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This 18 I Music Fundamentals
they are trying to express, and what they want us to think and feel) and what we are up to (how we respond and what we hope to gain from the experience). The key to gaining a rich musical experience is to immerse oneself (mind and body) through engaged listening, an acquired four-part process that involves:
• attentiveness • analysis • interpretation • inner awareness.
With a few moments of thought, you will notice that the four processes inform each other and occur virtually simultaneously. Alas, practice will not make perfect. We will never become aware of everything. But engaged listening will guarantee an increasingly rich musical experience as we learn to notice ever-greater detail. As we train ourselves to follow multiple musical ideas simultaneously, we can even learn to distinguish a single player's melody amidst the sonic commotion of a full orchestra. And, of course, by directing attention inwardly we come to understand ourselves more deeply.
The Elements of Music Performers rely on sonic road maps to navigate their way through a composition. This is true for every musical genre or style. Listeners use road maps too. The biggest difference between a performer's road map and a casual listener's road map is the level of complexity. A performer's map is necessarily intricate and multifaceted. It consists of many interrelated layers that are accessed to different degrees according to the musical demands. These layers include such basic elements as melody and harmony, rhythm and texture, and others. By comparison, a listener's map might initially include only general outlines and expectations-perhaps just the lyrics of a song, or the overall emotional feeling it projects, or the beat. It takes engaged listening to fill in the details of a musical landscape. So how to build a sound map? We need specific tools, which we will learn to use in the following pages. Musical structures can be extremely complex, of course. Do not worry about that. Like a house made of bricks, complexity is built by combining relatively simple ideas. These ideas, or building blocks, constitute the six major "elements" or "fundamentals" of music:
1. Melody 4. Timbre 2. Rhythm 5. Texture 3. Harmony 6. Form
In this chapter we focus on each element individually. In the next chapter we look at three compositions to see how these elements work together to construct musical meaning. As you read about each
element, be sure to use the Student Supplement(~ )on the text's website in order to hear examples of the concepts discussed.
Melody At the most basic level, melody can be understood as a unit of pitches (or tones) sounded in succession. Stated in a more natural fashion, one might say that melody is the tune; it is the part of a song or
composition you go away singing.~ 2.1 Melodies portray emotions. For example, a melody that moves between adjacent tones (conjunct motion) from one pitch to the next and is narrow in range (the distance between highest and lowest pitches) might represent calmness. Contrarily, a melody that has leaps between consecutive pitches (disjunct motion) might represent vigor or anxiety. Melodies that progress slowly downward often suggest relaxation, melancholy, or sadness. Melodies that move upward often represent resolve or optimism. (Experiment with these ideas by humming a favorite song. Also pay attention to how the melody fits with the lyrics.)
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(1897-193n, (1897-193n,
by by "Summertime" "Summertime"
Form: Form:
Meter: Meter:
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22 22
the the Take Take
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Notice Notice
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power power
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ma-pa-dha-ni-sa ma-pa-dha-ni-sa
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2.4 2.4
out. out.
if if
and and
fall fall
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are are
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by by
be be
to to to to Listening to Music I 23
SITAR AND SAROD WHAT IS A LUTE?
Mid 19th-century sitar. Sarod, ca. 1885. German lute, 1596. Courtesy of The Courtesy of The Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Metropolitan Museum of Metropolitan Museum of Joseph W. Drexel, 1889. Art, New York, The Crosby Art, New York, The Crosby Brown Collection of Brown Collection of Musical Instruments, Musical Instruments, Lutes are one of the world's most common instrument 1889. 1889. types. Guitars, banjos, mandolins, and violins are types of lutes. In all of these instruments, the strings are Both of these plucked stringed instruments are attached to and then run across and parallel to the members of the lute family and are associated with resonating body. Strings are then stretched along a the North Indian (Hindustani) music tradition. The neck. There is also an instrument simply called "lute," instruments share many commonalities, but also have which was fashionable in Europe in the Renaissance significant differences in both sound and construction. and Baroque periods. The lute intersected with The sitar's resonating body is made of gourd (on the popular culture when the English rock musician Sting back) and wood on the face (and sometimes has a (b. 1951) recorded 16th-century songs for voice and second gourd attached to the neck); the sarod's lute on his album Songs from the Labyrinth (2006). resonating body has a teak back and a goatskin face. A sitar has moveable frets along the neck; a sarod has no frets at all (like a violin). Both use "melody" strings, drone strings, and numerous high-pitched sympathetic resonance strings, which add richness to the tonal spectrum. The sounds are easy to distinguish. The sitar-first made popular in the West by Shankar, and soon after by George Harrison of The Beatles (and other rock musicians)-has a shimmering tone quality; the sarod's tone is relatively dark and unadorned.
I I
24 24
2
2:00 2:00
3:33 3:33
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ALAPANA ALAPANA
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17 17
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I I
GUIDE GUIDE
Music Music
Open Open
Unmetered Unmetered
The The
Chapter Chapter
Think Think
composed composed
of of
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Sarod Sarod
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A A
Sitar Sitar
The The
times, times,
pitch pitch
sarod sarod
bend bend
contributors contributors instrumentalists instrumentalists
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sometimes sometimes
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instruments' instruments'
tambura's tambura's
however. however.
the the understood. understood.
providing providing
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melodic melodic
discovery. discovery.
Fundamentals Fundamentals
sitar sitar not not
pitches pitches
sarod sarod
sitar sitar
sarod sarod
sarod sarod
two two
music music
moves moves
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"ga." "ga."
pitches pitches
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and and
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Rhythm Rhythm
Rhythm Rhythm
14. 14.
follows follows
takes takes
instruments instruments
Listen Listen
introduces introduces
embarks embarks
player player
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tones tones
sitar.) sitar.)
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melody melody
raised; raised;
begins begins
Also Also
ideas ideas
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as as
down down
"sa" "sa"
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Beats Beats
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higher higher
tones tones
Sitar Sitar
foot foot
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over. over.
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play play
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briefly briefly
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2.6). 2.6).
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quality. quality.
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raga, raga,
in in
2:24. 2:24.
octave. octave.
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atmosphere atmosphere
gesture. gesture.
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each each
to to
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tune tune
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like like
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"Amazing "Amazing
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spirit spirit
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beat beat
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into into composition's composition's
(sitar) (sitar)
instrumentalists. instrumentalists.
Notice Notice
later, later,
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throughout throughout
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sure sure
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beat. beat.
organized organized
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of of
every every
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4th 4th
5 5
the the
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identify identify
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scale scale
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all all
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soldiers soldiers
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Notice Notice
steady steady
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marks marks
scale scale
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Khan Khan
go go
march march
one one
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Meter Meter
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are are
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pattern pattern
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plays plays
emphasis emphasis
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to to
difference difference
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essential essential
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:48? :48?
strong strong
is is
both both
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2.5 2.5
projected projected is is
be be
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degree. degree.
what what
a a
differences, differences, of of
or or
fundamental fundamental
To To impatient. impatient.
of of
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adventure adventure
important important
enter, enter,
drone drone
musicians musicians
listening, listening,
music music
between between
the the
"ma," "ma,"
and and
short short
on on
role role
illustrate illustrate
in in
you you
number number
other other
pre
The The
and and
the the
the the
the the
weak weak
on on
in in
of of
is is
and and tap tap Listening to Music I 25
ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS
• Use the internet to listen to many different versions of "Summertime." Besides different operatic versions, listen to versions by Billie Holiday (1915-1959), Nora Jones (b. 1979), Ella Fitzgerald (1917-1996) and Louis Armstrong (1901-1971), and Janis Joplin (1943-1970), and more. Which do you like best? Why? Finally, listen to the remarkable recording by Albert Ayler (1936-1970). What was Ayler up to? How does knowing these other versions help you understand his? • Take a familiar song and map its melodic phrases. Which phrases sound final? Which sound incomplete? On what pitch does the melody want to end? Where in the phrases are the highest notes? The lowest? Is the melody conjunct or disjunct? Is the range narrow or wide? How do these characteristics affect your emotional response? • Use the internet to find examples of traditional music from non-Western cultures. Does the melodic language sound different from what you are used to? Describe the differences using the concepts above.
organizing principal, a temporal yardstick that organizes rhythm's various elements into a cohesive whole, like organizing inches into feet, or feet into yards.
FIGURE 2.6 short long short long short long short long "Amazing Grace" A- ma- zing grace; how sweet the sound. rhythm pattern.
To find the beat and meter in "Amazing Grace," recite the lyrics above and tap out a steady pulse that gives one tap to the "short" tone and two taps to the "long" tone. When long and short patterns are thus combined we get a repeating pattern of three pulses, called triple meter. Music that groups into two beats per measure is called duple meter; four beats per measure is quadruple meter. So far, the concept of rhythm seems pretty simple. But there is one more issue to tackle. Where does the meter begin? On which pulse? Meter is rooted by the downbeat, but many compositions begin elsewhere. For example, "Amazing Grace" begins on beat three. With a moment's thought, you will see why. Say the word "amazing" and notice that the second syllable, not the first, is the strongest. So, if lyrics and meter are going to align (and they must), "ma" has to fall on the downbeat. This means that the first syllable ("A") must fall on a preparatory beat leading to one. Thus, the syllable "A" is on the pickup beat to the meter's beginning (Figure 2.7).
short long short long short long short long A- zing grace; how the ma- sweet sound. FIGURE 2.7 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 "Amazing Grace" pickup metric analysis. note
Notice that lyricists almost always place the most important words or naturally accented syllables on strong beats. Thus in "Amazing Grace" the accented syllable "ma" is placed on the strong beat one, as are the colorful words "sweet" and "sound." "Amazing Grace" is a beloved hymn, and because the rhythm is so clear it is an excellent tune by which to introduce the concept of meter. But the fact is, triple meter songs are relatively unusual today. Almost all popular music in the United States (even the world) is organized into two- or four beat units, duple or quadruple meter. The last aspect of rhythm we need to discuss here is tempo. ~ 2.6 Simply put, tempo refers to the pace at which the beats go by. It is fine to refer to tempos as fast or slow, but classically trained musicians, who follow a European system developed over centuries, often use Italian terms, such as
26 26
dia dia Cmichel67 Cmichel67
2016. 2016.
BY-SA-4.0. BY-SA-4.0.
Bali, Bali,
Kecak Kecak
deity deity
to to
worldly worldly
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help help
Ravana, Ravana,
lives lives
incarnation incarnation Rama Rama
Sita Sita
lived lived
RAMAYANA RAMAYANA
Sanskrit Sanskrit
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INSTRUMENT INSTRUMENT
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in in
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semester semester
SYSTEMS SYSTEMS
violin, violin,
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categorized categorized
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to to
to to
string string
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of of
1) 1)
a a a a Listening to Music I 29
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT
• Do you see potential weaknesses in the above musical instrument classification systems? • The first classification system presented above is based on the instruments' role in the orchestra. The second is based on how the sound is produced. What others systems might work? • Where does an acoustic instrument leave off and its electric counterpart begin? Rock guitarists, for example, create many new sounds through electronic effects. • Theater companies, TV and movie producers try to save money by reproducing the sounds of instruments electronically rather than paying musicians. What effect does this have on the music? On the musicians? On the economy? • In the 17th and 18th centuries, the trombone was associated with the underworld and death. Are certain instruments associated with particular ideas today? • Notice how people change the timbre and pitch of their voices when talking to babies, yelling at a sports referee, or talking in front of a crowd. How and why do you change the timbre of your voice?
ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS
• Bring an instrument into class and perform. Have your classmates describe the sound. • Make an idiophone with things in your backpack or on your desk. Can you make a chordophone? An aerophone? • As you listen to the pieces discussed in later chapters, describe the timbres you hear (nasal, clear, rough, etc.). Then consider how timbre affects meaning.
Texture The ways in which different musical parts fit together is called texture. Music can have different textures. ~ 2.10 A large orchestral texture might be described as thick, like velvet. A solo flute might be silky thin. Music theorists categorize texture according to five different characteristics:
1. Monophony 2. Polyphony 3. Homophony 4. Heterophony 5. Biphony.
Monophony consists of a single musical line without accompaniment. Kyrie eleison Even though many voices or instruments might be involved, as long [ill.~ GUIDE I as all are sounding the exact same line, the texture is monophonic. Polyphony involves several independent lines sounding simul This setting of Kyrie eleison is an example of taneously. The simplest kind of polyphony is a round (also called a a monophonic, sacred chant from the canon). A good example is the children's song "Row, Row, Row Your Middle Ages (see Chapter 7: Music and Boat" in which everyone sings the same melody at a different time. Spirituality). Notice that all of the voices are In more complex examples of polyphony, the independent melodies singing the exact same melody. are not necessarily the same tune. Instead, complementary lines are
I I
I[!!]·~ I[!!]·~
30 30
Vocal Vocal
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FIGURE FIGURE
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Diagram Diagram
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32 32
I I
Music Music
Fundamentals Fundamentals
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33 33
I I
Music Music
to to
Listening Listening
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Essay Essay
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