Il Caso De Gaulle (1958-1965) Brizzi Riccardo

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Il Caso De Gaulle (1958-1965) Brizzi Riccardo ALMA MATER STUDIORUM – UNIVERSITA’ DI BOLOGNA DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN STORIA DELL’ETA’ CONTEMPORANEA NEI SEC. XIX-XX XIX CICLO – “F. Chabod” ANNO 2007 M-STO/04 STORIA CONTEMPORANEA TITOLO DELLA TESI DI RICERCA: Il leader e la televisione: il caso de Gaulle (1958-1965) CANDIDATO: Brizzi Riccardo TUTOR COORDINATORE Prof. Paolo Pombeni Prof. Maria Serena Piretti Introduzione Il 19 agosto 1944 Parigi si solleva contro l’occupante nazista. In serata un’operazione condotta da alcune squadre della Resistenza nelle teche di Radio-Paris permette di impadronirsi di un centinaio di dischi. L’indomani Jean Guignebert, ministro dell’Informazione ad interim in seguito all’arresto di Pierre-Henri Teitgen, solo nel proprio ufficio clandestino, isolato dagli altri membri del governo provvisorio, riflette sull’opportunità di iniziare le trasmissioni dagli studi di prova di Radi o-Paris, occupati in gran segreto dai suoi uomini qualche giorno prima. La posta in gioco era delicata: era il caso di trasmettere, per la prima volta dal suolo della capitale, la voce della Francia Libera o era meglio attendere che la situazione evolvesse in senso favorevole? Il desiderio di partecipare alla battaglia in corso, la necessità di incoraggiare la Resistenza dandole la parola, nel momento in cui i suoi uomini stavano affrontando per le strade di Parigi le pattuglie tedesche, ebbe la meglio. Alle 22 e 31 della sera del 20 agosto 1944, dopo il lapidario annuncio «Qui radio nazionale francese», la Marsigliese veniva trasmessa via radio. Due giorni dopo, alle 16 del 22 agosto, era la volta del primo notiziario, aperto dalla chiamata alle armi fatta dallo Stato maggiore delle Forces Françaises de l’Intérieur . La radio, dopo quattro anni di asservimento all’occupante nazista, cominciava ad orchestrare l’insurrezione: dal pomeriggio inoltrato sino al mattino seguente la chiamata alle armi venne trasmessa ogni quarto d’ora, intervallata da musiche militari e sinfoniche, tra cui quelle di compositori messi al bando come Milhaud o Braïlowski. Il giorno successivo sarebbe stato mandato in onda il primo reportage, con la trasmissione di un’intervista al presidente del Consiglio nazionale della Resistenza, Georges Bidault, realizzata in un piccolo café nei pressi di Place de la République. Per altri tre giorni, dalla sede collocata in rue de l’Université, mentre nelle strade si combatteva furiosamente, la radio libera riuscì ad informare il pubblico e a far conoscere al mondo, ritrasmessa dalla BBC e dalla radio americana in Europa, le notizie provenienti da Parigi 1. Il 25 agosto la capitale francese era liberata e l’inevitabile resa dei conti sempre più vicina. De Gaulle, dopo aver percorso gli Champs -Elysées tra due ali di folla festante ed essersi reinstallato nel suo ufficio al ministero della Guerra (abbandonato nel giugno 1940), per sottolineare la sua natura di «vettore» della continuità dello Stato francese, raggiunse l’Hôtel de Ville. Lì, nel luogo che aveva storicamente ospitato le proclamazioni rivoluzionarie e l’annuncio dei cambiamenti di 1 C. Brochand, Histoire générale de la radio et de la télévision en France, II, 1944-1974, Paris, La documentation française, 1994, pp. 9-10. 1 regime, de Gaulle rifiutò di ripetere il rito: non era infatti necessario, come gli aveva suggerito Bidault, dichiarare decaduto il regime di Vichy perché esso non era mai esistito. Si trattava infatti di un sistema privo di legittimità, che non aveva interrotto la legalità repubblicana, incarnata dallo stesso de Gaulle a partire dall’appello del 18 giugno. Non per questo si potevano però chiudere gli occhi sulle complicità sulle quali Vichy aveva potuto contare e così il Generale, incontrando nel cortile antistante al municipio il neo-prefetto della Seine Marcel Flouret, gli espresse in modo chiaro il proprio stato d’animo: «Come siamo messi con l’epurazione?...Bisogna…che si venga a capo di questo problema in poche settimane»2. Se esisteva un consenso generale per punire tutti coloro che avevano collaborato col sistema propagandistico di Vichy 3, si comprendeva anche come la rottura con il passato sarebbe dovuta passare attraverso una rifondazione dell’intero sistema informativo. Il bilancio sarebbe stato, tuttavia, piuttosto ambiguo. Nei quindici anni successivi il panorama mediatico sarebbe stato caratterizzato da alti e bassi nel settore della stampa (con la crisi dei quotidiani parigini e la progressiva affermazione dei titoli di provincia e dei settimanali), dall’affermazione della radio (alla quale contribuirono in buona parte le vivaci stazioni periferiche) e, infine, dal progressivo sviluppo di un mezzo destinato ad un grande futuro: la televisione. Al di là dello sviluppo di ogni singolo settore occorre tuttavia osservare come sul finire degli anni Cinquanta fosse rimasto ben poco dei propositi proclamati dalla Resistenza. Gli ideali che avevano accompagnato la Liberazione - la riaffermazione del ruolo dello Stato come garante del pluralismo, l’esclusione dei potentati economici, il ritrovato engagement intellettuale - si sarebbero ben presto dovuti scontrare con una realtà ben diversa. Da un lato le difficoltà finanziarie avrebbero reso necessario il ritorno dei capitali privati, dall’altro si assistette al riemergere di una tradizione di controllo ed ingerenza statale sui mezzi di comunicazione che in Francia risaliva sino ai tempi del telegrafo ottico di Chappe 4, ma che nella congiuntura in questione fu estremamente esacerbata dall’emergenza politica prodotta delle guerre di decolonizzazione 5. L’epurazione degli organi di informazione compromessi con l’occupante nazista e con il regime di Vichy rappresentava una priorità politica della Resistenza. Le accuse più gravi erano rivolte 2 «Où en est l’épuration?...Il faut…qu’on règle cette question en quelques semaines…». Cfr. R. Aron, Histoire de la libération de la France, Paris, Fayard, 1959, p. 441. 3 Per un quadro della stampa francese nel periodo dell’occupazione vedi: P-M. Dioudonnat, L’Argent nazi à la conquête de la presse française 1940-1944, Paris, Jean Picollec, 1981; M. Cotta, La collaboration, 1940-1944, Paris, Armand Colin, 1964; O. Wieviorka, Une certaine idée de la Résistance. Défense de la France, 1940-1949, Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1995. 4 P. Rosanvallon, L’état en France, Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1990, pp. 106-107. 5 F. d’Almeida – C. Delporte, Histoire des médias en France. De la Grande Guerre à nos jours, Paris, Flammarion, 2003, p. 139. 2 alla stampa 6, che aveva tradito nel 1940 ma che già da tempo addietro aveva conosciuto un profondo declino etico ed inaccettabili compromessi morali, conseguenze inevitabili di un malsano rapporto di promiscuità con i potentati economici. L’editoriale di apertura del primo numero di Combat , pubblicato il 21 agosto 1944, era piuttosto chiaro a tale riguardo: «Non è più sufficiente riconquistare l’apparente libertà di cui si accontentava la Francia nel 1939. Avremmo compiuto un pessimo lavoro se la Repubblica francese di domani si trovasse, come avveniva durante la Terza Repubblica, sotto la stretta dipendenza del Capitale. […] Il Capitale non ha mai esercitato tante pressioni nefaste sul nostro popolo come a partire dal luglio 1940 e cioè dal momento in cui, favorendo l’ascesa al potere dei traditori, ha deciso, al fine di conservare ed incrementare i propri privilegi, di unire deliberatamente i propri interessi a quelli di Hitler»7. Lo stesso Camus, sulle pagine del suo giornale, avrebbe precisato qualche giorno più tardi come le premesse del disastro del 1940 fossero in realtà già state poste dalla crisi morale che lo aveva preceduto: «La fame di denaro e l’indifferenza verso la grandeur avevano agito congiuntamente per dare alla Francia una stampa che, esclusa qualche rara eccezione, non aveva altro scopo che accrescere il potere di qualcuno e altro effetto che abbassare la moralità di tutti. Non è stato dunque difficile, per questa stampa, diventare ciò che è stata tra il 1940 e il 1944, e cioè la vergogna del nostro paese»8. 6 L’epurazione colpì anche la radio, seppur in maniera minore e meno eclatante. Liste di collaborazionisti furono stilate sotto la supervisione del Comitato di liberazione della radiodiffusione francese ed interessarono sia membri della radio pubblica che del piccolo mondo delle radio private. Cfr. R. Duval, Histoire de la radio en France, Paris, Editions Alain Moreau, 1979, pp. 359-360. 7 «Ce ne serait pas assez de reconquérir les apparences de liberté dont la France de 1939 devait se contenter. Et nous n’aurions accompli qu’une infime partie de notre tâche si la République française de demain se trouvait comme la Troisième République sous la dépendance étroite de l’Argent. [...] Jamais l’Argent n’a plus lourdement pesé sur notre peuple que depuis juillet 1940, c’est-à-dire depuis l’époque où, hissant les traîtres au pouvoir, il a, pour conserver et accroître ses privilèges, délibérément lié ses intérêts à ceux de Hitler». Cfr. Le combat continue, «Combat», 21-8-1944, p. 1. 8 «L’appétit de l’argent et l’indifférence aux choses de la grandeur avaient opéré en même temps pour donner à la France une presse qui, à des rares exceptions près, n’avait d’autre but que de grandir la puissance de quelques-uns et d’autre effet que d’avilir la moralité de tous. Il n’a donc pas été difficile à cette presse de devenir ce qu’elle a été de 1940 à 1944, c’est-à-dire la honte du pays». Cfr. A. Camus, Critique de la nouvelle Presse, «Combat», 31-8-1944, p. 1. 3 Sempre nell’agosto 1944 Georges Duhamel, autorevole membro dell’Académie française, in un editoriale intitolato emblematicamente «Refaire un monde», esprimeva il totale rifiuto di ogni forma di propaganda, indicando la strada maestra che di lì in avanti la stampa avrebbe dovuto seguire per non cadere negli errori del passato: «Se la propaganda, per esistere ed operare, deve fondarsi necessariamente sulla menzogna e l’ipocrisia, allora la mia opinione è che si debba rinunciare alla propaganda! Ci si deve accontentare di dire la verità, di fare appello al buon senso e di dare l’esempio» 9.
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