定义。除了国家承认的五个历 史宗教,“中国宗教”还包括各地许多民间信仰,新兴宗教,迷信与邪教。但 是,中国共产党一直强调真正的宗教有五个特点: 宗教要有长期性, 群众性, 民族性, 国际性和复杂性。 第二部分的内容是有关宗教在中国的历史和状况。为了更好地了解党的宗教工 作,本文的第二章节介绍中华人民共和国的宗教政策和机构。现代中国的宗教 机构、协会和组织是根据党对它们的唯一定义而构成的:五大宗教有各自的宗 教团体、政府最高管理宗教的机构是国家宗教事务局 (SARA)。 这一部分分析从中华人民共和国成立到文化大革命、改革开放政策时期到今天 的五大宗教的情况。其中,重点论述《关于我国社会主义时期宗教问题的基本 观点和基本政策》(19 号文件)的形成,Yang Fenggang 的宗教三重市场定 义,党魁政治-宗教话语的演变。 第三章主要论述“一贯道”和“法轮功”这两个宗教力量挑战国家意识形态的 问题。实际上,这两个“宗教”对国家稳定造成了巨大威胁:中国共产党认 为,盛行于 1949 年至 1954 年间的“一贯道”成为建立中华人民共和国政治合 法性和民众共识的威胁。同样,二十世纪九十年代中共党意识到“法轮功”亦 是一个不可小觑的威胁,因为它的组织和发展正处于意识形态危机事件、人们 对马克思主义和毛泽东思想缺乏信任的时期。 尽管“一贯道”和“法轮功”在两个不同的时代发展起来,但在这两种情况 下,官方媒体都利用自己的力量和影响力来引导舆论与群众反对这两个非法宗 教。 本章尝试分析中国媒体是如何通过宣传机制和媒体运动来采取行动的,这些媒 体机制旨在抹黑或者禁止宗教、邪教和信仰。第一个案例研究分析在“人民日 报”有关“一贯道”的文章中使用的社会环境和叙事技巧。 第二个案例分析 伟大的“反法轮功媒体运动”以及主流媒体镇压法轮功所使用的动机和理由。 本文的第四部分尝试给读者讲解共产党目前怎么理解并使用官方媒体代表五大 宗教。本章首先研究许多中国宗教学者对媒体中“宗教遗忘”的观点以及使宗 教内容高度敏感的原因。尽管党的各级领导干部现在认为宗教是人类文化的核 心部分之一, 但是一些宗教学者继续指出党与官方媒体对宗教问题“过 敏”。学者建议媒体要对宗教问题、宗教禁忌“脱敏”, 《媒体不要一看涉及宗 教就不敢刊登、不敢報道》。 另外,本章将给读者介绍整个宗教问题如今围绕着哪些主题展开:宗教和谐与 社会和谐、 宗教媒体的社会责任以及它们在“新时代”中面临的挑战。新的 挑战实质上包括宗教坚持中国化方向的必要性、新媒体与社交媒体的发展、互 联网上假借宗教对思想安全的威胁。 第四章最后分析官方媒体对五大宗教是持积极或是消极态度。佛教、道教、伊 斯兰教、天主教和基督教与中国政府都有着不同的关系,官方媒体则体现党对 每个宗教的意见。因此,除了坚持中国化方向等党的规定,五大宗教还受官方 媒体描述的影响,展现出积极或消极的特点。 通过在传统媒体上的初步调查(如《人民日报网》、《环球时报网》、《中国 宗教》、《法音》、《中国道教》、《中国穆斯林》、《中国天主教》、《天 风》),本文将分析各媒体在叙述每个宗教时使用的叙事技巧模式。这些叙事 技巧模式体现各媒体对五大宗教在描述上的共同点与主要区别。本文尝试说明 在描述五大宗教时, 各媒体所使用的叙述技巧模式有许多共同点,而官方媒体 在描述不同宗教时所使用的叙述手法则大相径庭,尤其体现在对“土生土长” 的宗教和外国宗教的描述上的区别。外国宗教经常被认为是渗透、颠覆和分裂 活动的力量。此外,对中国共产党来说西方国家借宗教人权问题干涉中国内 政,而西方媒体则有对中国“妖魔化”的倾向。 La politica religiosa della Repubblica Popolare Cinese e il ruolo dei media Introduzione ......................................................................................................................................... 1 Capitolo 1: La percezione religiosa nella cultura cinese 1.1 La definizione sociologica del concetto di “religione” .................................................................. 6 1.2 La “religione cinese” .................................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Le religioni nella Cina imperiale ................................................................................................. 15 Capitolo 2 Le religioni secondo l’ideologia di Partito nella Cina contemporanea 2.1 La situazione delle religioni a partire dalla fondazione della Repubblica Popolare Cinese ....... 19 2.2 Le religioni durante la trasformazione socialista e il Grande Balzo in avanti ............................. 24 2.3 L’annientamento delle religioni durante Rivoluzione Culturale .................................................. 27 2.4 Il culto della personalità del presidente Mao si sostituisce alla religione .................................... 28 2.5 La politica di riforma e apertura e l’istituzionalizzazione delle religioni .................................... 29 2.6 Il Documento numero 19 e l’Amministrazione statale per gli Affari Religiosi ........................... 31 2.7 Classificazioni religiose ed il triplice mercato delle religioni ...................................................... 34 2.8 L’urbanizzazione e la rinascita religiosa nelle città cinesi ........................................................... 37 2.9 L’evoluzione del discorso politico-religioso dei leader di Partito ............................................... 41 2.10 La presenza religiosa in Cina al giorno d’oggi .......................................................................... 46 2.11 Le disposizioni religiose nell’era Xi Jinping ............................................................................. 62 Capitolo 3 La propaganda mediatica contro le religioni accusate di minacciare la stabilità sociale nazionale: i casi dell’Yiguandao e del Falun Gong 3.1 Yiguandao e Falun Gong: le reazioni del Partito davanti a delle “nuove” forze religiose .......... 66 3. 1.1. La propaganda mediatica contro la società segreta Yiguandao ....................................... 73 3. 1.2. Cenni storici ............................................................................................................................ 73 3. 1.3. La campagna di mobilitazione di massa ................................................................................. 79 3. 1.4. Propaganda anti-Yiguandao sui media ufficiali ...................................................................... 81 3. 1.5. Conclusioni ............................................................................................................................. 89 3. 2.1. La campagna mediatica contro il “culto malvagio” Falun Gong ..................................... 90 3. 2.2. Cenni storici ............................................................................................................................ 93 3. 2.3. La minaccia percepita dalla RPC ............................................................................................ 98 3. 2.4. Leggi, regolamenti e gestione del Falun Gong ....................................................................... 99 3. 2.5. Linguaggio, comunicazione e definizioni utilizzate dal PCC ............................................... 105 3. 2.6. Guerra tra campagne mediatiche: la campagna mediatica della RPC .................................. 109 3. 2.7. Testimonianze anti-Falun Gong sugli articoli del Quotidiano del Popolo e dell’Agenzia Xinhua .............................................................................................................................................. 115 3. 2.8. Gli ultimi sviluppi della campagna mediatica ....................................................................... 122 3. 2.9. La campagna mediatica anti-Falun Gong al giorno d’oggi ................................................... 124 3. 2.10. Conclusioni ......................................................................................................................... 129 Capitolo 4 La percezione e l’attuale rappresentazione delle religioni sui media cinesi 4.1 “L’oblio” della religione sui media cinesi: il dibattito tra gli accademici ................................. 132 4.2 L’armonia religiosa e le responsabilità sociali dei media religiosi ............................................ 139 4.3 Le sfide dei media religiosi nella “Nuova era” ..................................................................... 150 4.3.1 Il processo di sinizzazione ...................................................................................................... 150 4.3.2 I nuovi media digitali .............................................................................................................. 155 4.4 La religione su Internet, le minacce alla sicurezza ideologica e le contromisure adottate ........ 158 4.4.1 Il “Blue Paper” sulla sicurezza nazionale e le normative che regolano i contenuti religiosi sui media ................................................................................................................................................ 162 4.5 La rappresentazione delle religioni sui media ufficiali è positiva o negativa? .................. 171 4.5.1 La rappresentazione del Buddhismo ....................................................................................... 182 4.5.2 La rappresentazione dell’Islamismo ....................................................................................... 190 4.5.3. La rappresentazione del Cristianesimo .................................................................................. 205 4.5.4 La rappresentazione del Taoismo ........................................................................................... 215 Conclusione ..................................................................................................................................... 222 Bibliografia ..................................................................................................................................... 229 Sitografia ......................................................................................................................................... 239 Introduzione Dalla fine degli anni Settanta del Novecento, il governo della Repubblica Popolare Cinese (RPC) intrattiene una serie di rapporti ampiamente regolati con le istituzioni religiose, consente alcune forme di culto religioso (estremamente controllate dallo Stato) e ne vieta altre, a differenza di quanto avveniva nel periodo che intercorre dalla
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