Society of Jesus

“Jesuit” redirects here. For the punk band, see Jesuit gin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General, currently (band). For the personal philosophy encompassing the Adolfo Nicolás.[8][9] moral teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in “Black Robes” redirects here. For other uses, see Black Rome.[10] The historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of robe. the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, See also: Suppression of the Society of Jesus the Jesuit Mother Church.

The Society of Jesus (Latin: Societas Iesu, S.J., SJ or SI) is a Christian male religious congregation of the Catholic 1 Statistics Church. The members are called Jesuits. The soci- ety is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents. Jesuits work in education The Jesuits today form the largest men’s single religious [12] (founding schools, colleges, universities and seminaries), order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also although they are surpassed by the Franciscan family of give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes and pro- first orders Order of Friars Minor (OFM), OFM Ca- mote social justice and ecumenical dialogue. puchins, and Conventuals. As of 1 January 2013, Jesuits numbered 17,287: 12,298 clerics regular (priests), 2,878 Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being scholastics (students to become priests), 1,400 brothers wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conver- (not priests) and 711 novices.[1] In 2012, Mark Raper SJ sion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others wrote, “Our numbers have been in decline for the last follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and 40 years – from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, America and consistent decline in Latin America have not and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience been offset by the significant increase in South Asia and to the Pope. Rule 13 of Ignatius’s Rules for Thinking with a small rise in Africa.”[13] the Church said: “That we may be altogether of the same mind and in conformity ... if [the Holy See of the Uni- The Society is divided into 83 Provinces with 6 Indepen- [1] versal Church (Roman Catholic Church)] shall have de- dent Regions and 10 Dependent Regions. On 1 January fined anything to be black which to our eyes appears to 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents be white, we ought in like manner to pronounce it to be with the largest number in India and the USA. Their aver- black.”[2] Ignatius’s plan of the order’s organization was age age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years [14] approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by the bull containing for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. the "Formula of the Institute". The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Adolfo Because of the military background of Ignatius and the Nicolás. The Society is characterized by its ministries in members’ willingness to accept orders anywhere in the the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice world and to live in extreme conditions where required, and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges the opening lines of this founding document would de- and universities in various countries around the world and clare that the Society of Jesus was founded for “who- is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the ever desires to serve as a soldier of God”[3] (Spanish: United States it maintains more than 50 colleges, univer- “todo el que quiera militar para Dios”),[4] “to strive es- sities and high schools. A typical conception of the mis- pecially for the defense and propagation of the faith and sion of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine.”[5] proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit Therefore Jesuits are sometimes referred to colloquially of excellence in teaching and learning and lifelong spiri- [15] as “God’s Soldiers”[6] or “God’s Marines”.[7] The Soci- tual and intellectual growth. ety participated in the Counter-Reformation and later in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council in the Catholic Church. 2 Formula of the Institute The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Vir- Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the “Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus”,

1 2 3 HISTORY which is “the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform.”[16] He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The for- mula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius’ military background:

Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our So- ciety, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pon- tiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, af- ter a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the de- fence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of Ignatius of Loyola God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ’s faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments. More- over, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and in- deed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good.[14]

3 History

3.1 Foundation

On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard of Basque origin, and six other students at the University of Paris[17]—Francisco Xavier from Navarre (modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Spain, Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal—met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre.[18] Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris. They called themselves the Company of Jesus, and also Amigos en El Señor or “Friends in the Lord”, because they felt “they were placed together by Christ”. The name permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps had echoes of the military (as in an infantry "company"), led to the founding of what would be called the Society of as well as of discipleship (the “companions” of Jesus). Jesus later in 1540. The term societas in Latin is derived The word “company” comes ultimately from Latin, cum from socius, a partner or comrade. + pane = “with bread”, or a group that shares meals. They were ordained at Venice by the bishop of Arbe In 1537, they traveled to Italy to seek papal approval for (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and charitable work in Italy, as the Italian War of 1535- 3.2 Early works 3

His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam (“For the greater glory of God”). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things considered normally indifferent.[19] The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support. The term “Jesuit” (of 15th-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Je- sus), was first applied to the Society in reproach (1544– Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting 52). It was never used by its founder, though members Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull Regimini militantis Ec- and friends of the Society in time appropriated the name clesiae from Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by Johann in its positive meaning. Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc after 1743. 3.2 Early works

1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope and the Ottoman Empire rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible. They presented the project to the Pope Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favorably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae (“To the Government of the Church Militant”), on 27 September 1540, but limited the number of its members to sixty. This is the founding document of the Jesuits as an official Catholic religious order. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum. Ignatius was chosen as the first superior-general (leader of the Jesuits). He sent his companions as mis- sionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries.[19] In fulfilling the mission of the “Formula of the Institute of the Society”, the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were rigorously trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions, such as modern-day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia. Ratio Studiorum, 1598 Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to pre- The Jesuits were founded just before the Counter- serve communion with Rome and the successor of Peter. Reformation (or at least before the date those historians The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protes- with a classical view of the counter reformation hold to be tantism in Poland-Lithuania and southern Germany. the beginning of the Counter-Reformation), a movement Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1553, whose purpose was to reform the Catholic Church from which created a tightly centralized organization and within and to counter the Protestant Reformers, whose stressed total abnegation and obedience to the Pope and teachings were spreading throughout Catholic Europe. their religious superiors (perinde ac [si] cadaver [es- As part of their service to the Roman Church, the Je- sent],[20] "[well-disciplined] like a corpse” as Ignatius put suits encouraged people to continue their obedience to it).[21][22] scripture as interpreted by Catholic doctrine. Ignatius is 4 3 HISTORY known to have written: “o I will believe that the white that series of directed meditations on the life of Christ. Dur- I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it.”[23] ing this period, they meet regularly with a spiritual direc- Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that tor, who helps them understand any call or message from the hierarchical Church was in dire need of reform. God that they have received in their meditations. Some of their greatest struggles were against corrup- The retreat follows a “Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive” tion, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cas- Church. Ignatius’s insistence on an extremely high level sian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius’ innovation was to of academic preparation for ministry, for instance, was make this style of contemplative mysticism available to a deliberate response to the relatively poor education of all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of much of the clergy of his time. The Jesuit vow against rebuilding the spiritual life of the Church. The Exercises “ambitioning prelacies” was a deliberate effort to prevent became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one greed for money or power invading Jesuit circles. of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exer- As a result, in spite of their loyalty, Ignatius and his suc- cises to others in what became known as “retreats”. cessors often tangled with the pope and the Roman Cu- The Jesuits’ contributions to the late Renaissance were ria. Over the 450 years since its founding, the Society has significant in their roles both as a missionary order and both been called the papal “elite troops” as it has been as the first religious order to operate colleges and univer- forced into suppression. sities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius’ death in 1556, the Jesuits were already op- erating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance hu- manism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. In addition to teaching faith, the Ratio Studiorum empha- sized the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, po- etry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools en- couraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centers for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of “finding God in all things”, many early Jesuits distin- guished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the Early Modern Period. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living in community, saying the divine office together, etc.) allowed them to be flexible in meet- ing the needs of the people at the time. Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, c. 1605 It is believed that as a response to the varying Protestant St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed reformations against the Catholic Church, Pope Paul III that the reform of the Church had to begin with the con- gave formal approval to St. Ignatius of Loyola to lead version of an individual’s heart. One of the main tools the this order. This order was the most influential, intellectual Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion has been Counter Reformation by the Catholic Church. They were the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. Dur- most notably marked by their ability for intellectual influ- ing a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a ence and debate among the aristocracy of Europe. They 3.3 Expansion 5

The ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana in Paraguay, one of the many Jesuit missions established in South America during the 17th and 18th centuries

in Goa (see Goa Inquisition). He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. Two Jesuit mis- sionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. Jesuit missions in America were very controversial in Eu- rope, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "reductions" (Span- ish Reducciones, Portuguese Reduções). These were so- cieties set up according to an idealized theocratic model. It is partly because the Jesuits, such as Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, protected the natives (whom certain Spanish Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779 and Portuguese colonizers wanted to enslave) that the So- ciety of Jesus was suppressed. were also marked by their elaborate open air revival-style Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de An- meetings. These theatrical provocative and entertaining chieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, [24] sermons created their own celebrity status. including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very in- fluential in the pacification, religious conversion and ed- ucation of Indian nations. 3.3 Expansion Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very im- See also: Jesuit missions in North America and Jesuit portant in studying their languages and strove to produce Reductions Latinized grammars and dictionaries. This was done, for instance, for Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, (Vocabulary of the The Bell of Nanbanji, made in Portugal for Nanbanji Japanese Language) a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary Church, established by Jesuits in 1576 and destroyed written 1603), Vietnamese (French Jesuit missionary 1587, Japan. Alexandre de Rhodes formalized the Vietnamese alpha- Early missions in Japan resulted in the government grant- bet in use today with his 1651 Vietnamese–Portuguese– ing the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. Latin dictionary Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their et Latinum) and Tupi (the main language of Brazil). growing influence. Jean François Pons in the 1740s pioneered the study of Francis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, Sanskrit in the West. arrived in Goa, in Portuguese India, in 1541 to consider Under Portuguese royal patronage, the order thrived in evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded its activities III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded the 6 3 HISTORY

first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau. Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci. On 17 December 1759, the Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal, expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and Portuguese pos- sessions overseas. Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peo- ples in New France in North America. Many of them compiled dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages which they learned. For instance, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled the most extensive Kaskaskia Illinois–French dictionary “Life and works of Confucius, by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687 among works of the missionaries before his death in 1708.[25] in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture 3.3.1 Activity in China and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first Main article: Jesuit China missions learned about the Chinese science and culture. The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese —Agustín Udías, [26]

Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmit- ting Chinese knowledge and philosophy to Europe. Confucius's works were translated into European lan- guages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China, which is why Kǒng Fūzǐ is known in the West un- der his Latinized name to this day. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confu- cius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687.[27] It is thought that such works had considerable influence on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment inter- ested by the integration of the system of morality of Con- fucius into Catholicism.[27][28]

Jesuits in China 3.3.2 Activity in Canada possession of Macau where they founded St. Paul’s Col- lege of Macau. With the discovery and colonization of New France dur- ing the 17th century, the Society of Jesus and the Jesuits The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries played an active role in Canada. When Samuel de Cham- introduced Western science and astronomy, then under- plain was placing the foundations of the French colony at going its own revolution, to China. The scientific revo- Quebec, he realized that this land was inhabited by na- lution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when tive tribes that possessed their own languages, customs scientific innovation had declined in China: and traditions. These natives that inhabited modern day Ontario, Quebec, and country around Lake Simcoe and [The Jesuits] made efforts to translate Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins and western mathematical and astronomical works the Huron.[29] Champlain was a Christian man who felt into Chinese and aroused the interest of that the soul was the only thing that mattered on Earth and Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made that the souls of these Montagnais, Algonquin, and Huron very extensive astronomical observation and must be saved. As a result, in 1614 Champlain invited carried out the first modern cartographic work the Recollects from France to spread the word of the true 3.3 Expansion 7

God, to convert the native inhabitants, and to save their the Iroquois series of raids. It was said that the two souls from eternal damnation in New France.[30] How- men had died as martyrs of the Catholic Church and that ever, in 1624 the French Recollects realized that the mag- their bones would be holy relics.[36] With the knowledge nitude of their task was too much to bear alone and that of the invading Iroquois, Father Paul Ragueneau burned they would need more missionary bodies.[31] The Rec- down Sainte-Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois get ollects sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of the satisfaction of destroying it. By late June 1649, the Jesus to help them with their mission. The invitation was French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte-Marie accepted and Jesuits, Jean de Brebeuf, Ennemond Masse II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint-Joseph). However, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625.[32] the small Sainte-Marie II was facing starvation, lack of supplies and constant threats of Iroquois attack. Sainte- Marie II was abandoned in June 1650 as the remaining Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa.[36] With all this destruction the Huron began to claim that the Jesuits were sorcerers sent to their homeland to kill. They would blame the outbreak of disease on the Jesuits, claiming that they were casting spells from their books. With the outbreak of disease, many people began to mis- trust the Jesuits and suspect them of witchcraft.[37] As a result of the Iroquois raids and disease, many mission- aries, traders, and soldiers were killed or captured. The Huron tribe ceased to exist.[38] After the collapse of the Huron tribe, the Jesuits were to undertake the task of converting the Iroquois natives themselves. In 1642, previous Jesuits attempted to con- vert the Iroquois but had little success. The Jesuits risked their own lives and well being for the sake of this Iro- quois mission. In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fall out with the Dutch. They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established. The Iroquois Father Jacques Marquette with Native Americans took the treaty very lightly and soon turned on the French again. In 1658, the Jesuits were having very little suc- The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in cess and were under constant threat of being tortured or 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples. Father Brebeuf killed.[38] The Jesuits continued to struggle with the Iro- learned the native language and created the first Huron quois until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent language dictionary. Due to outside conflicts, though, the posts in the Iroquois homeland.[39] Jesuits were forced to leave all of New France and their efforts as Quebec was captured by the Kirke brothers un- By 1700 Jesuits began to only maintain their old posts der the English flag. Yet, in 1632 Quebec was returned instead of trying to establish new ones beyond Quebec, [40] to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye Montreal and Ottawa. During the Seven Years’ War, and the Jesuits were back in Huronia by 1634.[33] Quebec fell to the English in 1759 and New France was under British control. The English barred the immigra- In 1639 Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the mission- tion of more Jesuits to New France. By 1763 there were aries in Huronia needed a local residence so they could only twenty-one Jesuits that were still stationed in New relax, reflect, and conduct activities. As a result, Sainte- France. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. During Marie among the Hurons was established. The Sainte- the same year the English crown laid claim to its property Marie expanded into a small community and acted as a in Canada and declared that the Society of Jesus in New [34] living replica of European society. The Sainte-Marie France was dissolved.[41] became the headquarters of the Jesuits and is now an im- portant part of Canadian history. Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits were having a tremendous amount of 3.3.3 Activity in the United States success. They established 5 chapels in Huronia and bap- tized over one thousand Huron natives.[35] However, as Pierre-Jean De Smet was a Belgian Roman Catholic the Jesuits began to expand westward they encountered priest and Jesuit, active in missionary work among the more and more Iroquois natives (Huron rivals). With Native Americans of the Midwestern United States in the the Iroquois growing jealous of the Hurons’ wealth and mid-19th century. His extensive travels as a missionary fur trade system they began to attack Huron villages in were said to total 180,000 miles. He was known as the 1648. The Iroquois killed missionaries, burned villages “Friend of Sitting Bull", because he persuaded the Sioux and scattered many of the Huron natives. Both Father war chief to participate in negotiations with the United Jean de Brebeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were killed in States government for the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. 8 3 HISTORY

3.3.4 Jesuits of Quito in South America America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 mis- sions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 Jesuits of Quito in the Napo Missions and Aguarico Father Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to ex- Missions, and 19 Jesuits of Quito in the Pastaza Missions plore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions and Iquitos Missions of Maynas with a total population of South America from 1602 to 1610, which at that pe- of 20,000 inhabitants. riod belonged to the Audiencia (high court) of Quito, that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was trans- ferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada 3.4 Suppression and restoration in 1717. In 1602, Father Rafael Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers ( Sucumbios re- Main article: Suppression of the Jesuits gion in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and set up, be- tween 1604 and 1605, missions among the Cofane na- tives. Father Rafael Ferrer was martyred when an apos- The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the tate native killed him in 1610. Two Sicilies, Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the Society’s defender, Pope Clement XIII. In 1637, the Jesuits of Quito, Gaspar Cugia and Lucas A decree signed under secular pressure by Pope Clement de la Cueva began establishing some Jesuit missions in XIV in July 1773 suppressed the Order. The suppression Mainas or Maynas. These missions were called the was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, Mainas Missions after the Mainas natives that were found where Catherine the Great had forbidden the papal decree on the banks of the Marañon river, around the Pongo de to be executed. Because millions of Catholics (including Manseriche region, in close proximity to the close to the many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently an- Spanish settlement of Borja. nexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the Society was able to In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedi- maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the tion to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Father Cristóbal de Acuña grant formal permission for the continuation of the Soci- was a part of this expedition. The expedition disem- ety in Russia and Poland. Based on that permission, Pole barked from the Napo river February 16, 1639, and ar- Stanislaus Czerniewicz was elected superior of the Soci- rived in what is today Pará Brazil, on the banks of the ety in 1782. Pope Pius VII during his captivity in France, Amazon river on December 12, 1639. In 1641, Father had resolved to restore the Jesuits universally; and after Cristobal de Acuña published in Madrid a memoire of his his return to Rome he did so with little delay: on 7 Au- expedition to the Amazon river. The title of the memoire gust 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he is called Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Ama- reversed the suppression of the Order and therewith, the zonas, and it was used by academics as a fundamental then Superior in Russia, another Pole, Thaddeus Brzo- reference pertaining to the Amazon region. zowski, who had been elected in 1805, acquired universal Between 1637 and 1652, there were 14 missions estab- jurisdiction. lished along the Marañon river and its southern tributaries The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in – the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Fathers de 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up 2 new the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities estab- routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza lished in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the and Napo rivers. Society’s 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. Some claim that the experi- Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 mis- sions along the length of the Amazon river, between the ence of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debat- Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Mis- sions. These missions were continually attacked by the able, Jesuits were generally supportive of Papal authority Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In within the Church, and some members were associated 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new Papal Infallibility in 1870. location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes. In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Sonderbund In the immense territory of Mainas, also referred to as of some Catholic cantons by the other cantons, the Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito, made contact with a num- constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in ber of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different lan- 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9% of voters accepted a referendum modifying the guages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions with a [42] total population of 150, 000 inhabitants. Because of the Constitution. constant plague of epidemics (smallpox and measles) and The 20th century witnessed both aspects of growth and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish declined steadily since. Meanwhile the number of Jesuit 3.6 In recent years 9

institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, be- a late 20th-century focus on the establishment of Jesuit cause they had been labeled as subversives by the secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in government.[44] The assassinations galvanized the So- lay association with the order. Among the notable Je- ciety’s peace and justice movements, including annual suits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray, was protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Secu- called one of the “architects of the Second Vatican Coun- rity Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, cil" and drafted what eventually became the council’s en- where the assassins were trained under US government dorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae Per- sponsorship.[45] sonae. On 21 February 2001, Father Avery Dulles, SJ, an in- In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from ternationally known author, lecturer and theologian, was the earlier anti-catholic laws of Denmark-Norway, Para- created a Cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John graph 2 originally read, “The Evangelical-Lutheran reli- Paul II. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster gion remains the public religion of the State. Those in- Dulles, Cardinal Dulles was long known for his carefully habitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office children to the same. Jesuits and monastic orders are of the Church. An author of 22 books and over 700 the- not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the ological articles, Cardinal Dulles died on 12 December Realm.” Jews were first allowed into the Realm in 1851 2008 at Fordham University, where he taught for twenty after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion campaigned for it. Monastic orders were permitted in and Society. He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit car- 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956. dinals in the Catholic Church. In 2002, Boston College president Father William P. 3.5 Theological developments Leahy, SJ, initiated the Church in the 21st century pro- gram as a means of moving the Church “from crisis to renewal.” The initiative has provided the Society with a See also: Henri de Lubac, Jean Daniélou, Karl Rahner, platform for examining issues brought about by the world- John Courtney Murray and Bernard Lonergan wide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women’s roles, and the role of the laity. 3.6 In recent years On 6 January 2005, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach, on the occasion of the Jubilee Year, wrote that the Jesuits See also: Jesuit Cardinal and Sexual abuse scandal in the “should truly profit from the jubilee year to examine our Society of Jesus way of life and taking the means to live more profoundly the charisms received from our Founders.”[46] In Latin America, the Jesuits have had significant influ- In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, SJ, editor of the Amer- ence in the development of liberation theology, a move- ican Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the re- ment which has been highly controversial in the Catholic quest of the Society. The move was widely published theological community and condemned by Pope John in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, Paul II on several fundamental aspects. following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality and the the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant right of life for the unborn. Following his resignation, themes of the work of the Jesuits. In 1981, Pope John Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara Univer- Paul II appointed Paolo Dezza S.J., a scholar, to head the sity before being named a fellow at the Woodstock The- Jesuit order as special Papal Delegate, instead of a liberal ological Center in Washington, D.C. American, Father Vincent O'Keefe, who was nominated by the Society. The Pope referred to that moment as “an On 2 February 2006, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach in- important phase of its history.” Dezza “knew of the faults formed members of the Society of Jesus, that, with the that existed in the Church and in her men, but with car- consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down ing dedication, full of love and faith, he helped to allevi- as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80. ate their effects, working for the authentic renewal of the [43] On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the So- Church.” ciety of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio El- Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity lacuria, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martin-Baro, Joaquin to thank God “for having granted to your Company the López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional López); their housekeeper, Elba Ramos; and her daugh- apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis ter, Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the Xavier and Bl Peter Faber.” He said “St Ignatius of Loyola Salvadoran military on the campus of the University was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his 10 6 GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY

the gospels, is drawn from the “Constitutions”, “The Let- ters”, and “Autobiography”, and most specially from St. Ignatius’ "Spiritual Exercises", whose purpose is “to con- quer oneself and to regulate one’s life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment.”

5 Formation

Main article: Jesuit formation

The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men Visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the Pontifical Gregorian University, spiritually, academically and practically for the ministries “one of the greatest services the Society of Jesus carries out for they will be called to offer the Church and world. St. the universal Church.” Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance and wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment, and especially, life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and pope. Formation for Priesthood normally takes between its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration.”[47] 8 and 14 years, depending on the man’s background and In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior previous education, and final vows are taken several years General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII’s encyclical Haurietis any of the religious orders. aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Je- suits have always been “extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion”.[48] In his 3 November 2006 6 Government of the society visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as “one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church”.[49] The society is headed by a Superior General. In the Je- suit order, the formal title of the Superior General is Prae- The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus positus Generalis, Latin for “provost-general”, more com- convened on 5 January 2008 and elected Fr. Adolfo monly called Father General or General, who is elected Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns, A month after, the Pope received members of the General is confirmed by the Pope, and has absolute authority in Congregation and urged them “to continue on the path running the society. The current Superior General of the of this mission in full fidelity to your original charism” Jesuits is the Spanish Jesuit, Fr. Adolfo Nicolás Pachón and asked them to reflect so as “to rediscover the fullest who was elected on 19 January 2008. meaning of your characteristic 'fourth vow' of obedience to the Successor of Peter.” For this, he told them to “ad- He is assisted by “assistants”, four of whom are “assistants here totally to the Word of God and to the Magisterium’s for provident care” and serve as general advisors and a task of preserving the integral truth and unity of Catholic sort of inner council to the superior general, and several doctrine.” This clear identity, according to the Pope, is other regional assistants each of whom heads an “assis- important so that “many others may share in your ide- tancy”, which is either a geographic area (for instance, als and join you effectively and enthusiastically.”[50] The the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry Congregation responded with a formal declaration titled (for instance, higher education). The assistants normally “With New Fervor and Dynamism, the Society of Jesus reside with the Superior General in Rome. The assistants, Responds to the Call of Benedict XVI”, whereby they together with a number of other advisors, form an advi- confirmed the Society’s fidelity to the Pope.[51] sory council to the General. A vicar general and secre- tary of the society run day-to-day administration. The General is also required to have an "admonitor", a confi- dential advisor whose specific job is to warn the General 4 Ignatian spirituality honestly and confidentially when he is acting imprudently or is straying toward disobedience to the Pope or heresy. Main article: Ignatian spirituality The central staff of the General is known as the Curia. The order is divided into geographic provinces, each of The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has au- 8.2 Political intrigue 11

thority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to Society of assisted by a socius, who acts as a sort of secretary and Jesus.[53] chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the fa- ther provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local houses 8.2 Political intrigue of Jesuits. Each Jesuit community within a province is normally The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in headed by a rector who is assisted by a “minister”, from 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the Latin for “servant”, a priest who helps oversee the the king of France, Henri IV. Under questioning Châtel community’s day-to-day needs. revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont. The Jesuits were accused of in- The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assis- spiring Châtel’s attack. Two of his former teachers were tants, provincials and additional representatives who are exiled and a third teacher was hanged.[54] The Collège de elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated. irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior The Jesuit Order was banned from France, although this general and/or to take up some major policy issues for ban was quickly lifted. the order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials. In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Je- suits, was hanged for misprision of treason, because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). The Plot was the attempted assassination of King James I of England 7 Habit and dress and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Jesuits do not have an official habit. In the Constitu- Parliament. Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed tions of the Society, it gives these instructions concerning to escape arrest for his involvement in the Gunpowder clothing; “The clothing too should have three character- Plot.[55] istics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contra- dictory to the poverty we profess...” (Const. 577) 8.3 Casuistic justification Historically, a “Jesuit-style cassock" became “standard issue": it wrapped around the body and was tied with Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain jus- tifications for unjustifiable actions. (cf. formulary con- a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front, a [56] tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts), and a troversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal). ferraiolo (cape). As such, though it was the common Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English lan- priestly dress of Ignatius’ day, Jesuit garb appeared dis- guage, records “equivocating” as a secondary denotation tinctive, and became identifiable over time. During the of the word “Jesuit”. Contemporary critics of the Society missionary periods of North America, the various na- of Jesus include Jack Chick, Avro Manhattan, Alberto tive peoples referred to Jesuits as “Blackrobes” because Rivera, and Malachi Martin, author of The Jesuits: The of their black cassocks. Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church (1987).[57] Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the Roman collar and black clothing of ordinary priests, although some still wear the black cassock.[52] 8.4 Anti-Semitism

Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Soci- 8 Controversies ety of Jesus there were many Jesuit conversos (Catholic- convert Jews),[58] an anti-converso faction led to the De- cree de genere (1593) which proclaimed that either Jew- 8.1 Power-seeking ish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), of Jesus.[59] The 16th-century Decree de genere remained published in 1612 and in 1614, in Kraków, is alternately in exclusive force until the 20th century, when it was re- alleged to have been written either by Claudio Acquaviva, pealed in 1946.[60] the fifth general of the society, or written by Jerome Za- horowski. The purported Secret Instructions of the Jesuits are the methods to be adopted by the Jesuits for the ac- 8.5 Theological debates quisition of greater power and influence for the Society and for the Roman Catholic Church. Within the Roman Catholic Church, there has existed The Catholic Encyclopedia states the book is a forgery, a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the 12 10 IN SCIENCE

Holy See due to questioning of official Church teach- 10 In science ing and papal directives, such as those on abortion,[61][62] [63][64][65][66] [67] birth control, women deacons, homosex- Main article: List of Jesuit scientists [68][69] uality, and liberation theology. Usually this the- The Jesuits have made numerous significant contribu- ological free thinking is academically oriented, being prevalent at the university level. From this standpoint, the function of this debate is less to challenge the magisterium than illustrate the church’s ability to com- promise in a pluralist society based on shared values which do not always align with religious teachings.[70] The previous two Popes have appointed Jesuits to pow- erful positions in the Church; John Paul II appointed Roberto Tucci, S.J., to the College of Cardinals, after serving as the chief organizer of papal trips and pub- lic events. Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI have appointed 10 Jesuit Cardinals to notable jobs. Bene- dict XVI appointed Jesuits to notable positions in his curia, such as Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer, S.J. as Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, and Rev. Federico Lombardi, S.J., Vatican Press Secretary.[71] Pope Francis, elected in 2013, has become the first Jesuit Pope and is initiating discussions on social matters.

9 Rescue efforts during the Holo- caust

Twelve Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Re- membrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclid’s Elements published in 1607. Braun (1910–1981) of France; Pierre Chaillet (1900– 1972) of France; Jean-Baptist De Coster (1896–1968) tions to the development of science. For example, the Je- of Belgium; Jean Fleury (1905–1982) of France; Emile suits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and Gessler (1891–1958) of Belgium; Jean-Baptiste Janssens seismology has been described as “the Jesuit science.”[76] (1889–1964) of Belgium; Alphonse Lambrette (1884– The Jesuits have been described as “the single most im- 1970) of Belgium; Emile Planckaert (b. 1906–2006) portant contributor to experimental physics in the seven- of France; Jacob Raile (1894–1949) of Hungary; Henri teenth century.”[77] According to Jonathan Wright in his Revol (1904–1992) of France; Adam Sztark (1907– book God’s Soldiers, by the eighteenth century the Jesuits 1942) of Poland; and Henri Van Oostayen (1906–1945) had “contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, of Belgium. pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and mi- Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given croscopes, to scientific fields as various as magnetism, refuge to Jews during that period.[72] A plaque commem- optics and electricity. They observed, in some cases be- orating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave of their lives dur- fore anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter's surface, ing the Holocaust was installed at Rockhurst University, a the Andromeda nebula and Saturn’s rings. They theo- Jesuit university, in Kansas City, Missouri, United States, rized about the circulation of the blood (independently in April 2007, the first such plaque in the world. of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon effected the tides, and the wave-like nature of The Nazi regime considered the Jesuits one of their most [78] dangerous enemies. According to John Pollard, the Je- light.” suit’s “ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th cen- the philosophy of Nazism.”[73] A Jesuit college in the city turies introduced Western science and astronomy, then of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance undergoing its own revolution, to China. One mod- and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938.[74] Jesuits ern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were a target for Gestapo prosecution and many Jesuit were “regarded as impressive especially for their knowl- priests were deported to concentration camps.[75] edge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hy- 13

draulics, and geography.”[79] The Society of Jesus in- tant history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. Eusebio troduced, according to Thomas Woods, “a substantial Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of men- northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimeria Alta). tal tools for understanding the physical universe, includ- He founded numerous missions and served as the peace ing the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion bringer between the tribes and the government of New comprehensible.”[80] Another expert quoted by Woods Spain. said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits co- There are notable Jesuits in the modern era, the most incided with a time when science was at a very low level prominent being Pope Francis. Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio in China. of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on March 13, 2013 and is the first Jesuit pope.[81][82] A modern Jesuit was Gerard Manley Hopkins, the poet. 11 Notable members On 10 April 1912, the Rev. Francis Browne, a Jesuit priest, sailed the first leg of the Titanic ' s maiden voy- Main articles: List of Jesuits and List of Jesuit scientists age, between Southampton, England, Queenstown (now Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scien- Cobh), Ireland—taking a series of black-and-white pho- tos of life on board the luxury liner. He had planned to stay on the ship to New York but was ordered by his su- perior to return home instead. Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychothera- pist who became widely known for his books on spiritu- ality. Fr. Anthony de Mello developed a new approach to Christian spirituality, by integrating wisdom from eastern and western sources that brought enlightenment to people of all backgrounds.

12 Educational institutions

Main article: List of Jesuit institutions See also: Category:Jesuit universities and colleges

Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Today, there are Jesuit-run universities, col- leges, high schools and middle or elementary schools in North American Martyrs dozens of countries. Many are named after St. Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits. Jesuits also serve on tists, artists, philosophers, and the current pope. Among the faculties of both Catholic and secular schools. many distinguished early Jesuits was St. Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before and St. Robert Bel- larmine, a doctor of the Church. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were also Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was St. Jean de Brebeuf, a French missionary who was martyred in what was once New France (now Ontario) in Canada during the 17th century. José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples. In South America, Saint Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves. He built on the work of Alonso de Sandoval, S.J. in this mission. Francisco Javier Clavi- jero was expelled from New Spain during the Suppression Georgetown University's main campus of the Society of Jesus in 1767. He wrote an impor- 14 12 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

• Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth: Pontifical Institute of Philosophy and Religion, Pune • Papal Seminary, Pune, India

Indonesia

• Sanata Dharma University, Yogyakarta • Akademi Teknik Mesin Industri (ATMI), Surakarta - Cikarang • Akademi Pendidikan Industri Kayu (PIKA), Se- Boston College is the home to one of the world’s largest Jesuit marang communities • Kolese Kanisius, Jakarta • Kolese Loyola, Semarang Bangladesh • Kolese Gonzaga, Jakarta • St Francis Xavier’s Green Herald International School Japan

Chile • Sophia University

• Alberto Hurtado University Mexico

Colombia • Universidad Iberoamericana • ITESO, Guadalajara • Pontificia Universidad Javeriana

Nepal Hong Kong (High School)

• St. Xavier’s College, Kathmandu • Wah Yan College, Hong Kong

• Wah Yan College, Kowloon Nigeria

India • Loyola Jesuit College, Abuja

• Loyola College, Chennai Philippines

• St. Xavier’s Collegiate School, Kolkata • Ateneo de Davao University, Davao City • St. Lawrence High School, Kolkata • Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Cagayan de • XIM- Xavier Institute of Management, Oro City Bhubaneswar • Ateneo de Manila University • XISS- Xavier Institute of Social Sciences, Ranchi • Ateneo de Naga University, Naga • XLRI- Xavier School of Management, Jamshedpur • Ateneo de Zamboanga University, Zamboanga City • Loyola School, Thiruvananthapuram • Ateneo de Iloilo, Iloilo City • Loyola School, Jamshedpur • Sacred Heart School - Ateneo de Cebu, Mandaue City • St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai • Xavier School, Greenhills, San Juan City • St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore

• St. Aloysius College, Mangalore South Korea 15

• Sogang University United Kingdom

England and Wales Sweden • • Newman Institute (Uppsala), Uppsala Heythrop College, University of London • Mount St Mary’s College United States, 28 colleges and universities in 19 states[83] • Barlborough Hall School

• Stonyhurst College See also: Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities • Stonyhurst St Mary’s Hall

• Wimbledon College • Boston College • Donhead • Canisius College • • College of the Holy Cross St Ignatius’ College

• Creighton University Scotland • Fairfield University • St Aloysius’ College, Glasgow • Fordham University • St Aloysius’ College Junior School , Glasgow • Georgetown University • Gonzaga University Zimbabwe • John Carroll University • St George’s College, Harare • Le Moyne College • St. Ignatius College, Harare • Loyola Marymount University • Francis Xavier College, Murombedzi • Loyola University Chicago • St. Francis Dete Boys College, Hwange • Loyola University Maryland • Loyola University New Orleans Lebanon • Marquette University • St. Joseph’s University • Regis University • Rockhurst University 13 Publications • Saint Joseph’s University Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publica- • Saint Louis University tions. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome • St. Peter’s University by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official plat- form for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for dis- • Santa Clara University cussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a promi- • Seattle University nent place in intellectual Catholic circles. Most Jesuit col- • Spring Hill College leges and universities have their own presses which pro- duce a variety of books, book series, textbooks and aca- • University of Detroit Mercy demic publications as well. Ignatius Press, staffed by Je- suits, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most • University of San Francisco of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual • University of Scranton variety. • Wheeling Jesuit University In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, • Xavier University and Province Express. 16 18 NOTES AND REFERENCES

In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine Signum, edited • Brodrick, Rev. James Patrick (1940). The Origin of by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of is- the Jesuits. Originally Published Longmans Green. sues concerning faith, culture, research, and society. The ISBN 0829409300. printed version of Signum is published eight times per • year. In addition, there is an up-to-date website (www. De Rosa, Giuseppe (2006). Gesuiti (in Italian). signum.se) containing an article archive dating from 1975 Elledici. p. 148. ISBN 9788801034400. to the present. • O'Malley, SJ, John W. The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present ) 2014) • Joachim Schmiedl (2011). Orden als transnationale 14 Buildings Netzwerke der katholischen Kirche, European His- tory Online, Institute of European History, re- Main article: List of Jesuit buildings trieved: 21 February 2013. See also: Jesuit Church (disambiguation) Pictured here is the Sanctuary of Loyola in Azpeitia, 17 See also

• Acta Sanctorum • Apostleship of Prayer • Bollandist • Canadian Indian residential school system • Jesuit conspiracy theories • Jesuit Ivy • Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos • Laying on of hands

Birthplace and sanctuary of Saint Ignatius of Loyola, in Azpeitia, • List of Saints of the Society of Jesus Basque Country. • Misiones Province, Argentina Spain, the main Jesuit shrine in the birthplace of Saint • Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu Ignatius of Loyola. • Roman Catholicism in China • Roman Catholicism in Japan 15 In Popular culture

• The 1986 British drama film The Mission evolves 18 Notes and references around the experiences of a Jesuit missionary in 18th century South America. [1] Curia Generalis, Society of Jesus (10 April 2013). “From the Curia - THE SOCIETY OF JESUS IN NUMBERS • In The Body (2001 film), Antonio Banderas plays a (Vol. 17, N. 10)". The Jesuit Portal – Society of Jesus Jesuit Priest. Homepage. Retrieved 27 June 2013. The new statistics of the Society of Jesus as of January 1st, 2013 have been published. [...] As of 1 January 2013, the total number of Jesuits was 17,287 [...] – a net loss of 337 members from 16 Further reading 1 January 2012. [2] Loyola, Ignatius; Rules for Thinking with the Church • Desideri (1932). An Account of Tibet: The Travels (1999). Bettenson, Henry, ed. Documents of the Chris- of Ippolito Desideri 1712–1727. Ippolito Desideri. tian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Edited by Filippo De Filippi. Introduction by C. p. 272. ISBN 0-192-88071-3. Retrieved 23 February Wessels. Reproduced by Rupa & Co, New Delhi. 2010. 2005 [3] O'Malley, John W., ed. (2006). “The Formula of the Institute (p. XXXV)". Jesuits 2 (2nd ed.). Toronto: • Parkman, Francis (1867). The Jesuits in North University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-802-03861-1; ISBN America in the Seventeenth Century. p. 637. 978-08-0203-861-6. 17

[4] (Spanish) See Fórmula del Instituto on Google Books. [22] Franklin Verzelius N. Painter (1903). A History of Edu- cation. New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 167. [5] O'Malley, John W., ed. (2006). The Formula of the In- stitute, 1550, Exposcit debitum (p. XXXV). [23] Ignatius Loyola, The spiritual exercise, trans. An- thony Mottola. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, [6] “Poverty And Chastity For Every Occasion”. National 1964, pp. 140–141. Reference from William Public Radio. Washington, D.C. March 5, 2010. Re- B. Ashworth Jr, “Catholicism and Early Modern trieved 15 May 2013. Science” in David C. Lindberg, Ronald L. Num- bers, God and Nature, p. 159, n. 91 (p. 166). [7] “About Our Jesuits”. Ignatius House Retreat Center. At- http://web.archive.org/web/20131023050342/http: lanta, Georgia. Retrieved 15 May 2013. //wps.ablongman.com/long_longman_lwcdemo_1/0, [8] “News on the elections of the new Superior General”. 9493,1532993-,00.html Sjweb.info. Retrieved 4 December 2011. [24] Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early [9] “africa.reuters.com, Spaniard becomes Jesuits’ new “black Church to the Present Day, 1985 , p. 144 pope"". Africa.reuters.com. 9 February 2009. Retrieved [25] “Review” of Carl Masthay, Kaskaskia Illinois-to-French 4 December 2011. Dictionary, Saint Louis: Carl Masthay, 2002, Interna- [10] “Curia Generalizia of the Society of Jesus”. Sjweb.info. tional Journal of Lexicography, 17(3):325–327. Re- Retrieved 4 December 2011. trieved 1 March 2010

[11] See perspective circle graph (3D pie chart) on Google Im- [26] Udías, Agustín (2003). Searching the Heavens and the ages. Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories (Astrophysics and Space Science Library). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 1- [12] Lapitan, Giselle (22 May 2012). “The changing face of 402-01189-X. the Jesuits”. Province Express. Retrieved 27 June 2013. [27] Parker, John (1978). Windows into China: the Jesuits and [13] Raper, Mark (23 May 2012). “Changing to best serve the their books, : delivered on the occasion of the fifth annual universal mission”. Jesuit Asia Pacific Conference. Re- Bromsen Lecture, April 30, 1977. Boston: Trustees of the trieved 27 June 2013. Public Library of the City of Boston. p. 25.

[14] Puca, Pasquale (30 January 2008). “St. Ignatius of [28] Hobson, John M. (2004). The Eastern origins of Western Loyola and the Development of the Society of Jesus”. civilisation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English (The pp. 194–195. Cathedral Foundation): 12. Retrieved 23 February 2010. [29] E.J. Devine, The Jesuit Martyrs of Canada (Toronto: The [15] “St. Aloysius College mission statement”. Staloy- Canadian Messenger, 1925), 1 sius.nsw.edu.au. Retrieved 2013-03-18. [30] E.J. Devine, The Jesuit Martyrs of Canada (Toronto: The [16] O'Malley, John (1993). The First Jesuits. Cambridge, Canadian Messenger, 1925), 3. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-674-30313-X; ISBN 978-06-7430-313-3. [31] Pilgram, The Tragedy of Old Huron (Ontario: The Mar- tyrs’ Shrine, 1932), 29. [17] Michael Servetus Research Website that includes graph- [32] E.J. Devine, The Jesuit Martyrs of Canada (Toronto: The ical documents in the University of Paris of: Ignations Canadian Messenger, 1925), 5. of Loyola, Francis Xavier, Alfonso Salmerón, Nicholas Bobadilla, Peter Faber and Simao Rodrigues, as well as [33] Paul J Delaney and Andrew D. Nicholls. After The Fire: Michael de Villanueva (“Servetus”) Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons Since 1649 (Ontario: East Georgian Bay Company, 1989), 1. [18] Coyle, Henry (1908). Our church, her children and in- stitutions. Angel Guardian Press. p. 142. Retrieved 14 [34] Paul J Delaney and Andrew D. Nicholls. After The Fire: August 2011. Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons Since 1649 (Ontario: East Georgian Bay Company, 1989), 2 [19] Höpfl, Harro (2004). Jesuit political thought: the Society of Jesus and the state, c. 1540–1630. Cambridge, UK: [35] J.H. Kennedy. Jesuit and Savage in New France (New Cambridge University Press. p. 426. ISBN 0-521-83779- Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 42. 0. [36] Paul J Delaney and Andrew D. Nicholls. After The Fire: [20] Jesuitas (1583). "SEXTA PARS - CAP. 1". Constitutiones Sainte-Marie Among the Hurons Since 1649 (Ontario: East Societatis Iesu: cum earum declarationibus (in Latin). Georgian Bay Company, 1989), 3.

[21] Ignatius of Loyola (1970). The constitutions of the soci- [37] Roger M. Carpenter, The Renewed, The Destroyed, and ety of Jesus. Translated by George E. Ganss. Institute of the Remade: The Three Thought Worlds of the Iroquois Jesuit Sources. p. 249. Carried and directed by Divine and the Huron, 1609–1650, 61. Providence through the agency of the superior as if he were a lifeless body which allows itself to be carried to [38] J.H. Kennedy. Jesuit and Savage in New France (New any place and to be treated in any manner desired. Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 43. 18 18 NOTES AND REFERENCES

[39] J.H. Kennedy. Jesuit and Savage in New France (New [54] Voltaire (1769), “XXXI”, Histoire du Parlement de Paris, Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 46. Châtel fut écartelé, le jésuite Guignard fut pendu; et ce qui est bien étrange, Jouvency, dans son Histoire des Jésuites, le [40] J.H. Kennedy. Jesuit and Savage in New France (New regarde comme un martyr et le compare à Jésus-Christ. Le Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 49. régent de Châtel, nommé Guéret, et un autre jésuite, nommé Hay, ne furent condamnés qu’à un bannissement perpétuel. [41] J.H. Kennedy. Jesuit and Savage in New France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), 53. [55] Fraser, Antonia (2005) [1996]. The Gunpowder Plot. London, UK: Phoenix. p. 448. ISBN 0-753-81401-3. [42] Chancellerie Fédérale Suisse, Votation populaire du 20 [56] “Pascal: Adversary and Advocate” Robert J. Nelson, Har- mai 1973 (20 May 1973). “Arrêté fédéral abrogeant les vard University Press, 1981. p. 190 articles de la constitution fédérale sur les jésuites et les couvents (art. 51 et 52)" (in French). Retrieved 23 Octo- [57] see Malachi Martin (1987) The Jesuits: The Society of ber 2007. Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church, Simon & Schuster, Linden Press, New York, 1987, ISBN [43] “Funeral Mass for Cardinal Paolo Dezza”. Vatican.va. 0-671-54505-1 1999-12-20. Retrieved 2013-03-18. [58] O'Malley, John (1993). The First Jesuits. p. 190. [44] Global Capitalism, Liberation Theology, and the Social Sciences: An Analysis of the Contradictions of Moder- [59] De La Rosa, Alexandre Coello (1932). Archivum his- nity at the Turn of the Millennium (Paperback) by toricum Societatis Iesu, pp. 45–93. Institutum Societatis Andreas Muller (Editor), Arno Tausch (Editor), Paul Iesu, Rome, Italy. ISSN 0037-8887. M. Zulehner (Editor), Henry Wickens (Editor), Haup- [60] Jesuit scholar John Padberg in For matters of greater mo- pauge/Huntington, New York: Nova Science Publishers, ment: the first thirty Jesuit General Councils (Institute of ISBN 1-560-7267-92. Jesuit Sources, 1994), p, 204, quotes the text of the 1593– 1594 council decree and states that the restriction on Jew- [45] Krickl, Tony (3 February 2007). “CGU Student Josh Har- ish/Muslim converts was limited only to the degree of ris to Spend Two Months in Federal Prison for Protest- parentage. Fourteen years later this was extended back ing”. Claremont Courier. to the fifth degree. Over time the restriction relating to Muslim ancestry was dropped. In 1923, the 27th Jesuit [46] Kolvenbach, Peter-Hans (6 January 2005). General Congregation specified that “The impediment of “CELEBRATION OF THE JUBILEE YEAR. SAINT origin extends to all who are descended from the Jewish IGNATIUS LOYOLA, SAINT FRANCIS XAVIER race, unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and AND BLESSED PETER FAVRE”. Review of Ignatian great grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church.” Spirituality. Retrieved 27 June 2013. In 1946, the 29th General Congregation dropped the re- quirement but still called for “cautions to be exercised [47] Benedict XVI (22 April 2006). “Address of his Holiness before admitting a candidate about whom there is some Benedict XVI to the Fathers and Brothers of the Society doubt as to the character of his hereditary background.” of Jesus”. Retrieved 23 October 2007. Robert A. Maryks in his book The Jesuit Order as a Syn- [48] Benedict XVI (15 May 2006). “Letter to the Superior agogue of Jews:Jesuits of Jewish Ancestry and Purity-of- General of the Society of Jesus on the 50th anniversary Blood Laws in the Early Society of Jesus (Brill, 2009), of the Encyclical Haurietis Aquas”. Retrieved 23 Octo- p. xxviii, interprets the 1593 “Decree de genere” as pre- ber 2007. venting, despite Ignatius’ desires, any Jewish or Muslim conversos and, by extension, any person with Jewish or [49] Benedict XVI (3 November 2006). “Address of his Ho- Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, from admission liness Benedict XVI—Visit of the Holy Father to the to the Society of Jesus. Pontifical Gregorian University”. Retrieved 23 October [61] John F. Kavanaugh (15 December 2008). “Abortion Ab- 2007. solutists”. America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.

[50] Benedict XVI (4 March 2008). “Papal Address to Mem- [62] Dennis O’Brien (30 May 2005). “No to Abortion:Posture, bers of Jesuit General Congregation: Rediscover the Not Policy”. America. Retrieved 2 August 2011. Fullest Meaning of Your Characteristic '4th Vow' of Obe- dience”. Retrieved 8 March 2008. [63] Norbert J. Rigali, S.J. (23 September 2000). “Words and Contraception”. America. Retrieved 2 August 2011. [51] “Jesuits end meeting by approving decrees, confirming fi- [64] Richard A. McCormick (17 July 1993). "'Humanae Vitae' delity to pope, CNS 7 March 2008”. Catholicnews.com. 25 Years Later”. America. Retrieved 2 August 2011. 7 March 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2011. [65] Cardinal Avery Dulles, S.J. (28 September 1968). “Karl [52] “The Society of Jesus in the United States: Frequently Rahner on 'Humanae Vitae'". America. Retrieved 2 Au- Asked Questions”. Jesuit.org. 2008-01-19. Retrieved gust 2011. 2013-03-18. [66] Thomas J. Reese, S.J. & various correspondents (31 [53] Gerard, John (1911). “Monita Secreta”. Catholic Ency- March 2009). “Pope, Condoms and AIDS”. The Wash- clopedia. newadvent.org. Retrieved 2 August 2011. ington Post. Retrieved 2 August 2011. 19

[67] Phyllis Zagano (17 February 2003). “Catholic Women 19 External links Deacons”. America. Retrieved 2 August 2011.

[68] James Martin, S.J. (21 November 2008). “Jesuit General: 19.1 Catholic Church documents Liberation Theology “Courageous"". America. Retrieved 2 August 2011. • Benedict XVI’s Address to the Members of the So- ciety of Jesus, 22 April 2006 [69] James Martin, S.J. (29 August 2010). “Glenn Beck and Liberation Theology”. America. Retrieved 2 August • Benedict XVI’s Visit to the Pontifical Gregorian 2011. University, 3 November 2006

[70] Worthen, Molly (15 September 2012). “The Power of Political Communion”. New York Times. Retrieved 18 19.2 Jesuit documents September 2012. • The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599 [71] John Thavis (8 September 2006). "'Sala Stampa' style change: From toreador to low-key mathematician”. • The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591–1610 Catholic News Service. Retrieved 12 June 2009. • Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the [72] “Hiatt Holocaust Collection”. Holycross.edu. Retrieved 4 leaders of the G8, July 2005 PDF (98.5 KB) December 2011. • The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola [73] Cyprian Blamires. John Pollard in: World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. p. 357. 19.3 Other links [74] Cyprian Blamires. John Pollard in: World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. p. 356. • The BBC Radio 4 In Our Time programme on 18 January 2007 was devoted to the early history and [75] Cyprian Blamires. John Pollard in: World Fascism: A educational role of the Jesuits; the programme’s Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. pp. 356–357. website offers a free podcast and 'listen again' ser- [76] Susan Elizabeth Hough, Richter’s Scale: Measure of an vice In Our Time website Earthquake, Measure of a Man, Princeton University • “The Jesuit Curia in Rome”. Retrieved 2 April Press, 2007, ISBN 0-691-12807-3, p. 68. 2012.

[77] Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald Leslie (1986). God • “Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu - Jesuit and nature. Historical essays on the encounter between Archive in Rome”. Retrieved 2 July 2013. Christianity and science. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 154. ISBN 0-520-05538-1; ISBN • "Society of Jesus" section of Wikisource's Roman 978-052005-538-4. Catholicism portal. [78] Wright, Jonathan (2005). God’s Soldiers. Adventure, Pol- itics, Intrigue, and Power--A History of the Jesuits. New York City: The Doubleday Religious Publishing Group. p. 200. ISBN 0-385-50080-7; ISBN 978-038550-080-7.

[79] Patricia Buckley Ebrey, p. 212.

[80] Woods, Thomas E. (2005). How The Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 101. ISBN 0-895-26038-7; ISBN 978- 089526-038-3.

[81] “FRANCISCUS”. Holy See. 13 March 2013. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum; habemus Papam: Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum Georgium Mari- umSanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem Bergoglioqui sibi nomen imposuit Franciscum

[82] “Habemus Papam! Cardinal Bergoglio Elected Pope Francis”. News.va. Retrieved 2013-03-14.

[83] “U.S. News & World Report’s National Universities 2011”. 20 20 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

20 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

20.1 Text

• Society of Jesus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society%20of%20Jesus?oldid=639349242 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, XJaM, Rmhermen, William Avery, Inti, Panairjdde, Zadcat, Imran, Rsabbatini, Bignose, KF, Olivier, Renata, Noung, Lisiate, RTC, Michael Hardy, EvanProdromou, Nixdorf, Menchi, Sannse, Karl Stas, Nine Tail Fox, Egil, Ihcoyc, Ahoerste- meier, Stan Shebs, Ronz, Pylon, Error, Djnjwd, JasCollins, Jacquerie27, JamesReyes, John K, Mxn, JASpencer, Ideyal, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, Blostopher, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Harris7, RickK, Reddi, Mjklin, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Fibonacci, Philopp, Bevo, Jschallan, Mksmith, Wetman, Pakaran, MH, Hajor, Cluth, Owen, Huangdi, Gentgeen, Robbot, Dale Arnett, PBS, Schutz, Ro- manm, Henrygb, Hippietrail, Timrollpickering, DHN, Jondel, Baloo rch, Wikibot, JackofOz, Wereon, Kent Wang, Hcheney, Crculver, Moravec, DocWatson42, JohnWoolsey, Cobra libre, Nat Krause, Tom harrison, Meursault2004, Samuel J. Howard, Marcika, Clossius, Per Honor et Gloria, Mboverload, JillandJack, Christopherlin, Isidore, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Dvavasour, SarekOfVulcan, Litalex, Albrecht, Antandrus, Piotrus, Scottperry, Hi, Jeff. Hi!, Noirum, Burgundavia, Necrothesp, Beginning, Asbestos, Neutrality, Gerald Fari- nas, Laca, Erehtsti, Trevor MacInnis, Bluemask, D6, Simonides, Freakofnurture, Pmadrid, Jim Henry, A-giau, Blanchette, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Pjacobi, Cjrs 79, Dbachmann, Edgarde, Kbh3rd, Swid, Kaszeta, *drew, Sfahey, El C, Walden, Kwamik- agami, Parklandspanaway, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Gershwinrb, Jpgordon, Thuresson, Bobo192, Vervin, Dralwik, Ypacaraí, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Bagger, Chrisvls, Man vyi, Shereth, Kx1186, BenM, Helix84, C-squared, Susheel c, Erri4a, Perceval, Kamal misra, ADM, Vizcarra, OoberMick, Steve Mollmann, Alansohn, Gary, Gsteff, Arthena, Bdwilliamscraig, Flata, MpegMan, Circuitloss, Bucephalus, Velella, SidP, BBird, Txn, Ish ishwar, Fleep, Suruena, Match, Computerjoe, BDD, Chrysaor, RCMC0626, Tweedy7736, Fdewaele, Mhaz- ard9, Crosbiesmith, Mcsee, Megan1967, SKopp, Woohookitty, Ghane, RHaworth, Jpers36, Lincher, Lkjhgfdsa, Jeff3000, MONGO, Tylerni7, Tabletop, Keta, Jamesmassola, EQuintan, John Hill, Wayward, Joke137, Essjay, Palica, Rmcsamson, HippoOwl, PET, Dysep- sion, Ashmoo, Lawrence King, Graham87, Blisco, Rachel1, BD2412, Cath0de, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, MatthewDBA, Zirk, Jclemens, Dpr, Pmj, Timsj, Drbogdan, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Vary, Rillian, BlueMoonlet, Seneka, Harro5, Mikesj, Vegaswikian, Hap- pyCamper, Primeirocrime, Nam, Vermin1302, FlaBot, Windchaser, Musical Linguist, Jcmurphy, Nihiltres, Truman Burbank, GeeZee, Pathoschild, RexNL, Ayla, Jrtayloriv, AaronB0413, Jdonovan, Ybunkwok, Psantora, Chobot, Jaraalbe, Gdrbot, Digitalme, Mercury McK- innon, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, Taurrandir, Hairy Dude, Tznkai, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Filippof, Mdsmedia, Icarus3, Conscious, AVM, Zafiroblue05, Bhny, Pigman, Chirho, Akamad, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, Bohouse, Xaviervd, Mfero, Fnorp, Nawlin- Wiki, SEWilcoBot, Nirvana2013, Snek01, Bogdanovich, Grafen, Rjensen, Howcheng, Irishguy, Tfarrell, Midnite Critic, Seeaxid, Iavila, PhilipC, Bucketsofg, MSJapan, Kyle Barbour, Rwalker, Degreezero, Jpeob, Ms2ger, FF2010, Snuppy, Cabanes, Gergis, Juicedpalmeiro, Bamse, Nashcode, Tevildo, JBogdan, CWenger, LeonardoRob0t, Invincoli, Windyjarhead, Contaldo80, T. Anthony, Mapdock, Koppany, Appleseed, Erudy, Shtove, GrinBot, Diligent, CIreland, FrozenPurpleCube, Luk, SmackBot, Vivekr13, Jb05-rsh, Lestrade, AmericaSings, KocjoBot, Erkowit, Patrickneil, Rouenpucelle, StephenJMuir, Srnelson, Iph, Boris Barowski, Sebastianvattamattam, Alsandro, IstvanWolf, Commander Keane bot, Gilliam, Quidam65, Gregjgrose, Hmains, Skizzik, Olentz, Angelbo, Ajpappal, Wilson Delgado, Cowman109, JackyR, Jprg1966, MalafayaBot, ImpuMozhi, Exitr, Joseolgon, Colonies Chris, MTBradley, Banderas, Salmar, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Mitsuhirato, OrphanBot, WikiCats, R.F.La Fontaine, Clinkophonist, Puddingpie, Greenshed, Bolivian Unicyclist, Midnightcomm, Mr.Z-man, Elendil’s Heir, Easwarno1, Krich, Ipernar, RFD, Andymeyer, Makemi, Miked84, Pwjb, Whatupshorty45, Dantadd, Stroika, DMacks, Lemonhead575, Adamarthurryan, Makrina, Luc., Nmpenguin, Icecradle, Bejnar, Ged UK, Ohconfucius, Workman, Sashato- Bot, Lambiam, Dane Sorensen, Christoph Wagener, Clarkbmiller, Hevern, Kuru, Ergative rlt, The alliance, Isomega, Bucksburg, Syra987, Ckatz, RandomCritic, Succubus MacAstaroth, Scgaucho, Meco, Waggers, Contorebel, Sifaka, Hetar, Iridescent, OsFan, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Babsnaik, Twas Now, MJO, Scskowron, Shoreranger, Adam sk, DrNickRiviera, Clap, Chris55, Michael Rosinski, SJ, Dev920, EddieAtari, Levi P., RCS, Nfbuckley, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Apfox, Fumblebruschi, Jayunderscorezero, Fsouza, GeorgeLouis, Drinibot, Ruslik0, Ran9876, ShelfSkewed, Outriggr, WeggeBot, Penbat, Oden, G88keeper, Gregbard, Jac16888, Vaquero100, Cydebot, Derek Balsam, Ntsimp, Dadofsam, Gogo Dodo, Wulvie, Njamesdebien, A Softer Answer, Amandajm, Skittleys, Valoc, Shirulashem, Dougweller, DumbBOT, DBaba, Optimist on the run, InfoCan, Victoriaedwards, Lo2u, Gimmetrow, Mamalujo, JamesAM, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mercury, Kirbman101, Bytebear, Willworkforicecream, Kablammo, 23prootie, Andyjsmith, Zeplin007, Malcolm G Smith, Marek69, VladDogaru, Roger Pearse, Tjpob, Astynax, Merbabu, JustAGal, Phoe, ThisIsAce, Samwisep86, Deip- nosophista, AntiVandalBot, Freddiem, HarvardOxon, Seaphoto, Bursar42, Shirt58, Itsjustajoy, Davidderiso, Smith2006, Jayron32, Lyric- mac, Jraeno, Baronkj39, Iamlondon, Papipaul, Ksandbergfl, Jonterry4, Bobert.mik, Leuko, Koibeatu, Luis wiki, NE2, Mojo6771, Anir- bande, Kk5000, Jimmy1988, ForDorothy, Longstreet87, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Julie au, Dentren, JNW, Eilish99, Theroadislong, Ani- mum, EagleFan, Eldumpo, Hamiltonstone, NoychoH, Chivista, Jerometleon, Alferez, PassionoftheDamon, Sarega, CCS81, Balazs.varadi, Louisvalan, Gwern, Jimmcguire, Readeraml, MartinBot, Nmp9, Keith D, Matt-rex, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Jarhed, Rinald, Lilac Soul, J.delanoy, Jamespeterka, Pharaoh of the Wizards, EscapingLife, Peter Clarke, Wa3frp, All Is One, The Truthish, Gzkn, It Is Me Here, Johnbod, McSly, Bailo26, Countedx58, Chriswiki, AntiSpamBot, Aram33, DadaNeem, Loyolite, EcceQuamBonum, Jeffkw, Xavierhit- man, Gtg204y, Fraasrd, Andy Marchbanks, Alterrabe, Ronbo76, Brasileiro1, Ichormosquito, Mwlin1, Pmgomez, Black Kite, Gogobera, Meiskam, VolkovBot, Morenooso, Tahowe, AlnoktaBOT, Fujicolor, Katydidit, Fences and windows, Station1, Maikus, Philip Trueman, DimiTalen, TXiKiBoT, JimDoran, Technopat, Ann Stouter, Domokelly, Monkey Bounce, Dendodge, Slysplace, Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Davin, PDFbot, Jesin, Doug, Plazak, Hey jude, don't let me down, Prodigyhk, Zerged, Agüeybaná, Dstarsfan06, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofA- thens, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Austriacus, Billinrio, Fanatix, Dems110, Trwilson99, SieBot, StAnselm, Jofranx, Dusti, Callelinea, Tresiden, OMCV, Tiddly Tom, WereSpielChequers, Trumpeternick, Thehornet, Albanman, Mitcheaj, GrooveDog, GlassCobra, Sg647112c, Pailawd, FunkMonk, Anglicanus, Cedarebellion, Flyer22, Jimmyandkav, Suwatest, Richelieu08, Yerpo, Mimihitam, RuthSeraph, Straightnochaser, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, Stelmaro, KathrynLybarger, Mk32, Sean131313, Afernand74, OKBot, Rdseheult, Josuechan, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Tomsv 98, Florentino floro, Denisarona, BlueOrb, Escape Orbit, Jobas, Saint-Louis, Bee Cliff River Slob, M quigley, Fezmar9, Minehava, Gr8opinionater, Gen 89, Invertzoo, SlackerMom, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Awidyapu- tranto, Ignacio Javier Igjav, PipepBot, Nicanis2000, The Thing That Should Not Be, Collincentre, XPTO, SuperHamster, Foofbun, Boing! said Zebedee, Jrutchik, Minjfrancis, Parkwells, RafaAzevedo, Rprpr, Nosyard, Shaminsam, Geodyde, Jeanenawhitney, Kitsunegami, Ex- cirial, Anonymous101, Kjramesh, Alexbot, M4gnum0n, Sarahvanroo, Gtstricky, Morogoso, Yorkshirian, Maser Fletcher, Sun Creator, Jair2, Cenarium, Riccardo Riccioni, 7&6=thirteen, Elizium23, Jaf8429, YEAHBITCH123, Unclemikejb, Mrsyoakleyssixth, Mattissa, Ingo11, DerBorg, Sumaterana, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Ostinato2, Crazy Boris with a red beard, BarretB, Neural- warp, XLinkBot, LoneStar77, Gnowor, Nyy12006, Rror, Galliano7, Avoided, Andybobshmandy, SilvonenBot, Vegas949, Darkdisciples, Danmitsui, Good Olfactory, By Little Old Me, Ejwdisciple, Franz weber, Davs34, Addbot, Catholic Met, Kea2, DavidWBirchall, Ron B. Thomson, Jncraton, Tryek25, Kman543210, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Asphatasawhale, CarsracBot, PrussianBlue1, Glane23, Gmcman7, Jdvillalobos, Mysheepb, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Joe9320, Jillianmk, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Kiril Simeonovski, Tarheelz123, 20.2 Images 21

Samuel Pepys, CountryBot, Inherentrisks, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Pink!Teen, Fraggle81, Rsquire3, IVCUSA, Kamikaze- Bot, Farsight001, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Ignatius731, Mauro Lanari, 1exec1, Jim1138, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, Adjust- Shift, Yachtsman1, Ulric1313, Mugginsx, Citation bot, UnlistedVermin, Tatendataona, Bob Burkhardt, Jamesmartynstapleton, Quebec99, Jackmanfred, Userfriendly, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Weeman55 1, TPaineTX, Nash16, Ekwos, Rythemrider, Capricorn42, Nasnema, Tad Lincoln, Gintong Liwanag Ng Araw, Karljoos, Frosted14, RibotBOT, IShadowed, Dougofborg, Spongefrog, Prari, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Lookatthis, JovanCormac, EricHopkins, Tavernsenses, Craig Pemberton, Eagle4000, AlbertoRiveraJr, Citation bot 1, Pe-Jo, Vegetablejob, Diomedea Exulans, Wikitza, Bmclaughlin9, RedBot, MastiBot, Île flottante, Ɱ, Barras, Spiderye, SW3 5DL, Crusoe8181, Piyushphilip, Karnawalski, Cyborggg, Robvanvee, TobeBot, Black Cat Claws, Yunshui, Calavicci, Chelseaohio, Smilly77, Lotje, PorkHeart, Send2ankit, MaloChapsal, Reagan.mccreary, Coquidragon, Cowlibob, Kippermanhunter, Subject Zero, ClemMacGána, Wolfinator-x, Athene cheval, Tbhotch, Thomasxavier, Editor99999, Coolpranjal, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Acsian88, Beyond My Ken, DEagleBot, Forenti, Dsfwiw, Es- oglou, EmausBot, John of Reading, Pjposullivan, Sumsum2010, GoingBatty, RA0808, Theodulfus, Solarra, Rabbabodrool, Wikipelli, Chiton magnificus, Selfscholar, Moccasinflower, LuzoGraal, Susfele, Érico Júnior Wouters, Atursatviins, Anonpetit, Medeis, Wiooiw, Jef- fers6199, Wayne Slam, C0d3t3m935t, Tolly4bolly, Luisfrois, JCAla, L Kensington, Danmuz, Mm8132, Donner60, Monkeynoy, Perlyn69, ChuispastonBot, Sajitsj, Katiebug95, 87v7t76fc4iguwevf7657436253yd4fug754ws67dtfugiy67t8576, Will Beback Auto, Brunswicknic, ClueBot NG, Golden herring, Katiker, Jesslynhg, Jaybuck12, Magdalena424, Bped1985, -sche, Lolo Sambinho, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, Scooterboy2702, Isidorpax, Widr, Dangbro12, Blelbach, Helpful Pixie Bot, Unknowns01, Brooks42276, Sabre ball, Hftxdesrdfgvbynih- nujk, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Abhisheksxcs.ju, Michaelmschulze, Gomada, The Mark of the Beast, Northamerica1000, HGK745, Eyemd 73, JohnChrysostom, Badon, Feb914, Mark Arsten, ShumardJe, Writ Keeper, Hahaha16983, Wikiz876, Kailuaoldguy, Victorbxb, Steved390, Cdnsj, ZackyChan, Minsbot, Andyjwon, Quill and Pen, Geoffrey Groesbeck, JukeBoxHero-11, Myyoyo, Khazar2, Welsh- Man1990, Tow, Glazier12, ThePepel-Eterni, Helishated, FreeSpiceLoco, Guy.H.Atkinson, Mogism, Rlj62173, Lugia2453, Frosty, 93, Wasabi Chicken, BurritoBazooka, BlackAdamStone, RaphaelSmith11, Eyesnore, Lfdder, Star767, Herrhecken, Heretogrow, Chris trout- man, ElHef, Haminoon, Eric Corbett, Diy09, Salvassa, Jackmcbarn, Vishalk3, Handojoseno, EncyclopaediaNilssonia, Jan.Madeyski, Spokanechicago, JPratas, Sietecolores, Monkbot, Almecor, Aswiniitj11, Amuseclio, Yomamm, Alexpinder, EvilLair, Roguewarrior94, Mexicanprincetonguy, Jon Hus and Anonymous: 1094

20.2 Images • File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:BCburnslawnsunset.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/BCburnslawnsunset.jpg License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Basilica_of_St._Ignatius_in_Loyola.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Basilica_of_St. _Ignatius_in_Loyola.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Holy_See.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Coat_of_arms_Holy_See.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Bruno Bernhard Heim, Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origin, Customs and Laws (Van Duren 1978 ISBN 9780391008731), p. 54; Original artist: F l a n k e r • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Emblem_of_the_Papacy_SE.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • File:Coat of arms Holy See.svg Original artist: Cronholm144 created this image using a file by User:Hautala - File:Emblem of Vatican City State.svg, who had created his file using PD art from Open Clip Art Library and uploaded on 13 July 2006. User talk:F l a n k e r uploaded this version on 19 January 2007. • File:Father_marquette_preaching.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Father_marquette_preaching. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: Users Maveric149, EvanProdromou on en.wikipedia • File:Georgetown_Riverview.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Georgetown_Riverview.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Patrickneil • File:Ignatius_Loyola.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Ignatius_Loyola.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.spiritual-exercises.com/images/ignatius2.jpg Original artist: Anonymous • File:Ihs-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ihs-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Moranski • File:JHS-IHS-Monogram-Name-Jesus.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/ JHS-IHS-Monogram-Name-Jesus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: user:AnonMoos • File:Jesuit_ruins_at_trinidad.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Jesuit_ruins_at_trinidad.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shereth at en.wikipedia • File:Jesuites_en_chine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesuites_en_chine.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: Originally from fr.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Wart Dark on fr.wikipedia • File:Jesuitpainting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Jesuitpainting.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://mideastimage.com/result.aspx Original artist: ? • File:Jesuits_in_the_'Ibadat-Khanah'.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Jesuits_in_the_ %27Ibadat-Khanah%27.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/ 1500_1599/akbar/jesuits/jesuits.html Original artist: Unknown • File:Kruis_san_damiano.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Kruis_san_damiano.gif License: Public do- main Contributors: http://www.hyvinkaanseurakunta.fi/filebank/376-Risti_6_B.jpg Original artist: Unknown 22 20 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/ LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: “Life And Works Of Confucius”, Prospero Intorcetta, et al., 1687 Original artist: Prospero Intorcetta, Philippe Couplet et al. • File:North_American_Martyrs.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/North_American_Martyrs.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Patron Saints Index Original artist: Unknown • File:P_christianity.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/P_christianity.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Ratiostudiorum.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Ratiostudiorum.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Regimini_militantis_Ecclesiae.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Regimini_militantis_Ecclesiae. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: fresco made by Jan Kryštof Handke (Johann Christoph Handke, 1694-1774), photo by Michal Maňas • File:Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://digital.library.villanova.edu/Item/vudl:38727 Original artist: Kircher, Athanasius, 1602-1680. • File:StPierreParis.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/StPierreParis.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Kurpfalzbilder.de using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Original uploader was James@hopgrove at en.wikipedia • File:Visita_do_Papa_PUG_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Visita_do_Papa_PUG_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen

20.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0