Cabbage Production in West Africa and IPM with a Focus on Plant-Based Extracts and a Complementary Worldwide Vision

Review Cabbage Production in West Africa and IPM with a Focus on Plant-Based Extracts and a Complementary Worldwide Vision

Abla Déla Mondédji 1,2,*, Pierre Silvie 2,3,4 , Wolali Seth Nyamador 1, Pierre Martin 2,4 , Lakpo Koku Agboyi 5, Komina Amévoin 1, Guillaume Kofﬁvi Ketoh 1 and Isabelle Adolé Glitho 1

1 Laboratoire d’Ecologie et d’Ecotoxicologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Lomé, Lomé 1 01B.P. 1515, Togo; [email protected] (W.S.N.); [email protected] (K.A.); [email protected] (G.K.K.); [email protected] (I.A.G.) 2 CIRAD, Agroécologie et Intensiﬁcation Durable Des Cultures Annuelles (AIDA), 34398 Montpellier, France; [email protected] (P.S.); [email protected] (P.M.) 3 Institut de Recherche Pour le Développement, UMR IPME, 34AA001 Montpellier, France 4 AIDA, CIRAD, Montpellier University, CEDEX 05, 34398 Montpellier, France 5 CABI West Africa, PO Box CT 8630, Cantonments, Accra GA 0376800, Ghana; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +228-90109317

Abstract: In urban and peri-urban areas in West Africa, the cabbage Brassica oleracea L. (Brassicaceae) is protected using repeated high doses of synthetic insecticides. After a brief description of available IPM components, this paper presents a literature review focused on the botanical extracts that have been experimented with at the laboratory or in the ﬁeld in West Africa against major cabbage pests. The literature reviewed mentions 19 plant species from 12 families used for cabbage protection in the subregion. The species most used are Azadirachta indica, Capsicum frutescens, Ocimum gratissimum Citation: Mondédji, A.D.; Silvie, P.; and Ricinus communis. An overview of the world literature showed that a total of 13 plant species Nyamador, W.S.; Martin, P.; Agboyi, belonging to 8 families used to control cabbage pests are reported from the rest of Africa, and L.K.; Amévoin, K.; Ketoh, G.K.; 140 plant species belonging to 43 families from the rest of the world. The most commonly used and Glitho, I.A. Cabbage Production in tested plant species against insect pests in the three geographical areas considered is A. indica. West Africa and IPM with a Focus on Plant-Based Extracts and a Keywords: Plutella xylostella; Hellula undalis; Lipaphis erysimi; Brevicoryne brassicae; Lipaphis pseudobras- Complementary Worldwide Vision. sicae; pesticidal plants Plants 2021, 10, 529. https:// doi.org/10.3390/plants10030529

Academic Editor: Kirstin Wurms 1. Introduction Received: 28 December 2020 In Africa, where vegetables are gaining ground in people’s diets, vegetable production Accepted: 26 February 2021 is taking on more importance in the socioeconomic sector and sown areas are expanding. Published: 11 March 2021 Nutritionally, vegetables improve the basic diet of populations [1], while economically and socially, their production significantly reduces unemployment [2] by giving job opportuni- Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral ties to a significant segment of urban dwellers [3]. with regard to jurisdictional claims in Urban demand for fresh vegetables is steadily increasing [4,5]. The development of published maps and institutional affil- vegetable growing in urban and peri-urban areas has the advantage of bringing farmers iations. closer to consumers while making the most efficient use of agricultural water infrastructures. In urban and peri-urban areas of Africa, vegetables are often produced on small plots. Market gardening mostly concerns the production of vegetables. The main vegetable crops grown in the countries of the Economic Community of Western African States Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. (ECOWAS) are lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), tomato (Solanum lycospersicum L.), cabbages (Bras- Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. sica oleracea L.), carrot (Daucus carota L.), African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon L.), onion This article is an open access article (Allium ascalonicum L., Allium cepa L.), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), cucumber (Cucumis distributed under the terms and sativus L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.), okra (Abelmoschus conditions of the Creative Commons esculentus (L.) Moench), purple amaranth (Amaranthus blitum L.) and jute mallow or ‘crin- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// crin’ (Corchorus olitorius L.) [6,7]. Phytosanitary constraints are burdensome in the tropics, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ where conditions are favourable for the development and proliferation of many crop pests 4.0/).

Plants 2021, 10, 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10030529 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants Plants 2021, 10, 529 2 of 36

(insects, mites, nematodes, pathogens, etc.). In addition to the quantitative losses that could be easily assessed, there are qualitative ones related to market demand and customer perception. A damaged cabbage plant, for example, represents a loss of one kilogram of cabbage head, i.e., a mean ﬁnancial loss of 300 ± 100 F CFA (0.6 ± 0.2 USD) [8]. Whole- salers, who are important middlemen in the distribution chain, usually purchase entire vegetable beds, unless elements of the bed display visible blemishes, in which case these will be excluded to avoid putting off the consumer who is focused on the appearance of vegetables [9]. Therefore, farmers rely on cheap and effective pest control methods. Chemical pest control, using synthetic pesticides, is one such method [10–12] and is still the most used by vegetable farmers throughout the world [13,14]. However, this crop pest management method has serious environmental drawbacks [15,16] because it results in adverse effects on useful species [17] and exposes humans and animals to serious poisoning [18–22]. Uncontrolled use of synthetic pesticides leads also to the development of pesticide resistance in populations of pests and pathogenic agents [23,24]. The concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) [25,26] nonetheless emerged more than 60 years ago and developed into a number of components such as biological pest control [27–29], pest-resistant cultivars [30–32], physical control and farming practices such as protection nets [33,34], crop diversiﬁcation and companion planting [35,36], and the use of plant extracts [37–40]. The general aim of this paper is to review the situation of the protection of the round- headed cabbage B. oleracea L. var. capitata (Brassicacae), which is the most widely cultivated cabbage in Western Africa (ECOWAS zone) and one of the most important vegetable crops. This species is one of the main exotic leaf vegetables [41,42]. It is available all year round and commonly used in various West African recipes, in homes and restaurants alike, in particular during festivities. The substantial parasitic pressure exerted by insects and pathogens incites cabbage-farmers to make liberal use of synthetic pesticides [22,43]. This paper begins by presenting the main characteristics of the cabbage production system, showing the different elements of the context. It then lists the constraints to be dealt with, including those related to insect pests, and goes on to describe the various pest-control methods used. Brief description is given on chemical control methods using synthetic substances as well as the perception of farmers who use them and on the risks induced. Rules and regulations currently in force are summarised. The paper thereafter dwells more extensively on the diverse uses of plant extracts under trial or adopted in West Africa and presents a global review of literature on the subject.

2. Materials and Methods The literature review was conducted using two main approaches. The Web of Science (WoS) database was searched with the available options (all databases between 1900 and April 2020), using as associated search words the scientiﬁc names of the main known pest species (‘Bemisia tabaci’, ‘Brevicoryne brassicae’, ’Chrysodeixis chalcites’, ‘Crocidolomia binotalis’, ‘Helicoverpa armigera’, ‘Heliothis armigera’, ‘Hellula undalis’, ‘Lipaphis erysimi’, ‘Myzus persicae’, ‘Plutella xylostella’, ‘Trichoplusia ni’) and the terms ‘plant extract’, ‘botanical’ and ‘cabbage’. Since the WoS database does not include all the existing references, this ﬁrst collection was completed with information found in papers, dissertations, technical information sheets and reports found via African references extracted from Google, Google Scholar, CIRAD’s Agritrop database and the Knowledge Base Knomana (KNOwledge MANAge- ment on pesticide plants in Africa) database currently being composed. Articles obtained from the WoS database were compiled in a Zotero library. Documents concerning the production systems, constraints faced, various control methods and existing rules and regulations were sought after in the published literature, but above all in reports, Master’s and PhD dissertations and technical datasheets, all detailed in the bibliographical references. Plants 2021, 10, 529 3 of 36

3. Results 3.1. Cabbage Production Systems in Urban and Peri-Urban Areas of West Africa 3.1.1. Social and Demographic Characteristics of Cabbage Farmers Social and demographic data on cabbage farmers were obtained through results of surveys on vegetable farmers in different countries of West African subregion. The ages of the farmers interviewed ranged between 15 to 80 years [44,45], with 20–50 years dominant. The proportion of women varies from sample to sample: 31.6% in Benin [46], 22.0% in Côte d’Ivoire [47], 30.9% in Ghana [46], 0% in Niger [7], 27.0% in Nigeria [45], 28.0% in Togo [44]. On average, the farmers interviewed had between 2 and 30 years of experience. Less than 50% had contact with agricultural extension services and a similar proportion had some training in vegetable production. Only about 30% took part in the activities of a vegetable farmers’ association or group. More than 50% were illiterate [7,14,45,47]. Access to information and training on the correct usage of insecticides is thus usually very limited.

3.1.2. Agronomic Characteristics and Production Estimates In West Africa, urban and peri-urban farming is usually practised close to water supply points, in swampy areas or along the littoral band, where accessing water for the crops is easier. In such areas, farmers operate within the informal economy. They cultivate plots generally less than one hectare in size and adopt practices as they see fit, without real technical recommendations or supervision. In the Sudano-Sahelian zone, in Mali (Sikasso) and Burkina Faso (Bobo Dioulasso), cabbage production is conducted on plots of 900 to 5000 m2 per farmer [48]. In Niger (Dosso and Zinder), cabbage is grown on areas measuring 100 to 5000 m2 [49,50]. Along the West African coast, access to farmland is a major constraint for the development of vegetable production, and this explains the comparatively small sizes of the planted areas. Land is often leased from private owners or belongs to state-owned domains. Farmers usually produce cabbage alongside other vegetables, either planted in sepa- rate beds or mixed with cabbage in the same bed (intercropping, companion planting). A vegetable farmer can thus grow between three and eight species of greens simultaneously. Some produce both vegetables and ornamental plants [45]. Overall, an intensification of production is noted about three months before each country’s main festivities [42]. Quantitatively, the main vegetable crops produced in Africa in 2018 were tomatoes (20.8 million tonnes), onions (12.45 million tonnes), cabbages and other crops of the cabbage family (3.33 million tonnes), okras (3.28 million tonnes) and eggplants (2.08 million tonnes) [51]. Precise data on the statistics of cabbage production in each West African country are difficult to obtain given the poor organisation of the sector compared with industrially-produced crops for the export market such as cotton, oil palm or cocoa. It follows that for 2018 and previous years, FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database) data regarding ‘cabbages and other brassicas’ are available for only 5 of the 16 ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) countries (Table1). The round-headed cabbage B. oleracea is not originally from the African continent. The cultivars Tropica Cross, Tropica Leader and KK-Cross, all from the same genetic pool, were genetically improved for tropical areas and, being heat-tolerant, are grown in Western and Central Africa. Cultivars such as Tropicana, Milor, Santa, Dragon, Taizé, Fabula, Tropica Cross, Tropica Leader, KK-Cross and Oxylus are all available on the market in Senegal [31]. In Togo, the cultivars most easily found on the market and planted by farmers are KK-Cross and Oxylus [38,52]. In Niger, the round-headed cabbage cultivars that can be purchased in seed shops or from travelling salesmen are Marché de Copenhague, Oxylus, Gloria, Tropica Cross, Tropica King, Vizir, KK-Cross, Leader Cross, Bandung, Gloria d’Enkhuizen, Asha, Indica, Super Comet, Fortune, King of King Cross, Nazuka and African King [53]. West African vegetable farmers do not usually produce their own seeds; most seeds are imported and produced by large international seed-farmers such as TECHNISEM. Plants 2021, 10, 529 4 of 36

Table 1. Production of cabbages and other Brassicaceae per ECOWAS country (FAOSTAT, 2018) (consulted 06/04/2020).

Countries Hectares Harvested Production in Tonnes Benin Non available Non available Burkina Faso Non available Non available Cape Verde Non available Non available Côte d’Ivoire Non available Non available Gambia Non available Non available Ghana Non available Non available Guinea Non available Non available Guinea-Bissau Non available Non available Liberia Non available Non available Mali 4.332 80.183 Mauritania 12.704 346.686 Niger 12.704 346.686 Nigeria Non available Non available Senegal 3.631 63.872 Sierra Leone Non available Non available Togo 3.631 55.000

3.1.3. Production-Related Constraints Besides the recurring problems caused by pests (insects, pathogenic nematodes, gastropods and rodents) and loose farm animals (goats, sheep), which feed directly on the plant, the main constraints are decreasing soil fertility, lack of workforce (for weeding, watering, transplanting), insufficient access to water, low sales or poor marketability, lack of arable land in urban areas, and land tenure and financial problems [7,42]. The impact of urbanisation on urban vegetable production is felt more or less everywhere in the West African subregion [54–56]. In Lomé, for example, vegetable farmers cultivate land plots wedged between dwellings and industrial infrastructures [56]. Insecure land tenure causes unstable farming conditions precluding any long-term investments (water drilling, motor pumps, etc.) that could improve crop yields. It often results in the eviction of the farmers in the face of a spreading urban development that governs how long the plots can continue being farmed. In Togo, this is a lingering issue along the coast of the costal “Maritime” region. The total surface area of land used for growing vegetables in the suburbs of Lomé thus progressively shrank from 530 ha in 2002 to 160 ha in 2014 with the urban sprawl [56]. Cabbage pests (mammals, gastropods, nematodes, insects and pathogenic fungi and viruses) are responsible for substantial crop damage. This review focuses more specifically on insect pests. The following insect pests have been reported in cabbage production: Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), Hellula undalis Fab. (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Crocidolomia binotalis Zeller (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Chrysodeixis chalcites Esper (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Chrysodeixis acuta Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Helicoverpa (ex Heliothis) armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctu- idae), Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Lipaphis pseudobrassicae Davis (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Myzus persicae Sulzer (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Lipaphis erysimi Kaltenbach (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Zono- cerus variegatus (L.) (Orthoptera: Pyrgomorphidae), Phyllotreta cruciferae Goeze (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and Jacobiasca sp. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). While lepidopteran larvae gnaw the leaves, mine inside them or destroy the centre bud of young plants (such as H. Plants 2021, 10, 529 5 of 36

undalis), hemipterans suck the sap of the plant. Piercing-sucking aphidid hemipterans do not create holes in leaves but suck the sap and disturb the physiology of the plant, which eventually dies. Among the insect pests of cabbage crops in West Africa, the most feared is the diamondback moth (P. xylostella). This species is present year-round, and its biological traits, high rate of reproduction, great mobility and wide range of host plants make it a formidable pest of Brassicaceae crops. It is reported from all the countries and is one of the major crucifer pests throughout the world [27,57–60]. Attacks can result in yield losses of up to 90% [61]. In Togo and Benin, losses due to ‘windowed’ and detached head leaves usually exceed 30% [62] in spite of applications of synthetic insecticide. Other insect pests such as the cabbage webworm H. undalis, aphids, the caterpillar of Spodoptera littoralis, Chrysodeixis acuta can signiﬁcantly affect cabbage growth and head formation [11,63]. Overall, the high parasitic pressure reported by scientists and cabbage farmers ham- pers production stability and yield increases [64–66]. In Togo, damage caused by insect pests is such that some farmers along the coast have given up growing this vegetable [44,67]. Other farmers have reduced the areas planted with cabbage in order to be able to monitor infestations more closely and take better care of their plants. Since parasitic damage neg- atively affects the taste of the produce and the recipes’ end result, farmers feel incited to apply synthetic pesticides on their plants.

3.2. Use of Synthetic Pesticides in Cabbage Production and Perception of Related Risks by Farmers Among the methods used for controlling insect pests in cabbage production, chemical control is one of the most common [14,22,46,67–69]. In West Africa, more than 90% of cabbage farmers use synthetic pesticides [7,44,69]; the chemical families and active ingredients used are listed in Table2. In West Africa, the application of active substances belonging to the major families of synthetic pesticides (synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, organochlorides and avermectins) is reported [6,7,14,48,67,70–77]. Synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates and organochlorides are the most represented. In addition to these three families of synthetic insecticides, carbamates, neonicotinoids (acetamiprid) and avermictins are also reported [7,14,67,71].

Table 2. Main active ingredients and insecticide families used by farmers growing cabbage in urban and peri-urban areas in West Africa.

Active Ingredients/Chemical Families Countries References Profenofos, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Endosulfan, Cypermethrin, Benin [14] Cyﬂuthrin, Chlorpyrifos, Deltamethrin, Acetamiprid Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Organochlorides Burkina Faso [48] Pyrethroids, Organochlorides Côte d’Ivoire [70] Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Organochlorides, Carbamates Gambia [71] Cypermethrin, Chlorpyrifos, Endosulfan, Deltamethrin, Ghana [72] Lambda-cyhalothrin, Dimethoate Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Organochlorides Mali [48] Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Avermectins Niger [7] Organophosphates [73] Nigeria Organochlorides [74] Dicofol, chlorpyrifos, DDT, dimethoate, Lambda-cyhalothrin [75] Senegal Pyrethroids [76] Organophosphates, Pyrethroids, Carbamates, Organochlorides Togo [6,67,77]

Practices regarding pesticide application are very similar in all West African countries. There are, however, some variations concerning frequency and method of application, dosage and pesticide combinations [14,22,76,78]. Pesticide use by farmers is inﬂuenced by Plants 2021, 10, 529 6 of 36

three factors, i.e., gender, irrigation method and crop [79], but not by the pest species, as can be seen in cotton farming [80]. Cabbage is one of the vegetables most treated chemically, after tomato and onion [7]. In Burkina Faso, the mean number of phytosanitary treatments per growth cycle is 10 [81], whereas between 8 and 11 treatments are applied before harvest in Togo [43], and in Niger 16 to 18 applications (two per week) are made during the first two months of the cycle [7], with applications carried out without equipment and personal protective equipment. In Benin, in the vegetable production areas around Cotonou, cabbage farmers apply insecticides every three or four days over a period of about three months (the duration of the cycle) prior to harvest [1]. Chemicals are applied using portable pressure sprayers with backpack tanks, watering cans or various makeshift means such as whisked branches [14,22]. Most vegetable farmers of urban and peri-urban areas have access to sprayers [7], which can be purchased in nearby shops selling gardening equipment. In Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) and Sikasso (Mali), all vegetable farmers use sprayers [48]. More than 70% of farmers are unaware of the health and environmental risks involved in using synthetic pesticides [47,70]. More than 80% fail to comply with the recommended preharvest interval before harvesting vegetables, including for cabbage [7,14]. Some farmers assume that any insect observed landing in a cabbage bed is a pest. They do not know the difference between a pest insect and a beneficial insect and eliminate both. The use of synthetic pesticides at high frequencies and doses on cabbage crops destroys the environment and in particular the natural enemies of the pests, while facilitating the emergence of cases of resistance, such as seen in P. xylostella, to several types of insecticides [82]. It follows that cabbage farmers today find it difficult to select an insecticide because the efficacy of synthetic insecticides is currently decreasing. Human health is another major concern for spray operators and vegetable consumers. A high proportion of farmers do not wear personal protective equipment when applying pesticides because they own none (100% in Lomé [77] and 85% in Senegal [76]). The farming practices recorded result in an excessive use of insecticides and generate a range of related health and environmental issues. They underline the lack of perception of the hazardous nature of pesticides by the operators themselves. Pesticides not approved by the Sahelian Pesticide Committee (CSP) were easily found on farms surveyed in Niger [83]. Pesticides recorded in the field were derived from 30 active ingredients, including five (fipronil, acetochlor, dichlorvos, atrazine and paraquat dichloride) for which marketing was prohibited by CSP in the then nine member States of the Permanent Interstates Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel “Comité Inter-États de Lutte contre la Sécheresse au Sahel” (CILSS) [83,84]. Existing rules and regulations concerning the use of pesticides are general and take into account the vegetable crop sector—including cabbage production, even though it needs more scrutiny given its status as a food crop.

3.3. Regulations Governing Pesticide Use in West Africa In West Africa, legislation was established at the regional level regarding management, use and control of pesticides, in compliance with WHO (World Health Organization) and FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) requirements and recommendations. Over the last decades, with the aim to mitigate the risks related to pesticide misuse, various protocols were signed by the leaders of regional and national communities (states) regarding the regulation of plant protection treatments in West Africa. As regards Sahelian countries, the list of authorised pesticides is registered by the CSP of CILSS, a sub-regional organisation that comprised nine member States in 1999: Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Chad, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal [85] (now joined by Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea and Togo). Unfortunately, these regulations have not been sufﬁciently publicised and are poorly known by the populations of Sahelian countries, resulting in the cross-border movement of pesticides containing prohibited active substances. In addition to these regional and subregional regulations [85–87], there are national legislations on pest and pesticide management, such as the Decree No. 92-258 of Plants 2021, 10, 529 7 of 36

18 September 1992 laying down the procedure for implementing the Law No. 91-004 of 11 February 1991 regulating plant protection in the Republic of Benin [88] and the Decree No. 2018-172 of 16 May 2018 laying down the procedure for implementing the ECOWAS and “Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine” (UEMOA) regulations concerning the registration of pesticides in the Republic of Benin [89]. Created in 1994, the CSP holds ordinary sessions twice a year in Bamako (Mali), at the Institut du Sahel, where the list of approved pesticides is published every six months. In 2012, the West African Committee for Pesticides Registration (WACPR) in charge of implementing the common regulations under the direct authority of the ECOWAS Com- mission was set up in Abuja (Nigeria) [87]. The mission of the WACPR is to assist the CSP in implementing the common regulation concerning the registration of pesticides within the ECOWAS region. The WACPR includes two subcommittees for greater efficiency: the Sahelian Zone subcommittee, based in Bamako and comprising seven member States (Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger and Senegal), and the Humid Zone sub-committee, based in Accra and comprising eight member States (Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Togo). Regulations are in place, but due to insufficient border controls between States, many unregistered or counter- feit pesticides with no reliable references enter the national markets. Often, information on the exact origin of dubious pesticides, with unreadable labels, are not accessible. In spite of these issues, the institutions in charge of pesticide regulation continue to pay little attention to alternative methods of crop protection, even though results obtained using agroecological approaches can be readily accessed, at least in the scientific literature. These approaches use substances that are less hazardous for human health and more respectful of the environment, but their unformulated state bars them from being submittable to CSP for official testing and registration.

3.4. Alternative Methods to Synthetic Chemical Insecticides Several alternative methods exist that can reduce the use synthetic pesticides for controlling the insect pests of cabbage crops, but they are rarely used by farmers [46].

3.4.1. Integrated Pest Management Among these alternative methods, integrated pest management is a strategy that helps to reduce excessive application of synthetic insecticides [90] by integrating other practices. It was adopted in 2002 by Gambia, and supplemented with pest risk analysis and the deﬁnition of good agricultural practices [71]. This approach was identiﬁed as the best way forward at the 20th General Assembly of the Interafrican Phytosanitary Council (IAPSC) held in Côte d’Ivoire in 2002 [71]. However, very few vegetable farmers use alternative methods [46] such as the ones described below. Only 6% of them adopt alternative approaches in Benin and 3% in Ghana [46]. The different components of integrated pest control in cabbage production are detailed below.

3.4.2. Selection of Improved Varieties Glucosinolates are sulphur-containing compounds produced by cabbage plants. Fe- males of H. undalis are attracted to them [91] while young P. xylostella larvae find them highly palatable [17]. Cultivars genetically improved specifically for tropical areas (mentioned earlier) exhibit lower glucosinolate concentrations and differently-structured epicuticular wax that decrease the appeal and palatability of the leaves to adult and larval pests [92].

3.4.3. Physical Pest Control and Cultural Practices A number of farming practices can help to abate populations of cabbage pests. In the south of Benin, the use of nets as physical barriers to protect cabbage plants has shown good results against P. xylostella and H. undalis [33], better than against S. littoralis and the aphids L. erysimi and M. persicae. Another method is to associate cabbage plants with certain ornamentals such as «cactus queen of the right pear» or shrubs such as kola, cacao or Plants 2021, 10, 529 8 of 36

citrus trees that act as a barrier protecting the crop. This is more easily done in places where land tenure and available space will allow it, such as in Nigeria, the States of Ogun and Oyo, in contrast to the highly urbanised environment of Lagos [45]. Regular weeding after transplanting, every two to three weeks, eliminates the weeds in which pest insects can ﬁnd shelter [93]. Watering by hand (with a watering can or hose pipe) is known to alleviate P. xylostella infestations in cabbage [94]. Inserting some tomato or onion plants among the cabbage plants is another practice [95,96]. In such combinations (companion planting, intercropping), volatile compounds produced by other cultivated species naturally repel certain cabbage pests: garlic and onion plants, for example, emit an alliaceous compound, allyl propyl disulphide, that repels aphids [97]. In Benin, cabbage plants interspersed with the local basil, Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiaceae), were less infested with S. littoralis, P. xylostella and H. undalis larvae than cabbage plants in pure beds [98]. This decrease in damage permits greater yields. Crop rotation is another possible approach for farmers with at least two plots. Rotating cabbage with amaranth in order to prevent the attack of root-knot nematodes (Meliodogyne spp.) was reported in Benin [14]. In Togo, 21% of farmers used cultural control through crop rotations and 3% used mechanical control [67] by hand-picking and destroying lepidopteran larvae and aphids [1].

3.4.4. Natural Pest Regulation and Use of Microbial Biopesticides A number of observations concern the use of natural enemies (predatory and parasitoid insects, entomopathogenic agents, etc.) to manage the populations of cabbage pests. Many organisms found on cabbage plants parasitise or prey on insects that feed on the crop. Such organisms are called natural enemies. Most are either predators [99], parasitoids [100] or organisms pathogenic to insects [101–103]. Experiments have explored the potential of reinforcing these natural enemies or introducing entomopathogenic micro-organisms for biological pest control. Predatory insects include generalist species, such as syrphids or ladybirds in the case of aphids. This particular feature makes the predation rate difficult to assess and limits the efficacy of their action over a period of time in natural conditions. Despite these difficulties, some authors have successfully identified predator species that have a controlling effect on pest populations. In Benin, the ant Anomma nigricans (Illiger) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) can act as a control agent against P. xylostella in periurban areas [64]. The syrphid Episyrphus balteatus was studied in Ghana [65]. In Togo, the presence of an unidentified syrphid whose larva preys on the aphid L. erysimi has been reported [52]. Parasitoid insects of P. xylostella were closely studied in Senegal [104]. They are hymenopterans, larvae and nymphs of Oomyzus sokolowskii Kurdjumov (Eulophidae), larvae of Apanteles litae Nixon (Braconidae), Cotesia vestalis Haliday (Braconidae) and Brachymeria sp. (Chalcididae) [100]. In that country, most farmers have no knowledge of organisms active in the natural regulation of pest populations, and their agricultural practices and use of insecticides therefore stifle all chances of these beneficial insects controlling the pests [17]. The status of Cotesia plutellae and its response to pesticides were studied in Benin [64]. The presence of this species on cabbage production plots in a farmer field school context was also reported [52]. Also concerning P. xylostella, entomopathogenic fungi such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae were observed to occur naturally in Benin [103,105]. The use of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner formulations such as BIOBIT™ and DIPEL™ was reported in Togo [77]. Experiments carried out on vegetable farmers’ farms in Senegal showed that organically grown cabbage protected by B. thuringiensis had the same yield as cabbage protected with synthetic insecticides such as dimethoate or profenofos [106]. Regarding products derived from the fermentation of the soil actinomycete bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa, a commercial formulation containing spinosyns A and D (spinosad) was tested on P. xylostella strains from Benin and Togo, on cabbage, in laboratory conditions [82], showing susceptibility of the pest to spinosad. However, the use by cabbage farmers of biopesticides based on micro-organisms remains low [107]. Plants 2021, 10, 529 9 of 36

In the context of cabbage production in West Africa, where farmers face a range of constraints with few available commercial solutions for replacing—totally or in part— synthetic insecticides, plant extracts appear as a promising alternative. A bibliographical research was undertaken on this particular approach, initially centred on West Africa then broadened to the rest of the world, with a special focus on major cabbage pests.

3.5. Use of Botanical Extracts as an Alternative to Synthetic Pesticides in Cabbage Production In West Africa, botanical extracts for managing the insect pests of cabbage crops in urban and peri-urban areas are prepared from local or exotic plant species or using ready- to-use formulations. In traditional methods, plant extracts are often prepared by aqueous extraction, maceration, fermentation or press-extraction, such as neem oil (Azadirachta indica) and castor oil (Ricinus communis L.). However, other solvents, such as ethanol or methanol, are also used in experiments. Essential oils can be produced by hydrodistillation. The literature was searched to gather information on the plant species and preparations employed by cabbage farmers or studied by scientists.

3.5.1. Commercial Formulations Commercial formulations of azadirachtin extracted from neem Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) such as AGRONEEMTM, ECOZINTM, AZATIN, NEEMIXTM, MARGOSAN O, AZATROL, NEEMBAAN, NEEMAZAL, NEEMARK, or NEEMGUARD, from eucalyptus such as BOLLCURE and others [108–110], are industrially manufactured in certain countries [111,112]. SUNEEM (1% EC) is employed in West Africa to control P. xylostella [25]. Against the aphid L. erysimi, neem formulations for applications in the soil are also possible, with TRINEEM for example [113]. Neem cake and Justicia adhatoda (= Adhatoda vasica) residue have been compared with mineral fertilisers [114]. Formulated extracts of plant species other than neem have also been tested, for example the BOLLCURE formulation based on Eucalyptus sp. leaf extracts [108] and various plant oils available on the market [115,116]. These formulations are rarely distributed in West Africa and are not sold by suppliers of synthetic pesticides in Togo for example [117]. They are not included among the plant species used or successfully tested for controlling insect pests of cabbage in West Africa.

3.5.2. Plant Species Used or Successfully Tested for Controlling Insect Pests on Cabbage in West Africa Several studies have assessed the potential of pesticidal plants for protecting cabbage in West Africa. Table3 lists the species that have been experimentally tried and tested or used by farmers for controlling cabbage-damaging insects. In total, 19 plant species representing 12 families have been reported: Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae) [118]; three Asteraceae species (Ageratum conyzoides L., Chromo- laena odorata L. and Synedrella nodiﬂora (L.) Gaertn.) [65,119,120]; one Caricaceae species (Car- ica papaya L.) [121–123]; two Euphorbiaceae (Jatropha curcas and Ricinus communis)[38,65,119,124]; three Lamiaceae species (Crataeva religiosa, Hyptis suaveolens and Ocimum gratissimum)[65,118,124–127]; one Leguminosae/Fabaceae (Cassia sophera)[65]; one Liliaceae (Allium sativum)[128,129]; one Meliaceae (Azadirachta indica)[25,52,62,71,93,120–123,130–137]; two Myrtaceae (Callistemon viminalis and Melaleuca leucadendron)[126]; one Poaceae (Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng.) [138]; one Rutaceae species (Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides)[118] and two Solanaceae (Capsicum frutescens and Nicotiana tabacum)[65,119,128,129,139,140]. The plant parts used to prepare the different extracts are the leaves, fruits and seeds. Neem (A. indica) extracts are the only ones to have been evaluated or employed against most insect pests reported for cabbage in all the countries of West Africa (Table3), whether coastal or Sahelian, e.g., Benin [130], Côte d’Ivoire [116], Gambia [71], Ghana [93,120], Nigeria [131], Senegal [25,132] and Togo [52,62,122,123,133–137]. This species has been used in the form of aqueous extracts, hydroethanol extracts, methanol extracts and oils. Plants 2021, 10, 529 10 of 36

Table 3. Plant species tested or currently used for the management of the insect pests affecting cabbage in West Africa.

Botanical Plant Species Plant part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Family Cloves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [128] Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L. Cloves AE B. brassicae, H. undalis, P. xylostella, T. ni Ghana [129] Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Leaves ME B. brassicae Ghana [118] Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65,119] Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & Asteraceae Leaves AE B. brassicae, H. undalis, P xylostella Ghana [65,119,120] H.Rob. Synedrella nodiﬂora (L.) Gaertn. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65,119] Leaves HEE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Côte d’Ivoire [121] Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Leaves HEE L. erysimi, P. xylostella Togo [122,123] Capparaceae Crateva religiosa G.Forst. Leaves AE H. undalis, P. xylostella, S. littoralis Senegal [125] Jatropha curcas L. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Seeds AE P. xylostella Togo [38] Seeds oil P. xylostella Togo [38] Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Seeds AE H. undalis Côte d’Ivoire [124] Leaves AE P. xylostella Ghana [119] Fabaceae Senna sophera (L.) Roxb. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Leaves AE H. undalis Côte d’Ivoire [124] Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Leaves EO C. chalcites Senegal [126] Lamiaceae Leaves EO S. littoralis Côte d’Ivoire [127] Ocimum gratissimum L. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Leaves ME B. brassicae Ghana [118] Seeds AE P. xylostella Benin [130] Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Seeds AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Côte d’Ivoire [121] Leaves HEE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Côte d’Ivoire [121] Plants 2021, 10, 529 11 of 36

Table 3. Cont.

Botanical Plant Species Plant part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Family Leaves AE P. xylostella Gambia [71] Seeds AE P. xylostella Gambia [71] H. armigera, H. undalis, Phyllotreta Seeds AE cruciferae, P. xylostella, Spodoptera sp., Ghana [93] Z.variegatus

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Seeds oil C. binotalis, P. xylostella Nigeria [131] Seeds oil C. chalcites Senegal [132] Seeds oil P. xylostella Togo [133,134] Leaves, seeds AE P. xylostella, H. undalis, T. ni Mauritania [25] Seeds AE B. Brassicae, H. undalis, P xylostella Ghana [120] H. undalis, L. erysimi, M. persicae, P. [52,62,122,123, Leaves AE, HEE Togo xylostella 135–137] Callistemon viminalis (Sol. ex Leaves C. chalcites Senegal [126] Myrtaceae Gaertn.) G.Don Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Leaves EO C. chalcites Senegal [126] Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Hochst. AE [134,138] Poaceae Leaves P. xyslostella Togo ex A.Rich.) Maire & Weiller EO [133,134] Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Rutaceae Leaves ME B. brassicae Ghana [118] Zepern. & Timler Fruits AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Fruits AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [128] Capsicum annuum L. Fruits AE B. tabaci, B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [139] Solanaceae Fruits AE B. brassicae, H. undalis, P. xylostella, T. ni Ghana [129] Fruits AE L. erysimi, M. persicae Ghana [140] Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ghana [65] Nicotiana tabacum L. Leaves AE P. xylostella Ghana [119] Plants 2021, 10, 529 12 of 36

3.5.3. Plant Species Used in the Rest of the World In African countries outside West Africa, a total of 13 plant species from eight botanical families are mentioned in the literature surveyed (Table4). Comparing Tables3 and4 makes it possible to identify additional botanical families, i.e., Capparaceae, Verbenaceae and Zingiberaceae [141–152], which could make interesting candidates for testing in West Africa. On the other hand, the families Anacardiaceae, Caricaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae, Myrtaceae and Rutaceae have been tested in West Africa but not elsewhere on the continent. The species Melia azedarach (Meliaceae) has been successfully tested alongside neem (A. indica), which is also employed in West Africa. As in West Africa, different parts of the plants are used depending on the species (leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, rhizomes). Different types of extracts have been experimented: pressed oils, essential oils (obtained by hydrodistillation), aqueous extracts, ethanol extracts, methanol extracts, petroleum ether extracts, chloroform extracts, and aqueous methanol and acetone extracts. In West African countries, the insect cabbage pests most targeted by plant extract treatments are the lepidopterans P. xylostella and H. undalis and the aphids L. erysimi and B. brassicae. These four insects, some of which are cosmopolitan, were therefore selected to be the focus of the bibliographical research, using the references initially collected in the Zotero library. Since the aphid L. pseudobrassicae is regularly mentioned in research undertaken outside the African continent, it was also included in this review. With the bibliographical research method used, very few papers concerning H. undalis were identified from countries outside West Africa [144,153], probably because this pest is absent or less destructive in other regions or countries. Regarding aphids, a small number of references are reported concerning L. pseudobrassicae, in particular from Turkey [154]. Most studies found concern the aphid L. erysimi. The names of both species are sometimes associated [140], probably due to their morphological similarity. Most studies correspond to biological assays conducted in laboratory conditions and/or field efficacy trials of various plant extracts. A standardised method is followed, with comparisons usually made with an untreated control group, a control group treated with a synthetic insecticide, and sometimes a ‘botanical extract’ control group treated with a neem-based product. The plant species are selected according to several criteria, which are often not detailed in the papers, e.g., use in medicine [155] or in cosmetics [156]. Most extracts are based on a single species and are aqueous, extracted at various temperatures (sometimes compared) [157,158], but some studies use combinations of two species [159–161]. Plant extracts are sometimes associated with an insecticidal, chemically synthetised active sub- stance such as dimethoate [162,163], carbofuran, carbendazim or endosulfan [113]. Other experiments test extract fractions [164] or single molecules isolated from plant extracts, such as unidentified alkaloids or azadirachtin [109,155,165] or identified alkaloids such as cytisine, in this case purchased from suppliers [165]. In non-aqueous extracts, efficacy also depends on the solvent used [166–168]. In the rest of the world, 139 plant species representing 44 familie- s [149,153,154,156,166,169–224] were identified (Table5), that is, a further 31 botanical families in addition to those listed in studies from the African continent. These additional families are marked with an asterisk in Table5. In the same botanical family, species used in Africa are mostly different from those used in the rest of the world. The only species of Caricaceae found and tested in Africa and elsewhere is Carica papaya, which has been studied in Pakistan to control L. erysimi. Among the Liliaceae, the species Allium tuberosum and Veratrum nigrum were tested in addition to Allium sativum, which is also employed in West Africa. With regards to Meliaceae, Melia azedarach, Melia composita and Trichilia pallida were used in experiments, in addition to Azadirachta indica. Plants 2021, 10, 529 13 of 36

Table 4. Plant species tested or currently used for managing P. xylostella, H. undalis and aphids (L. erysimi or B. brassicae) in Africa outside West Africa.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pests Country References B. brassicae, L. erysimi, Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray Leaves, stems AE Malawi, Zambia [141] P. xylostella Asteraceae B. brassicae, L. erysimi, Vernonia amygdalina Delile Leaves, stems AE Malawi, Zambia [141] P. xylostella Tagetes minuta L. Leaves AE, ME, AcE, (A+M+Ac)E B. brassicae South Africa [142] Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) Capparaceae Fruits AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Zimbabwe [143] DeWolf Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) Fruits AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Zimbabwe [143] J.H.Kirkbr. & Wiersema B. brassicae, H. undalis, Leaves AE Zambia [144] Fabaceae P. xylostella Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. B. brassicae, L. erysimi, Leaves AE Malawi, Zambia [141] P. xylostella Lamiaceae Mentha piperita L. Leaves AE, ME B. brassicae Ethiopia [145] B. brassicae, L. erysimi, Leaves, seeds AE Malawi, Zambia [141] P. xylostella B. brassicae, H. undalis, Seeds Oil Zambia [144] P. xylostella

Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Seeds AE P. xylostella Ethiopia [146,147] B. brassicae, P. xylostella, Seeds Oil Cameroon [148] Meliaceae L. pseudobrassicae Seeds AE P. xylostella Ethiopia [149] Leaves AE P. xylostella South Africa [150] Fruits ME, PEE B. brassicae Egypt [151] Leaves AE P. xylostella South Africa [150,152] Melia azedarach L. Leaves, seeds AE, ME B. brassicae Ethiopia [145] Fruits ME, ChlE B. brassicae Egypt [151] Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Fruits AE P. xylostella Ethiopia [146,147] Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Leaves AE P. xylostella Ethiopia [146,147] Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Rhizomes AE P. xylostella Ethiopia [146,147] Legend: AcE: acetone extract; AE: aqueous extract; (A+M+Ac)E: aqueous methanol and acetone extract; ChlE: chloroform extract; ME: methanol extract; oil: pressed oil; PEE: petroleum ether extract. Plants 2021, 10, 529 14 of 36

Table 5. Plant species tested or currently used for managing P. xylostella, H. undalis and aphids (L. erysimi, B. brassicae or L. pseudobrassicae) outside Africa.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Justicia adhatoda L. Leaves & ﬂowers AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Acanthaceae * Andrographis paniculate (Burm. ﬁl.) Whole plant ME P. xylostella Indonesia [170] Nees Acoraceae * Acorus calamus L. Leaves AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Adoxaceae * Sambucus nigra L. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Poland [171,172] Agavaceae * Agave americana L. Leaves CME, AE, EE B. brassicae Brazil [173] Achyranthes aspera L. Leaves, stems EE H. undalis India [153] Gomphrena globosa L. Seeds EE P. xylostella Indonesia [174] Amaranthaceae * Bassia scoparia (L.) A.J.Scott Seeds AE, AcE, EE, EtAcE, PEE P. xylostella China [175] Achyranthes bidentata Blume Roots EE P. xylostella Republic of Korea [176] Allium sativum L. Bulbs AE L. erysimi Pakistan [177] Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Leaves EO P. xylostella China [178] Amaryllidaceae Spreng. Veratrum nigrum L. Roots & rhizomes AE, AcE, EE, EtAcE, PEE P. xylostella China [175] Anacardiaceae Schinus terebinthifolia Raddi Leaves AE, ME P. xylostella Brazil [179] Annona coriacea Mart. Leaves AE, ME P. xylostella Brazil [179] Annona muricata L. Seeds HE P. xylostella Brazil [180] Seeds oil B. brassicae India [181] Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae * Seeds AE, EE P. xylostella Indonesia [182] Duguetia furfuracea (A.St.-Hil.) Leaves AE, ME P. xylostella Brazil [179] Saff. Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Seeds AE, ME, ChlE, PEE L. erysimi India [166] Thwaites Plants 2021, 10, 529 15 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Bifora radians M.Bieb. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Cicuta virosa L. Stems, roots ME B. brassicae China [183] Coriandrum sativum L. Fruits EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Fruits AlE, EO B. brassicae Brazil [184] Apiaceae * Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Fruits EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Whole plant EO B. brassicae Iran [185] Fruits EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Pimpinella anisum L. Fruits AlE, EO B. brassicae Brazil [184] Pimpinella isaurica V.A.Matthews Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Leaves & stems EO B. brassicae Iran [186] Peel AE P. xylostella Brazil [187] Bark EE, AE P. xylostella Brazil [188,189] Aspidosperma pyrifolium Mart. Fruits EE P. xylostella Brazil [188] Roots EE P. xylostella Brazil [188] Apocynaceae * Leaves AE L. erysimi India [190] Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. Leaves AE L. erysimi Pakistan [177] Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold Leaves AE L. erysimi Pakistan [177] Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don Leaves ME, ChlE, oil L. erysimi India [167] Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Bark AE L. erysimi India [191] Dieffenbachia costata Klotzsch ex Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] Schott Araceae * Xanthosoma hylaeae Engl. & Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] K.Krause Plants 2021, 10, 529 16 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Araliaceae * Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. Leaves & stems ME P. xylostella China [193] Asphodelaceae * Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Leaves EA, AcE, AcAcE, AlE L. erysimi Pakistan [194] Acmella oleracea (L.) R. K. Jansen Leaves, stems AE, EE L. erysimi Brazil [156] Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) Leaves, stems AcE B. brassicae China [195] R.M.King & H.Rob. Artemisia argyi H. Lév. & Vaniot Leaves EE B. brassicae China [196] Artemisia sieberi Besser Leaves & stem HE B. brassicae Iran [186] Artemesia vulgaris L. Leaves AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Calendula officinalis L. Whole plant AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Poland [197] Chrysanthemum indicum L. Leaves AE L. erysimi Pakistan [177] Clibadium sp. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] Asteraceae Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) Leaves AE L. erysimi India [198] R.M.King & H.Rob. Inula salsoloides Ostenf. Whole plant EE B. brassicae, P. xylostella China [199] Parthenium hysterophorus L. Leaves, stems, flowers PEE L. erysimi India [200] Seeds AE P. xylostella Pakistan [201] Parthenium hysterophorus L. Leaves AcE, EE L. erysimi India [168] Tagetes erecta L. Leaves & flowers AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Leaves AE L. erysimi India [190] Tagetes minuta L. Leaves, flowers AE B. brassicae Brazil [202] Leaves & stems EO B. brassicae Iran [186] Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. Plant AE P. xylostella Pakistan [201] Betulaceae * Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Poland [171,172] Plants 2021, 10, 529 17 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Cannabaceae * Cannabis sativa L. Leaves EE B. brassicae China [196] Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Leaves AE, AcE, AcAcE, AlE L. erysimi Pakistan [194] Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Combretaceae * Bark AE L. erysimi India [191] Wight & Arn. Ipomoea asarifolia (Desr.) Roem. & Convolvulaceae * Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Schult. Cucurbitaceae * Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Leaves EE B. brassicae China [196] Cyperaceae * Cyperus rotundus L. Tubers EE P. xylostella Indonesia [174] Ericaceae * Rhododendron molle (Bl.) G. Don Flowers DCME P. xylostella China [203] Croton jacobinensis Baill. Leaves, stems EE P. xylostella Brazil [204] Croton micans Sw. Leaves, stems EE P. xylostella Brazil [204] Mallotus rhamnifolius (Willd.) Leaves, stems EE P. xylostella Brazil [204] Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae Croton sellowii Baill. Leaves, stems EE P. xylostella Brazil [204] Croton sp. Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Euphorbia cyparissias L. Whole plant AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Poland [197] Euphorbia tirucalli L. Stems AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Falconeria insignis Royle Leaves & ﬂowers AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Pachyrhizus erosus (L.)Urb. Seeds oil B. brassicae India [181] Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Seeds oil B. brassicae India [181] Fabaceae Fruits oil P. xylostella India [205] Prosopis juliﬂora (Sw.) DC. Pods AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. Leaves, stems, bark, wood AcE, ME P. xylostella China [203] Plants 2021, 10, 529 18 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Ajuga nipponensis Makino Whole plant AcE, ME P. xylostella China [203] Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Whole plant EO B. brassicae Czech Republic [206] Mentha aquatica L. Leaves EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Mentha piperita L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Mentha pulegium L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [149] Clinopodium serpyllifolium subsp. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [149] Fruticosum (L.) Bräuchler Leaves & stems EO B. brassicae Iran [186] Nepeta cataria L. Whole plant EO B. brassicae Czech Republic [206] Origanum majorana L. Whole plant EO B. brassicae Czech Republic [206] Origanum minutiflorum O.Schwarz Lamiaceae Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] & P.H.Davis Leaves EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Rosmarinus officinalis L. Whole plant EO B. brassicae Czech Republic [206] Salvia aramiensis Rech.f. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Salvia sclarea L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Salvia tomentosa Mill. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Satureja aintabensis P.H.Davis Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Satureja hortensis L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Satureja thymbra L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Satureja wiedemanniana (Avé-Lall.) Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Velen. Thymbra sintenisii Bornm. & Azn. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Thymbra spicata L. Aerial parts EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Thymus carmanicus Jalas Whole plant EO B. brassicae Iran [185] Zataria multiflora Boiss. Leaves & stems EO B. brassicae Iran [186] Plants 2021, 10, 529 19 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Cinnamomum verum J.Presl Whole plant EO B. brassicae Iran [185] Whole plant EO B. brassicae Argentina [207] Lauraceae * Laurus nobilis L. Leaves EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Leguminosae Deguelia utilis (A.C.Sm.) Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] (= Fabaceae) A.M.G.Azevedo Leaves, seeds EE L. erysimi Bangladesh [208] Leaves AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Seeds AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Seeds oil P. xylostella Sri Lanka [209] Seeds AlE B. brassicae India [210] Seeds AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Pakistan [211] Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Leaves AE L. erysimi India [190] Seeds AE, EE, HE L. erysimi India [164]

Meliaceae Seeds AE P. xylostella Pakistan [201] Seeds AE L. erysimi India [191] Leaves, seeds AE, oil P. xylostella Brazil [212] Seeds ME P. xylostella China [203] Seeds AE P. xylostella Brazil [187] Fruits DEE P. xylostella Taiwan [213] Seeds ME P. xylostella India [214] Melia azedarach L. Fruits AE P. xylostella Brazil [187] Fruits AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Melia dubia Cav. Leaves AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Trichilia pallida Sw. Leaves, stems AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Trichilia silvatica C.DC. Leaves AE, ME P. xylostella Brazil [179] Plants 2021, 10, 529 20 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Menispermaceae * Cissampelos glaberrima A.St.-Hil. Roots AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Melaleuca citrina (Curtis) Leaves ME, ChlE, oil L. erysimi India [167] Dum.Cours. Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Flowers AlE, EO B. brassicae Brazil [184] L.M.Perry

Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Leaves EO L. pseudobrassicae Turkey [154] Eugenia uniﬂora L. Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Leptospermum petersonii F.M.Bailey Leaves Oil P. xylostella Australia [215]

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Fruits AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] L.M.Perry Leaves EE B. brassicae Iran [216] Nitrariaceae Peganum harmala L. Seeds EE P. xylostella Iran [217] Leaves AE L. erysimi India [190] Papaveraceae * Argemone mexicana L. Leaves AcE, EE L. erysimi India [168] Phytolaccaceae * Phytolacca americana L. Roots AE, AcE, EE, EtAcE PEE P. xylostella China [175] Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) Wood shavings EO P. xylostella India [218] Pinaceae * G.Don Larix kaempferi (Lamb.) Carrière Root bark AE, AcE, EE, EtAcE, PEE P. xylostella China [175] Piperaceae * Piper nigrum L. Fruits ME P. xylostella Republic of Korea [219] Plantaginaceae * Digitalis purpurea L. Leaves AE L. erysimi India [191] Poaceae * Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] Polygonaceae * Polygonum aviculare L. Leaves, stems EE B. brassicae, P. xylostella China [220] Pontederiaceae * Pontederia crassipes Mart. Whole plant EE P. xylostella Chicago (USA) [221] Alibertia edulis (Rich.) A.Rich. Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [222] Alibertia intermedia Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [222] Rubiaceae * Cordiera sessilis (Vell.) Kuntze Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [222] Paederia foetida L. Leaves & stems AE, ME, ChlE, PEE L. erysimi India [166] Plants 2021, 10, 529 21 of 36

Table 5. Cont.

Botanical Family Plant Species Plant Part Extract Type Targeted Pest(s) Country References Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Whole plant EO B. brassicae Iran [185] Rutaceae Limonia acidissima Groff Leaves AE, ME, ChlE, PEE L. erysimi India [166] Brugmansia suaveolens (Humb. & Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Bonpl. ex Willd.) Sweet Capsicum annuum L. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Nicotiana megalosiphon Van Heurck Leaves AE P. xylostella Australia [224] & Müll.Arg. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Leaves AcE, EE L. erysimi India [168] Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [220] Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Leaves & flowers AE L. erysimi Nepal [169] Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Solanum pseudocapsicum L. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Solanum bonariense L. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Solanum americanum Mill. Leaves, flowers, fruits AE B. brassicae Brazil [223] Witheringia solanacea L’Hér. Leaves AE B. brassicae, P. xylostella Ecuador [192] Urticaceae * Cecropia sp. Leaves AE P. xylostella Brazil [189] Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Rhizomes EE P. xylostella Indonesia [174] Wurfbainia compacta (Sol. ex Fruits EE P. xylostella Indonesia [174] Zingiberaceae Maton) Skornick. & A.D.Poulsen Curcuma longa L. Rhizomes AE, AcE, EE, EtAcE, PEE P. xylostella China [175] Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Whole plant EO B. brassicae Iran [185] Zygophyllaceae * Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Fruits AE, ME, ChlE, PEE L. erysimi India [166] Legend: *: Botanical families not reportedly used in Africa (cf. Tables3 and4); AcAcE: acetic acid extract; AcE: acetone extract; AE: aqueous extract; AlE: alcohol extract; ChlE: chloroform extract; CME: cow’s milk extract; DCME: dichloromethane extract; DEE: diethyl ether extract; EE: ethanol extract; EO: essential oil; EtAcE: ethyl acetate extract; HE: hexane extract; ME: methanol extract; oil: pressed oil; PEE: petroleum ether extract. Plants 2021, 10, 529 22 of 36

The plant parts used are roughly the same as those used in West Africa, with some variations, such as stems, wood, bark, aerial parts or the whole plant. Other types of extracts are mentioned in addition to those already recorded in West Africa: cow’s milk extracts, acetone extracts, hexane extracts, petroleum ether extracts, acetic acid extracts, diethyl ether extracts and dichloromethane extracts. Most non-African studies come from Asia (Pakistan, India and China), where the aphid L. erysimi attacks mustard crops (Brassica juncea) and other Brassica species (B. napus, B. parachinensis, B. rapa, B. oleracea var. botrytis, B. campestris var. tori).

4. Discussion In the urban and peri-urban areas of Africa, cabbage is an important component of people’s diets. Cabbage heads are eaten raw or cooked. Outside leaves and those heavily perforated by insects are sometimes used to feed animals such as swine. It follows that this vegetable, when it contains traces of insecticides, can harm the health of both humans and animals [70]. Cabbage plants are highly attractive to a whole assemblage of insect pests, which mostly belong to the Lepidoptera, such as P. xylostella, H. undalis and S. littoralis, or to the group of piercing-sucking insects, such the aphids L. erysimi and B. brassicae, and the whiteﬂy B. tabaci, reported as a cabbage pest by some authors in West Africa [121,139]. Of all the insect species that feed on cabbage, P. xylostella is the most dreaded, and moreover it attacks several species of the Brassicaceae family. This lepidopteran is therefore the object of high insecticidal control pressure. Chemical control with synthetic insecticides is the method most commonly relied on by farmers. These pesticides are often applied irrationally [225], and cabbages are sometimes harvested with no regard to the time- to-harvest waiting period. Occurrences of P. xylostella resistant to several families of insecticides have been documented [82,226–228]. Legislation on phytosanitary applications is in force in West Africa, but due to the poor control of borders and distribution channels, unauthorised pesticides inappropriate for vegetable production are found on vegetable farms. Alternative methods to chemical control have been developed by research on pest management. One of them is physical control, using protective nets—treated with insecticides or insect repellents because S. littoralis can lay its eggs on untreated nets, through which the small hatchlings can later thread their way and reach the cabbage plants [229–231]. Augmentation biological control is another approach. It requires the rearing of large quantities of natural enemies of the targeted pest, for example parasitoid hymenopterans that parasitise P. xylostella [99,100]. The effectiveness of parasitoids is linked to their biological and ethological traits [232], which constitutes an additional constraint because it makes it necessary to select the best strain. Moreover, the rate of parasitism by natural enemies declines as the cabbage plants grow older, probably due to the penetration of the P. xylostella larvae inside the developing cabbage heads. Natural enemies are also very sensitive to repeated applications of insecticides. All the limits mentioned for the ‘classical’ methods proposed as part of IPM plead in favour of further studies on the use of plant extracts for cabbage protection, and of the implementation of this biocontrol approach.

4.1. Selection of Plant Species to Be Used Exploring the wide array of available plant species, then selecting those that appear to have the best potential for cabbage protection calls for a multi-criteria approach. Selection criteria include some that concern plant availability, extract preparation feasibility, extract stability, extract efﬁcacy and action mechanism. Additional criteria relate to economic aspects and environmental impacts, including unintentional impacts on non-targeted organisms such as human beings, beneﬁcial organisms (natural enemies of the targeted pests), pollinators and earthworms, among others. Plants 2021, 10, 529 23 of 36

Species such as N. tabacum and neem A. indica, have long been known for their insecticidal properties against many crop pests [25,52,62,71,93,120–123,135–137]. They were found to dominate the census of plants used on the African continent. In Togo, like in other West African countries, extracts from the seeds or leaves of neem have proven their potency in controlling P. xylostella, the most destructive insect pest for cabbage crops [93,130,233]. This efficacy is also noted against other insects, such as Zonocerus variegatus on cabbage and Hibiscus sabdariffa L., in Nigeria [234] and B. tabaci [235]. Neem seed extracts are often combined with other pesticides, or sometimes with powdered soap, to treat vegetable crops [77]. Neem is available and even considered an invasive species [236]. Our study listed a large number of plant species, and this diversity is worth exploring. For example, Tephrosia vogelii, Hook leaf extract, has been tested in Zambia on larvae of both P. xylostella and H. undalis, and on the aphid B. brassicae [144]. In China, the efficacy of ethanol extracts of leaves of Citrullus colocynthis (L.), Cannabis indica (L.) and Artemisia argyi (L.) was established for controlling B. brassicae [194]. In Mauritius, the extracts of five plant species (Argemone mexicana, Artemisia absinthium, Cassia occidental, Cymbopogon citratus and Siegesbeckia orientalis) were shown to have an antifeedant effect on C. binotalis on cabbage [237]. In India, the antifeedant effect of leaf extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Tylophora indica was also proven on H. armigera on cabbage [238]. Among the plant species reported to be of special interest in Asia, some also occur in West Africa, often abundantly, and could be the focus of more research, in particular Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae) and Lantana camara (Verbenaceae). Tagetes species (Asteraceae) as well as M. azaderach (Meli- aceae) and T. vogelii (Fabaceae) are other plants with an interesting potential to be tested, depending on cabbage production zones. Other unlisted extracts from plants (Achillea millefolium (Asteraceae), Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae), Bougainvillea glabra (Nyctaginaceae), Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae), Datura suaveolens (Solanaceae), Enterolobium contortisilliquum (Fabaceae), Stryphnodendron adstringens (Fabaceae) Mentha crispa (Lami- aceae), Plumbago capensis (Plumbaginaceae), Pothomorphe umbellate (Piperaceae), Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae), Solanum cernuum (Solanaceae), Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae), Trichilia catigua (Meliaceae) and Ludwigia spp (Onagraceae)) [239,240] and management tactics (microbial control, biological control, cultural control, mating disruption, insecticide rotation strategies, and plant resistance) [241] have been explored on P. xylostella. The decision to experiment with certain plant species can also be based on previous knowledge regarding their chemical composition or on the known insecticidal properties of other species of the same botanical family, as in the case of Crataeva religiosa [125], Cassia sophera [65], Callistemon viminalis and Melaleuca leucadendron [126] and Zanthoxylum xanthoxyloides [118].

4.2. Factors in Favour of the Use of Botanical Extracts Several factors appear conducive to the use of plant extracts. The plants from which extracts can be prepared on the farm are often available locally, often at no cost [242], which makes the end product cheaper than synthetic insecticides. Some of these plants are crop species, such as A. sativum, Capsicum frutescens, C. papaya or O. gratissimum [65,118,121–129], whose use on another food crop can therefore be considered a sensible option, guaran- teeing the safety of the produce for consumers. Plant parts of other species increasingly cultivated in several African countries are easily purchased in large quantities, in particular Anacardium occidentale [118] and the two oil-producing Euphorbiaceae R. communis and Jatropha curcas, already reported as a promising biofuel plant [38,65,119,124]. In addition to the above, the knowledge base of the Knomana project (Knowledge management on pesticides plants in Africa)[243] suggests the following plant species as well: Aloe spp., Capsicum annuum, Carica opulifolium, Derris elliptica, Eucalyptus spp., Lippia javanica, Senna siamea, Solanum delagoense, Tagetes minuta and T. vogelii. Commonly-seen species sometimes even regarded as weeds also appear in our literature survey, such as Ageratum conyzoides, Chromo- laena odorata and Synedrella nodiﬂora [65,119,120], Hyptis suaveolens [65,118,124–127], Lantana camara [146,147], Ageratina adenophora [196] or Parthenium hysterophorus [198]. Plants 2021, 10, 529 24 of 36

4.3. Acceptability to Vegetable Farmers As things stand, recourse to botanical extracts to manage cabbage pests varies con- siderably depending on the local situation. Around 40% of vegetable farmers use them in Benin [46] but only 4% in Togo [67] and Ghana [46]. Several factors can explain this. Plant extracts do not eradicate pest populations, but rather maintain their numbers below the economical injury threshold. Moreover, farmers consider that they are not practical given the time needed to prepare the extracts and the number and frequency of treatments required. High variability in subsequent yields are observed, depending on time of the year, location and sometimes on the existence of chemotypes with no impact on the targeted pests. Among many vegetable farmers, this fosters a sceptical attitude and a reluctance to adopt the practice, as has been observed in certain projects implemented in West Africa, such as the initiative ‘Potential use of plant extracts for protecting vegetable crops as an alternative to synthetic insecticides in urban and peri-urban areas’ (Utilisation potentielle d’extraits végétaux dans la protection des cultures maraîchères comme alternative aux insecticides de synthèse en zones urbaines et périurbaines)[244]. The lack of affordable biopesticide formulations on the market, which would compensate for the cumbersome preparation of the extracts on-farm, is still an important obstacle [46,117] that could explain the low rate of adoption of these approaches. If affordable formulations were available, real opportunities would open up. In urban and peri-urban farms of West Africa, vegetables are often grown in ﬁelds of less than one hectare, and cabbage plots are even smaller. The small size of the cultivated plots should weigh in favour of alternative control methods.

4.4. Complementary Studies for the Future More investigations are needed, in particular to facilitate the development of ready- to-use formulations, which would promote the adoption of plant extracts by vegetable farmers. Research on unintended effects must be intensified, especially regarding non- target organisms. Studies analysing the effects observed on aphids as well as on some of their natural enemies, in the laboratory or in the field, are fairly straightforward to implement. Apart from entomopathogenic fungi, not mentioned in the papers we scruti- nised, the main natural enemies are predatory and parasitoid insects. The effects of the extracts were assessed by direct application on to these insects (on the imago in case of parasitoids). Regarding aphids, observations were focused on parasitoid insects such as Diaeretiella rapae [156,160,245] or Aphidius gifuensis [245], and on the predators belonging to the usual species assemblage linked to aphid colonies: chrysopids (lacewings), coccinellids (ladybirds) and syrphids (hoverflies) [109,246]. These predators are sometimes identified to species level, such as the Syrphidae Ischiodon scutellaris [247], the Coccinellidae Coccinella septempunctata [108,156], the Chrysopidae Chrysopa carnea [108] or the Anthocoridae bug Orius insidiosus [156]. Monitored pollinators are usually restricted to domestic honey- bees [248,249]. Occasionally, other indicators are also monitored, such as predatory mites and springtails [113]. Different methods can be used for laboratory tests. Direct application on non-target insects is possible using Potter’s spraying tower, with aphids exposed on their host plant or without. Introducing insects at the surface of disks of leaves previously dipped in various solutions of plant extracts and air-dried constitutes another option. Indirect effects are observed when predators feed on aphids that themselves fed on plant fragments treated with plant extracts, or when parasitoid hymenopterans emerge from mummified aphids in which the parasitoid larvae were already present when the extracts were applied. Other types of study should be undertaken both upstream (production of the plant of interest) and downstream (formulation). The stabilisation and conservation of plant extracts are thus important questions to address. The economic viability of using botanical extracts must be comparable to that of using synthetic insecticides. Their promotion for the purpose of increasing their rate of adoption must absolutely come with specific training to improve the vegetable farmers’ Plants 2021, 10, 529 25 of 36

current level of knowledge [46], such as organised as part of the East African initiatives ADAPPT (African Dryland Alliance for Pesticidal Plant Technologies) [250] and OPTIONs (Optimising Pesticidal Plants: Technology Innovation, Outreach and Networks) [251].

5. Conclusions Vegetable farming is on the uptrend worldwide, in particular in cities. The reasons for this urbanisation are linked to the ever-increasing rural exodus. To ensure the food security of the greater part of unceasingly growing urban populations, developing vegetable farming could be the beginning of a solution. The analysis of vegetable farming systems and cabbage pest management in West African urban and peri-urban areas shows that, in spite of the limited size of farmed plots, farmers systematically use chemical control methods with no protection for the spraying operator. These synthetic insecticides are mostly organophosphates or pyrethroids, sometimes organochlorides, carbamates or avermectins. They are applied to control several insect pests, the most important of which are the diamond-back moth P. xylostella, the cabbage webworm H. undalis and several aphid species. The development of novel, more ecologically benign crop protection means would open the way for alternatives to synthetic insecticides and alleviate their negative impact on the environment. Among the considered alternatives, the use of plant extracts appears as one of the most easily implementable options. Many studies have been and are still conducted by researchers, in the laboratory, in experimental stations and in farmers’ fields, with encour- aging results that prove the efficacy of plant extracts for managing insect pests. However, with the sector still unorganised in West Africa, the adoption of botanical extracts by a majority of vegetable farmers is taking time. Each agroecological zone being unique, local intervention would be the most appropriate approach. The use of synthetic pesticides is a trend that seems unlikely to reverse in the near future in vegetable production, in particular regarding cabbage, which is an important food for the local populations. However, medium- and long-term strategies should be strengthened, calling for considerable efforts in matters of research, outreach and awareness-raising in order to foster the adoption of plant extracts and organically grown vegetables in West Africa. Cabbage farmers are in need of support tools and information to develop a more agroecological cabbage production in which pests are managed with plant extracts. Scientists, technicians, extension workers, vegetable farmers, decision-makers, business-makers, and consumers must all invest some thought and find ways to make the most of the knowledge available on the use of plant extracts. Functional networking could be an option to promote for solving this problem, which concerns public health and food security.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.D.M. and P.S.; methodology, A.D.M. and P.S.; resources, A.D.M. and P.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.D.M., P.S. and P.M.; writing—review and editing, A.D.M., P.S. and L.K.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding for publication. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the Labex AGRO 2011- LABX-002, projet No. 1803- 301, integrated to the I-Site Muse coordinated by Agropolis Fondation for the financial support of this study at CIRAD (France) through AWARD’s mentoring programme. Thanks also to the IRD for taking in charge of the translation. Special thanks to Annie BOYER for the bibliographical research and to Anya COCKLE for the translation of the manuscript from French into English. The authors thank CIRAD for paying the publication fee of this article. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Plants 2021, 10, 529 26 of 36

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