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Mindfulness in Sport: a Proposed Intervention for Choking Susceptible Athletes

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Mindfulness in Sport: a Proposed Intervention for Choking Susceptible Athletes ABSTRACT MINDFULNESS IN SPORT: A PROPOSED INTERVENTION FOR CHOKING SUSCEPTIBLE ATHLETES by Jenna Kaitlin Hussey Although antecedents of choking under pressure have been studied, prevention efforts have been unsuccessful. Current choking susceptibility (CS) criteria includes trait anxiety (TA), self- consciousness (SC), and coping style. This study implemented a sport specific mindfulness (MF) intervention to reduce levels of TA, SC, and alter coping to reduce CS. Two CS athletes completed the 6 week Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) program. Anxiety direction, trait, and state MF were assessed throughout the program, with a follow-up 5-6 weeks post intervention to gain further insight into the continuing effects of the MF training. Visual analysis demonstrated increases in MF levels, and changes in TA, SC and coping, resulting in both participants failing to meet the CS criteria post-intervention, inferring a reduced likelihood of choking in future performances. Enhanced MF levels promoted greater awareness and acceptance, along with anxiety directional changes, which may help counter the negative effects of stressful sport performances. MINDFULNESS IN SPORT: A PROPOSED INTERVENTION FOR CHOKING SUSCEPTIBLE ATHLETES A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Miami University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Kinesiology and Health by Jenna Kaitlin Hussey Miami University Oxford, OH 2015 Advisor ____________________________________ R. Weinberg, PhD Reader______________________________________ R.Vealey, PhD Reader______________________________________ V. Freysinger, PhD Table of Contents Page Number Abstract i Table of Contents ii List of Tables vii List of Figures viii Acknowledgments ix Chapter One: Introduction 1 Defining Choking 1 Influencing Variables 2 Consequences of Choking 3 Understanding the Stress Response 4 Theories Behind the Choking Process 5 Major Components of Choking 8 Anxiety 9 Coping 12 Self-Consciousness 14 Previous Interventions and Approaches to Choking 15 Choking-Where to From Here 18 Introduction to Mindfulness 19 Potential Benefits of Mindfulness for CS athletes 20 Research Questions 23 Chapter 2: Methods 24 Participant Selection 24 Selection Criteria 25 Design 26 Measures 26 Sport Anxiety Scale 26 Directional Modification of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 27 Self-Consciousness Scale 27 iii Coping Style Inventory for Athletes 28 Mindfulness Inventory for Sport 28 Toronto Mindfulness Scale 28 Demographic Sheet 29 Logbooks 29 Procedure 30 Baseline Assessment and Interview 30 Intervention and State Assessment Phase 31 Mindfulness Training 31 Post Intervention Assessment 32 Follow-Up Assessment and Interview 33 Data Analysis 34 Chapter Three: Results 35 Case #1 Lisa 35 Trait Anxiety 35 Anxiety Direction 36 Coping 36 Self-Consciousness 37 Sport Mindfulness 38 State Mindfulness 38 Mindfulness Practice Log 39 Post Intervention Performance Log 40 Case #2 James 40 Trait Anxiety 40 Anxiety Direction 41 Coping 42 Self-Consciousness 42 Sport Mindfulness 42 State Mindfulness 43 Mindfulness Practice Log 44 Post Intervention Performance Log 45 iv Participants’ Evaluation of the MSPE Program 45 Accountability 46 Connectedness and Group Size 46 Mindfulness Exercises 47 Time and Duration of Program 48 Independent Practice 48 Overall Perceptions of MSPE Experience 50 Chapter Four: Discussion 51 Influence of Mindfulness on Coping 51 Influence of Mindfulness on Anxiety 53 Influence of Mindfulness on Self-Consciousness 54 State Mindfulness Measures 55 Logbooks 56 Evaluation of the Mindfulness Program 56 Implications 57 Strengths and Limitations 58 Future Directions 58 Conclusions 61 References 62 Tables 74 Figures 80 Appendices 100 Appendix A 100 Appendix B 103 Appendix C 105 Appendix D 106 Appendix E 107 Appendix F 109 Appendix G 110 Appendix H 111 Appendix I 112 v Appendix J 113 Appendix K 114 Appendix L 115 Appendix M 116 Appendix N 117 vi List of Tables Page Number Table 1. Time and Frequency of Quantitative and Qualitative Measures 74 Table 2. Choking Susceptibility Criteria Descriptives 75 Table 3. Quantitative Results for Lisa 76 Table 4. Quantitative Results for James 77 Table 5. Summary of Interview and Logbook Data 78 Table 6. Participant Weekly Practice Frequencies and Completion Rates 79 vii List of Figures Page Number Figure 1. Trait anxiety levels for both participants from the SAS. 80 Figure 2. Trait anxiety subscales measures from the SAS for Lisa. 81 Figure 3. Trait anxiety subscales measures from the SAS for James. 81 Figure 4. Results for Lisa from the DM-CSAI-2. 83 Figure 5. Results for James from the DM-CSAI-2. 84 Figure 6. Participants’ coping scores from the CSIA. 85 Figure 7. Individual coping style scores for Lisa. 86 Figure 8. Individual coping style scores for James. 87 Figure 9. Participants’ self-consciousness scores from the SCS inventory. 88 Figure 10. SCS subscale scores for Lisa. 89 Figure 11. SCS subscale scores for James. 90 Figure 12. State mindfulness scores from the TMS for both participants. 91 Figure 13. TMS subscale scores for Lisa. 92 Figure 14. TMS subscale scores for James. 93 Figure 15. Sport mindfulness scores from the MIS for both participants. 94 Figure 16. MIS subscale scores for Lisa. 95 Figure 17. MIS subscale scores for James. 96 Figure 18. Participant co-occurring word cloud summary. 97 Figure 19. Word cloud for Lisa’s interviews. 98 Figure 20. Word cloud for James’s interviews. 99 viii Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Robert Weinberg for his continual support and tremendous feedback over the course of my research. Your dedication to excellence and professionalism helped me conduct a quality research study that I am proud of. I greatly appreciate your time, patience and expertise which served to be invaluable throughout my educational journey. Thank you for pushing me to strive for something more and recognizing that taking on a challenge can be truly rewarding. I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Robin Vealey and Dr. Valeria Freysinger who with their enthusiasm and dedication to my project helped me beyond words. Your insights and support of conducting a somewhat nonconventional study led to some fantastic results and I could not have finished on a strong note without either one of you. Your help and continual feedback throughout my data analysis was greatly appreciated and I am so happy that even though conducting a mixed methods study is sometimes difficult, your expertise and perseverance helped me throughout the very end. I would also like to thank my partner Joe Kerns, who with his loving support and confidence in my abilities truly inspired me to become the best researcher and graduate student that I could be. His understanding, patience, and guidance constantly motivated me to work hard and my thesis would not have been completed or successful without him by my side. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for being there in times of stress, frustration, confusion, excitement, fear, and overwhelming joy, as these were all parts of my thesis experience, and nobody knows that better than you. I would like to take this time to thank all the Miami University - Department of Kinesiology and Health faculty and staff. Thank you to all of my friends and family who have given me their support and believed in me throughout these two years. ix Chapter One Introduction The fickle nature of human beings is a curious thing. As Patmore (1979) eloquently states in her book, Playing on Their Nerves, (p.9) "Human beings under pressure are wonderfully unpredictable; their nature is a puzzle to us all, and psychology has only scratched the surface. When human beings are placed in an area, and their hopes and fears exposed in front of thousands of observers, they are likely to do extraordinary things.” In some instances, the result of this pressure can be a remarkable and awe-inspiring performance. Unfortunately, this is sometimes contrasted by a catastrophic drop in performance for other individuals; a process often referred to as a “choke.” The outcome of athletic performance under pressure has perplexed athletes, coaches and researchers alike for decades. Why is it that some athletes excel and demonstrate clutch performance under extreme bouts of pressure while others crumble and fall? Choking under pressure is both a complex and difficult issue to address, as the choking process is an idiosyncratic event, unique to each athlete. Some individuals suffer from severe episodes of choking or experience chronic choking, where the incident can occur multiple times in one game or repetitively over a season (Gucciardi, Longbottom, Jackson, & Dimmock, 2010). Choking is not a matter of simply missing one free throw or failing to block a single shot on goal per se. Episodes of choking include significant underperformance, which are difficult and many times impossible to recover from, and may prove to be devastating to an athlete’s game and even to their athletic career (Hill, Hanton, Matthews, & Fleming, 2010). Noteworthy examples of choking in sport include Jana Novotna, a professional tennis player, and Dan O’Brien, a decathlon world record holder. During the 1993 Wimbledon finals Novotna had a 5-1 lead in the final set when she double faulted and went on to lose the entire match. Dan O’Brien choked in 1993 during the Olympic trials when he missed all three attempts at the pole vault event, even though previously he had jumped the height numerous times with ease. Because of his apparent choke, O’Brien
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