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Runestone Images and Visual Communication RUNESTONE IMAGES AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION IN VIKING AGE SCANDINAVIA MARJOLEIN STERN, MA Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy JULY 2013 Abstract The aim of this thesis is the visual analysis of the corpus of Viking Age Scandinavian memorial stones that are decorated with figural images. The thesis presents an overview of the different kinds of images and their interpretations. The analysis of the visual relationships between the images, ornamentation, crosses, and runic inscriptions identifies some tendencies in the visual hierarchy between these different design elements. The contents of the inscriptions on runestones with images are also analysed in relation to the type of image and compared to runestone inscriptions in general. The main outcome of this analysis is that there is a correlation between the occurrence of optional elements in the inscription and figural images in the decoration, but that only rarely is a particular type of image connected to specific inscription elements. In this thesis the carved memorial stones are considered as multimodal media in a communicative context. As such, visual communication theories and parallels in commemoration practices (especially burial customs and commemorative praise poetry) are employed in the second part of the thesis to reconstruct the cognitive and social contexts of the images on the monuments and how they create and display identities in the Viking Age visual communication. Acknowledgements Many people have supported and inspired me throughout my PhD. I am very grateful to my supervisors Judith Jesch and Christina Lee, who have been incredibly generous with their time, advice, and bananas. I would also like to thank my examiners Terje Spurkland and Jayne Carroll for their time, their comments and the stimulating discussion. My doctoral studies have been supported generously by the School of English with a Research Student Scholarship and a Christine Fell Award. In addition, I have received financial support to undertake field work and attend various conferences from the Viking Society for Northern Research, the Christine Fell Fund, the Nottingham University Graduate School, the Institute for Medieval Research, the Royal Historical Society, and the School of English. I am grateful to these institutions for their support. Several scholars have read, mostly early, versions of sections of this thesis and I would like to thank Alison Klevnäs, Klaus Düwel, Else Roesdahl, Henrik Williams, James Knirk, Marco Bianchi, Sigmund Oehrl, and Wilhelm Heizmann for their feedback. My fellow Vikingologists, in particular Teva Vidal and Ruarigh Dale, and the other friends I have shared an office with have been an important source of inspiration and support. The same is true for the members of the ‘Runes, Monuments and Memorial Carvings’ Network, especially Cecilia Ljung, Kristel Zilmer, Lisbeth Imer, Laila Kitzler Åhfeldt, Lilla Kopár, Lesley Abrams. Lisbeth, Cecilia, and Kristel deserve an extra thank-you for their help with the photos for the catalogue. Thanks are also due to the administrative staff in the School of English and the Hallward library for all their help over the years. Thank you to my dear family and friends for their love and understanding. Mattijs, thank you so much for all your help with scanning, printing, and proof- reading, and for so much more. Table of Contents 1. Introduction: Approaching runestones ................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Introduction to the material ....................................................................... 1 1.3 Runestone images in previous research ..................................................... 7 1.4 Research questions ................................................................................... 14 1.5 Theoretical frameworks ............................................................................ 16 1.6 Methodologies and structure of the thesis ............................................... 18 1.7 Terminology and language ........................................................................ 21 1.7.1 Runestones ....................................................................................... 21 1.7.2 Surfaces ............................................................................................ 22 1.7.3 Scenes and motifs ............................................................................ 23 1.7.4 Language .......................................................................................... 24 2. Runestone images and their visual context .......................................................... 25 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Research material ........................................................................................... 25 2.2.1 Collection ............................................................................................... 25 2.2.2. Selection ................................................................................................ 27 2.2.2.a Decoration that is not included ..................................................... 29 2.2.3 Classification and identification ............................................................. 33 2.2.3.a Human figures .............................................................................. 37 2.2.3.a.i Horsemen, hunters, and warriors .......................................... 38 2.2.3.a.ii Images from the stories about Sigurðr Fáfnisbani ................ 45 2.2.3.a.iii Humanoid figures with spread arms and/or interacting with snakes .................................................................................................. 48 2.2.3.a.iv Other humanoid figures ....................................................... 54 2.2.3.b Quadrupeds ................................................................................... 58 2.2.3.c Birds ............................................................................................... 64 2.3 Regional and chronological distribution and carvers ..................................... 67 2.3.1 Medieval monuments and parallels from Gotland and the British Isles .80 2.4 Visual analysis and the database .................................................................... 84 2.5 Single images and common combinations ..................................................... 87 2.6 Compared to crosses ...................................................................................... 93 2.7 Compared to the serpent ornamentation ...................................................... 98 2.8 Compared to the inscription ......................................................................... 100 2.9 Patterns in prominence ................................................................................ 102 2.9.1 Discernability ....................................................................................... 103 2.9.2 Position ................................................................................................ 104 2.9.3 Proportion of the surface occupied ..................................................... 107 2.10 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 109 3. Images and the contents of the accompanying inscriptions .............................. 115 3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 115 3.2. The contents and features of the inscriptions ............................................. 116 3.2.1 Denominations and epithets ................................................................ 119 3.2.2 Other information about the deceased ............................................... 123 3.2.3 Prayers, protection, and spells ............................................................. 125 3.2.4 Comments about the monument ........................................................ 128 3.2.5 Features of the inscription ................................................................... 130 3.2.6 Other information ................................................................................ 133 3.3. The occurrence of optional inscription elements and features ................... 134 3.3.1 Combinations of prayers, carver signatures, and other optional inscription elements ..................................................................................... 140 3.4. Inscriptions per image type ......................................................................... 141 3.4.1 Weapons, warriors, and heroes ........................................................... 143 3.4.2 Combinations of horsemen, mostly unarmed, birds, dogs, and prey .. 145 3.4.3 Birds ..................................................................................................... 146 3.4.4 Quadrupeds ......................................................................................... 147 3.4.5 Faces/Masks ......................................................................................... 150 3.4.6 Ships ..................................................................................................... 152 3.4.7 Hammers .............................................................................................. 153 3.4.8 Human
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