CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE TA'ZIYEH AS FESTIVAL AND A FORM OF POPULAR THEATRE IN IRAN A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Theatre by Javad Pishvaie May 1987 The Tr:sis of Javad Pishvaie is approved: Lawrence D. Stewart William H. California State University, Northridge ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT v CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1 I Survey of Iranian History to Early Seventh-Century • • . • . 5 Avesta and the First Stages of Zoro- asterianism . • . • 7 -- Transformation--rn-:r-rani-arr--s-ociety Before- Islam ................. 9 II Brief Study of Islamic Religion • • . • . 19 Muhammad: The Founder of Islamic Faith. 24 Islam After Muhammad . • • . • . 27 I I r--- Mi story or-Ta 'ziyeh -:r-n -Iran- . -----. .----- . -. 3 5 The Tragedy of Kerbela . • . 35 The Evolution of Ta'ziyeh in Iran and its its Counter Influence With the Ancient Festivals . • . 41 The Establishment of Ta'ziyeh as a Form of Popular Theatre and Entertainment in Iran . 4 8 IV Ta'ziyeh As A Form Of Popular Theatre .•.. 51 Sources of the Subject Matter . 51 Music . 72 The Organization of the Muharram Ceremonies . • • . • . • 75 Physical Production. • • . • . • 80 Religious Places . • . 80 Scenery . • . 86 Lighting. • . 87 Properties ............•. 88 Costume . • . 92 Make-up and Masks . • • . • . 93 iii Contents (cont'd) The Performance of Ta'ziyeh as it is Today . 94 Recitation rowza-khani . 94 The Street Procession . • . 96 The Passion Plays . • . 99 The Performer . • . 101 The Spectator . • . 105 The Performer-Spectator Interaction . 107 CONCLUSION . 109 FOOTNOTES . 111 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 119 iv ABSTRACT TA'ZIYEH AS FESTIVAL AND A FORM OF POPULAR THEATRE IN IRAN By Javad Pishvaie Master of Arts in Theatre Focusing on Ta'ziyeh (religious mourning) as festi- val and a form of popular theatre in Iran, this study is a description of Muharram ceremonies in the past and the present time. The early portion of this study is devoted to a brief account of the historical background of Iranian and Arab societies before and at the time of Islam. This portion also examines the tragedy of Kerbela and traces the roots of Ta'ziyeh, its evolution and its interrelation with the rites and rituals of Ancient Iran. The major portion of the study describes the sources of the subject matter of recitation and written Ta'ziyeh plays, their language, music and the organization of the v ceremonies. It also surveys the performances as they are performed today and portrays the relationship between the performer and the spectator. vi INTRODUCTION If the success of a drama is to be measured by the effect which it produces upon the people for whom it is composed, or upon the audiences before whom it is represented, no play has ever surpassed the tragedy known in the Mussulman world as that of Hasan and Husain. Sir Lewis Pelly The Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain. (London, 1879) I, Preface Muharram is the first month of the Islamic Lunar Calendar. It was in Muharram (September) of 680A.D. that a tragic event took place on the plain of Kerbela in Iraq. That day Hussein, the grandson of Prophet Muhammad, was martyred, along with most of his family members and supporters, by Yazid's army. The commemoration of that day is celebrated every year in Iran and other Islamic countries by the Shi'ite Muslims. " Every year the --·-~-~~---·~-~~·~~---,..~, "•'••··~ -~·~·- ........... ~···- celebration takes place ten days earlier than the previous ye~r~ This is due to the Lunar Calendar which is 355 days .. as opposed to the Solar Calendar,.,();,.,, 3 §? . days. This .,_h- fascinating celebration is called Ta'ziyeh which literally means religious mourning. The tragedy was almost unknown to the western countries as a dramatic form until the 16th century. At the beginning of the 16th century the Shi'ite Sect of Islam was declared as the state religion by the Safavid Kings and the Muyarram ceremonies received the royal l 2 support. It was a starting point for the Iranians as well as the western visitors to write detailed accounts of the tragedy of Kerbela. In the second half of the 19th century Ta'ziyeh was studied by some Western researchers such as Count de Gobineau and·· Matthew Arnold. But still the Ta'ziyeh remained virtually unknown to the Western dramatists and the specialists in theatre. Even in Iran itself the Ta'ziyeh was discouraged by the authorities in the 20th century. The purpose of this thesis is to describe the Muharram ceremonies as an annual festival and the performance of the passion plays, during such festival, as a popular theatre form in Iran. For this the thesis is divided into four chapters. ~ Chapter One is a survey of almost 1500 years pre­ Islamic history of Iran. The belief and customs of Ancient Iranians and also the political, social and economic situation of the period are briefly discussed. This chapter provides information about Iran's ancient religious rituals from which the Ta'ziyeh of later centuries was derived. Chapter Two is divided into three parts. The first part is a survey of political, social, and economic conditions in Arabia before and at the time of Muhammad. The second part describes the Prophecy of Muhammad and his 3 struggle for establishing the Islamic faith. The third part deals with the dispute over the leadership of Islam after the death of Muhammad, the Arab conquest of the Iranian Empire, and the division of the Muslims into two major sects, the Shi'ite and the sunnite. Chapter Three is a survey of the history of the Muharram ceremonies in Iran and is also divided into three parts. The tragedy of Kebela and the political circumstances of the time in the Islamic Empire is described in the first part. The birth of the Ta'ziyeh, its evolution in Iran, its influence on Ancient festivals of Iran and the political reasons behind it are discussed in the second part. The estabishment of the Muharram ceremonies as a festival and popular theatre is surveyed in the third part. Chapter Four is divided into five parts. The first part describes the sources of the subject matter, language, and the literary changes in the Ta'ziyeh during its evolution. The second part deals briefly with the music, musical instruments and their importance in the ceremonies. In the third part the organization of the Muharram ceremonies in the past and the present time is discussed . The fourth part describes the places in which the Ta'ziyeh is performed. It is also focused on the scenery, lighting, properties, costume, masks and make-up. The fifth and the final part discusses the performance of 4 the Ta'ziyeh, the performers, the spectators and the performer-spectator interactions. ~(Note): Following are samples of names and terms which appear in the thesis and are spelled differently by various historians, researchers and authors. Ali, Alee Ali Akbar, Alee Akbar Achaemanid, Achaemenian Fatemeh, Fatima, Fatimah, Fatimeh Ghasim, Kasim, Qase, Ghasem Hassan, Hasan Hussein, Husain, Hosein, Hossein, Husayn, Hussain, Hossain Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Said Kerbela, Karbala, Karbela Mu'awiya, Moaviyeh Muhammad, Mohammad, Mohamad, Muhamad Muslims, Moslems Muslim (name), Moslem, Muslem, Moslim Otteman, Osman Rowzat'ul Shuhada, Rowzatu'l Shuhada Sasanied, Sasanid, Sasanian Shi'ite, Sheah, Shi'yah, Shi'a Shimr, Shemer Umayyads, Ommiades Chapter I SURVEY OF IRANIAN HISTORY TO EARLY-SEVENTH-CENTURY Throughout its history, Iran, because of geograph- ical circumstances, located between the East and the West, and also because of its plentiful natural re- sources, has been the scene of internal uprisings and external attacks by foreign forces. Internal uprisings and small assaults have been caused by class discrepancies, contradictions and antagonism between tribes, feudal lords and dynasties of the kingdoms. However, the external and greater attacks have taken place as a result of insufficiency, lack of merit and corruption in government organizations, disturbed situations of the country's economy, oppression and suffocation of thoughts imposed on people. A good example of internal assault in Iran's history was one by the Sasanied dynasty against the Parthians. After five hundred years, the Parthian culture of about two thousand years ago was destroyed. There were also foreign attacks, by Macedonians, Arabs and Mongolians. The effect of all these domestic and exotic insur- gencies and invasions on Iranians was so great that in some stages, it causgq,totaldestruction of their cu1ture and civilization. These effects were mostly on architec- ture, painting, music and more than anything else on theatre. 5 6 In fact the expanded but disorderly Iranian culture has never seized the o:ppo.;:turiity to estc3.blish itself securely for many reasons~ QI1~ . rep. scm wc3.s internal revolts and external wars within the three thousand years of the hi·story of Iran. The second was conversion of the regimes to political-military 9overnments .anc1 the resulting creatiori of an undemocratic atmosphere for the people. The third, and probably the most important reason, was the existence of a slavery system and feudalism. The above conditions provided motives for the governments to stifle any expression of the world outlook opposing the official ideology of the time. As a result, performance of any contradiction, partidtilarly if it was presented through the most live form of art, theatre, was considered as a kind of disobedience and revolt and was banned. Nevertheless, regardless of all the suffocation of thoughts and oppression, a form of popular theatre, Ta'ziyeh, has long existed in Iran and is still alive. About 2,000 B.C. migrants of Arian tribes who lived on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, were divided into two groups. One group (the majority) traveled to the land of India and the other headed to the western part of Iran, Armenia and Azarbaijan.