Memory and the Pianist: Practical Strategies for Improving Memorization and Performance Recall
by
Wen Ling Chua, BPA, MM
A Doctoral Document
In
Piano Pedagogy
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctoral of Musical Arts
Approved
Dr. Carla Cash Chair of Committee
Dr. Lora Deahl
Dr. Matthew Santa
Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School
December, 2015
Copyright 2015, Wen Ling Chua©
Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my pedagogy advisor Dr. Carla
Cash, for her continuous support of my DMA study and this final paper. I am thankful for her patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank my piano professor Dr. Lora Deahl, who supported me at every step in my journey and without whom it would have been impossible to complete this DMA program. My sincere thanks also goes to Dr. Matthew Santa, who was willing to serve on my committee for this paper and provided many insightful comments. Thanks must also go to Dr. William Westney, for lending me his expertise and encouragement throughout the process of completing my DMA.
Special gratitude is also due to Jimmy Nga, my best friend at Texas Tech
University, for his support, encouragement, and willingness to listen to my playing and rants. Also, I offer my regards and blessings to all my colleagues and friends who supported me in any respect during the completion of this project.
Last, but not least, my heartfelt thanks to my loving, supportive, and caring husband Cheng Soon Wong, for all his love, encouragement, and motivation. Without him, it would have been impossible for me to achieve my dream of completing this degree.
ii Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ...... ii
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1
Memorizing versus Playing with the Score ...... 3
Chapter 2 Memory Formation and Storage ...... 8
Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory ...... 9
Neurophysical Effects of Memory Formation ...... 10
Declarative and Procedural Memories ...... 11
Memory Types Commonly Discussed In Music Learning ...... 12
Chapter 3 Memorization Strategies ...... 15
Chapter 4 Performance Recall: Problems and Remedies ...... 35
Chapter 5 Conclusions ...... 44
Bibliography ...... 49
iii Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Chapter 1
Introduction
Memorization is a very important element in solo piano performance. Playing from memory has been expected of solo pianists since the mid-nineteenth century. Some argue that the main purpose of playing from memory was to impress audiences.1 Pianists have followed in the tradition of playing from memory, particularly in competitions, solo recitals, and concerto performances, since that time. Many pianists believe that playing from memory demonstrates that they have complete mastery of a work,2 allowing them to be more engaged in performance and more able to be expressive and communicative with their audience than when playing with printed music. Even so, many pianists—young and old—struggle to memorize effectively and, thus, live in fear of onstage memory lapses.
Playing from memory was uncommon before the late 1800s. Up to that point, performing without a score generally took place only in informal situations.3 In fact,
Chopin considered it a sign of arrogance if his students played from memory.4 At a time when almost every pianist was also a composer, playing without a score would have
1. Stewart Gordon, “A Choice to Be Made,” Clavier Companion 5, no.4 (July/August, 2013): 12.
2. Jane Schatkin Hettrick, “Presence of Mind: Hints for Memorization of Organ Music,” American Organist 33, no. 3 (March 1999): 69.
3. Susan Tomes, “All in the Mind,” Guardian, April 19, 2007, accessed May 28, 2015, http://www.theguardian.com/music/2007/apr/20/classicalmusicandopera1.
4. Stephen Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright,” Telegraph, June 8, 2011, accessed May 27, 2015, http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/culture/stephenhough /100053906/liszt-the-man-who-invented-stage-fright/.
1 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 indicated the pianist was improvising.5 Beethoven disapproved of his students’ playing from memory because he believed it would make them careless of the detailed markings in the music.6 When Mendelssohn, who was in London performing his own piano trios, discovered his piano part was missing, he suggested taking a book of music, placing it on the music desk, “and hav[ing] someone sit beside him to turn the pages, so no one need know [he played] from memory.”7
The first person thought to have regularly played from memory was Clara
Schumann. From the time she was thirteen, Clara Schumann presented solo piano recitals from memory.8 In 1837, at the age of eighteen, she performed Beethoven's Appassionata sonata in Berlin “by heart,” and she was subsequently deemed “insufferable.”9 One of
Beethoven’s close friends decried the performance, commenting, “With what pretension she seats herself at the piano and plays without the notes!”10
Franz Liszt is commonly identified as the figure who popularized memorized performances. Liszt developed the concept of the solo recital.11 Before this, it was rare to
5. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
6. Tomes, “All in the Mind.”
7. Ibid.
8. Nancy B. Reich, Clara Schumann, The Artist and the Woman, rev. ed. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001), 271–2.
9. Anthony Tommasini, “Critic’s Notebook; The Pianist in a High-Wire Act,” New York Times, July 7, 1999, accessed June 1, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/1999 /07/07/arts/critic-s-notebook-the-pianist-in-a-high-wire-act.html.
10. Ibid.
11. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
2 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 have a whole evening concert featuring one artist playing only one instrument. Liszt presented himself as a charismatic virtuoso who played incredibly complex and flashy pieces many times from memory. He was also one of the first to turn the piano side-on so the pianist’s profile could be admired and the audience could enjoy the full volume of the piano.12
Before 1800, many pianists were composers; however, later in that century noncomposing pianists became the norm and the general belief about playing from memory changed starting around the eighteenth century. Using a score showed that the pianist did not know the music well and lacked professionalism.13 Since then, audiences have come to expect memorized performances of piano music from concert pianists.
Many piano enthusiasts believe that playing from memory demonstrates having complete mastery of a work, allowing them to be more engaged in performance.
Memorizing versus Playing with the Score
Although a lot of pianists and audiences believe that playing from memory suggests the performer is professional and connected with the audience, playing from memory can be a nightmare for some pianists. In fact, a number of performing artists have come out as decidedly against memorizing and have begun presenting recitals using scores.
12. Melanie Spanswick, “Ten Top Tips for Effective Memorization: The Memory Game,” The Classical Music and Music Education Blog, December 7, 2014, accessed March 20, 2015, http://melaniespanswick.com/2014/12/07/ten-top-tips-for-effective -memorisation-the-memory-game/.
13. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
3 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
As noted by Stephen Hough in his article, “Liszt: the Man Who Invented Stage
Fright,” playing from the score benefits the musician in several ways:
1. It reduces performance anxiety because the potential for memory slips is diminished.
2. Performers are constantly reminded of the composer’s instructions by observing the
score while playing.
3. It opens up a greater variety of repertoire, especially modern, atonal music that is
sometimes difficult to memorize.
4. Performances from the score can make pianists more focused on the music being
produced than on the skill of memorizing.14
On the other hand, those in favor of memorizing have put forth the following arguments:
1. It ensures the performer prepares the recital program to a high level.15
2. Performers might feel a greater physical freedom at the keyboard when playing
without the music.16
3. It can lead to heightened emotional involvement in the music and with the audience.17
4. It can lead to a feeling of ownership of the music.18
14. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
15. Sarah Freiberg, “The Role of Memorizing Should Be in a Performance,” All Things Strings, July 2000, accessed June 2, 2015, http://www.allthingsstrings.com /layout/set/print/How-To/Study-Practice/The-Role-of-Memorizing-Should-Be-in-a- Performance.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ho Yan Agnes Wan, Physical and Mental Issues in Piano Performance: The Interrelationships between Physical Tension, Performance Anxiety, and Memorization 4 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
5. It can eliminate the need for a page turner or turning one’s own pages, both of which
may be distracting to the performer and the audience.19
Is playing from memory necessary? Many pianists, particularly those who struggle with memorization, may ask themselves or their teachers this question. In most conservatories and universities, the answer is yes. Music on solo recitals is expected to be performed from memory in the majority of cases. At a handful of institutions, however, the practice of memorizing is not emphasized, perhaps due to the large amount of repertoire pianists at the graduate level are expected to learn within a limited time frame.
A number of well-known performing artists have snubbed the idea of memorization and unapologetically perform in public with scores. As an example, Sviatoslav Richter began performing with music in his sixties because he found he struggled with memory. No one questioned his choice and the attendance numbers at his recitals remained high.20
It is natural for teachers and students to have strong feelings one way or another about memorization. In my opinion, memorizing is a skill separate from performance, and not all pianists should be expected to give memorized performances. However, it is beneficial training for all pianists to learn how to memorize a piece and perform it without using the score. Nicholas Collon, conductor and founder of Aurora Orchestra, states, “Memorization is not the goal. It’s part of the journey to get there and something
Strategies (Saarbrucken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Muller Aktiengesellschaft & Co., 2008), 4.
19. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
20. Tommasini, “Playing by Heart, With or Without a Score.”
5 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 that we’ll do on the way.”21 Stephen Hough argues, “Memorizing is part of the discipline of learning the instrument and learning the music written for it.”22 According to Sarah
Freiberg, the process of memorizing can be helpful in understanding the structure and the theory behind the music.23
Students may regularly fail to memorize or perform by memory because the directions for how to memorize might be unclear to them. This is important from a pedagogical point of view because many students are simply expected to memorize their music with little guidance. It may be that teachers, themselves, are unsure of how to articulate specific steps that lead to effective memorization. Certainly, a step-by-step approach can facilitate this aspect of music learning. A basic understanding of how memories are formed in general should inform this process as well.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate effective strategies for memorization from the standpoint of how memories, in general, are formed when skills are practiced.
By better comprehending the process of learning, teachers and students may approach some aspects of skill acquisition and refinement away from the “instructions” of the score differently and, consequently, more effectively. In this paper, I also discuss the recall of memorized material and how it may be negatively affected by performance anxiety.
21. Naomi Lewin, “Sorry, Memorizing Doesn't Make You a Better Musician. Or Does It?” WQXR, August 21, 2014, accessed June 3, 2015, http://www.wqxr.org/#!/story /memorizing-make-you-better-musicians-does-it/.
22. Hough, “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.”
23. Freiberg, “The Role of Memorizing Should Be in a Performance.”
6 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Specific methods for addressing the detrimental effects of anxiety and promoting optimal memory recall are presented as well.
7 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Chapter 2
Memory Formation and Storage
While it is generally accepted among student pianists that music should be memorized, instructions on how to reliably achieve this can be overlooked by teachers.
Successful memorization involves acquiring and securing knowledge and skill in the brain for later retrieval.24 Some learners seem to be able to do this easily.25 Yet, others lack practice in committing new information and experiences to memory and, as a consequence, struggle to do so in efficient ways. If one of the most important skills for pianists is the ability to memorize, teachers should be willing to explore the broad wealth of knowledge regarding memory formation. Much of this literature, originating in psychology and neuroscience research, has made its way to popular sources—books, articles, and websites that summarize much of the latest science findings. All are easily accessible to interested individuals looking to learn more about memory. By better understanding the different types of memory, how memories form, and what conditions lead to successful acquisition, teachers can offer more informed approaches to help students memorize.
24. Wan, 28.
25. Donna Tileston, What Every Teacher Should Know about Learning, Memory, and the Brain (Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2003), 1.
8 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory
The human memory system comprises three functions related to storage. These are termed sensory, short-term, and long-term memories.26 Though the three are formed and accessed via differing conditions, they do not necessarily always occur exclusive of each other.
Sensory memory is usually only available for a few seconds and allows learners to recognize and respond accurately to stimuli they experience within that very limited time frame.27 Unlike other types of memory, sensory memory cannot be prolonged by repetition.
Short-term memory allows us to recall and process information simultaneously. It typically lasts longer than sensory memory, but only by way of repetition. Short-term memory is limited in capacity—learners typically can process about seven (plus or minus two) “chunks” of information at a time. 28 In this chunking process, information is gathered and combined to form a single piece, thus allowing for more efficient storage of information. The term “working memory” is frequently used interchangeably with short- term memory. An example of using one’s short-term (or working) memory would be memorizing a phone number for only the length of time it takes to dial it on the phone.
The memory of the number is not permanent; it only allows one to put the information to
26. Alan D. Baddeley, Human Memory: Theory and Practice, rev. ed. (East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2002), 9.
27. Ibid., 9.
28. Gary S. Karpinski, Aural Skills Acquisition: The Development of Listening, Reading, and Performing Skills in College-Level Musicians (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 70–71.
9 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 immediate use. Information that enters into short-term or working memory has about fifteen seconds, during which time the brain decides to process the information or discard it. According to Donna Walker Tileston, as long as the working memory is “doing something” with learning, it can hold information there indefinitely. 29
Through sufficient repeated experiences (e.g., practice), short-term memories are transferred to long-term storage. Information is moved to long-term storage on the basis of what, to learners, is meaningful and important—essentially the most emotional, most repeated, and most relatable experiences.30 While not everything we experience becomes a long-term memory, the capacity of this memory of storage is unlimited.31
Neurophysical Effects of Memory Formation
Memory formation begins with learners’ experiences with a stimulus. Hearing or seeing something, for example, activates a neural response in the brain. In simple terms, neurons (i.e., brain cells) send electrical impulses to other neurons. Repeated exposure to the same stimulus results in connections between neurons in the brain that are activated each time the experience occurs again. With sufficient repetition, the “pathways” between the neurons become more permanent. Long-term memory processes are activated upon prolonged repetition of the experience. Hours, days, and years later, the
29. Tileston, 20.
30. Luke Mastin, “Memory Consolidation,” Human Memory, last modified 2010, accessed October 16, 2014, http://www.human- memory.net/processes_consolidation.html.
31. Mike Cardwell and Cara Flanagan, Psychology AS: The Complete Companion (Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. 2003), 4.
10 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 signals through these neural pathways can still fire quite easily when long-term knowledge and skills are recalled.
The process of creating the neural connections needed for memory formation and recall is called memory consolidation.32 Consolidation relies heavily on repetition. Still, memory processes persist long after repetition has ceased. Our brains keep “replaying” what was previously experienced throughout the day and during the night as we sleep.
This “off-line” practice continues to trigger the same neural networks initially activated during learning, making new memories more resistant to forgetting. Thus, consolidation relies on both rehearsal and rest to be completed. This phenomenon has been observed widely with different types of knowledge and skills, including music tasks.33 It is important to note that consolidated memories are not necessarily permanent memories.
Research has found that memories need to be reconsolidated once they have been recalled, which helps further modify, refine, and strengthen them.34
Declarative and Procedural Memories
Memory consolidation is needed for the formation and recall of both declarative and procedural memories. Declarative memory refers to memories that are often
32. Michael S. Gazzaniga, The Cognitive Neurosciences, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004), 341.
33. Robert A. Duke and Carla M. Davis, “Procedural Memory Consolidation in the Performance of Brief Keyboard Sequences,” Journal of Research in Music Education 54, no.2 (Summer, 2006): 120.
34. Mastin, “Memory Consolidation.”
11 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 consciously learned and recalled.35 It includes the subcategories of semantic memory, the memory for words, facts, meanings, and understandings; and episodic memory, which is based in context and location.36 An example of episodic memory is remembering autobiographical events.37 Procedural memory, on the other hand, is the memory for the things we do or sense.38 These can be formed and recalled with or without our conscious attention.39 The formation of procedural memory relies on repetition and includes such examples as the skills needed to ride a bike and play a musical instrument.
Memory Types Commonly Discussed In Music Learning
Although the ability to perform music requires procedural memory, all musicians develop and use countless procedural and declarative memories in music learning. For example, whereas declarative memories allow us to quickly remember that three sharps means we are in the key of A major, our procedural memories allow our hands to easily play in that key and adapt to keyboard patterns common to A major.
The particular terms declarative memory and procedural memory are often absent from the popular writings regarding music learning, although, the subcategories of these major types, including analytical, auditory, visual, and kinesthetic memory, are widely
35. Gazzaniga, 679–680.
36. Ibid.
37. Tileston, 38.
38. Michael Domjan, The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 7th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2014), 311.
39. Ibid.
12 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 discussed and provide a comprehensive view of the multifaceted ways memory functions in music practice and performance.
Analytical memory (also labeled intellectual memory) involves the memory of factual knowledge and the understanding of musical elements. When preparing a particular piece, analytical memory is used in recognizing such basic musical elements as the starting note of the piece, key changes, chord progressions, and dynamic changes. It is required for a thorough understanding of a piece’s theoretical aspects, including the structure of the work, for example. Analytical learning involves remembering historical elements such as styles (e.g., Classical vs. Romantic sonatas), the story behind a piece, the expressive intentions of a composer, and the cultural context that may have influenced the piece’s composition.
Auditory memory (also called aural memory) involves remembering what something sounds like and allows us to imagine the music with or without a score.
Without careful listening, it is impossible to securely memorize a piece. Auditory memory includes recognizing something that may have been recently heard or played but also allows one to imagine sound internally (also known as internal hearing).40 According to some pianists, being unable to internally hear an upcoming passage in their heads while they play can lead to more frequent memory slips.41
Visual memory is the recollection of how something looks. In music, this can be the image on the page or how your hands look on the instrument. Some people have a
40. Wan, 33.
41. Celia Mae Bryant, “Memorizing: A Science,” Clavier Companion 38, no. 8 (September/October 1999): 29.
13 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 photographic memory, which is also considered a type of visual memory. People who can easily form and access photographic memory can vividly visualize something they have previously seen only a few times. A pianist with a photographic memory may be able to visualize the score when he or she plays from memory. Some people believe that photographic memory is an intuitive ability; however, others believe that it can be developed through practice.42
Kinesthetic memory (also known as motor or muscle memory) involves physical movement and the sensations related to motion.43 For example, the tactile sensation of touching the piano, which may not involve actual playing, is considered an aspect of motor memory.44 This kind of memory is strongly influenced by repetitions and is the easiest to develop in music playing, because learning an instrument is highly dependent on repetitive movements.
42. Wan, 33.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
14 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Chapter 3
Memorization Strategies
Pianists, specifically those interested in becoming active concertizers, are expected to become proficient memorizers. Still, many of these musicians find memorization to be the greatest challenge in preparing music for performance. Younger or less experienced (and even advanced) pianists who find memorizing challenging may not use effective methods for doing so, use only one method of memorizing, or memorize simply by repeatedly playing through a piece. How can we solve these problems? Ho
Yan Agnes Wan, author of Physical and Mental Issues in Piano Performance, suggests that exploring memorization strategies is the first step to becoming a better memorizer.45
With this in mind, teachers can guide students to more informed practice as they seek to develop secure memorized performances. Below are descriptions of approaches that may prove effective in the act of memorization. Some of these have been suggested by a number of pedagogues over the years and others are ones not often touched upon in the literature, but which I have had personal experiences using with some success. All suggestions take into account what is currently understood in terms of how memories are formed, refined, stored, and recalled:
1. Begin memorizing early in the learning process. This allows enough time to practice the overall target skill. Perhaps the most important key to memorization is for the learner to make certain that the majority of repetition and time is not spent in a context
45. Wan, 69.
15 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 that differs from the goal: playing from memory. Commonly, pianists leave memorization for the end of their preparation of a piece, and as a result, they spend more time with the score than without it. When pianists get around to memorizing pieces they know quite well with the music, the memorization process often involves modifying an existing memory, one that relies on the visual cues from the score in order to perform the skill correctly. When pianists try to remove the score, older, established memory will often interfere with the newer version until, after enough practice, the desired memory is stabilized. If the newer, modified version of the memory hasn’t been practiced often enough to overcome the older version of the memory, it can lead to frustrating lapses in recall.46
Memorizing early encourages pianists to pay attention to components they typically do not attend to if they are constantly looking at the score. Pianists who are playing from memory look at their hands often; those who are playing from the score keep their eyes on the music nearly the entire time. Even when playing with the score early in the learning stage, pianists can make the decision to look at their hands intermittently and take detailed notes of what is happening. Through this process, they will spend time making connections between what they see on the score and how that translates to what they do with their bodies and what they see on the keyboard. Pianists may make more concrete connections, not only between what they see on the score and what they hear, but also between the sound and what they see on the keyboard.
46. William S. Newman, The Pianist’s Problems: A Modern Approach to Efficient Practice and Musicianly Performance, 4th ed. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1984), 187.
16 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Memorizing the music in the early learning stages can save much time and energy because pianists may approach the music in a much more efficient way.47 For example, pianists may focus more on the details of the music, intentionally committing these details to memory rather than repeatedly reading them from the page and putting off the memorization until later in the process. Memorization usually takes more time if the pianist delays the process until he or she has mastered the piece with the score.
Of course, while making memorization part of the early learning process can be effective, teachers should also suggest that students revisit the score on a regular basis to check for accuracy. This approach can help pianists avoid inadvertently learning and rehearsing errors.
2. Memorize in small chunks or sections. When a piece is performed from memory, the memory for the actions of playing the music actually comprises many chunks or units of information that are strung together. In music, a unit can be as small as one beat, one measure, a phrase, or a physical motion. The more proficient the pianist is, the larger these initial chunks might be. Learning and memorizing in small sections allows the player to process only a limited amount of information at a time.
Doggedly trying to memorize the music from the beginning to the end in a small amount of time is almost never effective. Most of us can relate to trying to recall a newly learned long segment of music. If the memory is new or insecure, one might recall the beginning and/or end of the section with a frequently shaky memory of what comes in between. This tendency to recall information that is presented first and last better than
47. Spanswick, “Ten Top Tips for Effective Memorization: The Memory Game.”
17 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 information presented in the middle is called the serial position effect.48 Since what we hear, see, or play first usually leaves a strong impression and what we come into contact with last is most recent in our experience, the in between is usually forgotten. This serial position theory supports the practice of keeping chunks short, learnable, and memorable.
Learning and memorizing a small unit of music can be done in a relatively short amount of time. Research has found that the average human’s attention span is ten to fifteen minutes.49 Practicing in brief blocks of time and resting in between allows for one to be at optimal attention when at work. Rest breaks help combat fatigue and let a resting mind continue off-line memory processing.50
3. Identify memory cues. When pianists memorize in manageable chunks, memory cues identifying the shorter segments are naturally formed. Cues play an important role in learning and memory. Actors, for instance, use cues from words, props on stage, sounds, and lighting changes to memorize scripts, which can often be extremely long.51 While
48. Saul McLeod, “Serial Position Effect,” Simply Psychology, accessed May 26, 2015, http://www.simplypsychology.org/primacy-recency.html.
49. Karen Wilson and James H. Korn, “Attention during Lectures: Beyond Ten Minutes,” Teaching of Psychology 34, no. 2 (April 2007): 85–89.
50. Carla D. Cash, “Effects of Early and Late Rest Intervals on Performance and Overnight Consolidation of a Keyboard Sequence,” Journal of Research in Music Education 57, no. 3 (2009): 262, 263.
51. Stimac Elias, “Try to Remember: New Ways to Strengthen Your Memorization Skills,” Backstage, July 21, 2004, accessed April 20, 2015, http://www .backstage.com/news/try-to-remember_2/.
18 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 cues serve to prompt a subsequent memory, they also provide starting points in case of memory failure during a performance.52
Cues help learners recall or retrieve information from our memory. Retrieving is a process by which one accesses information from long-term memory.53 According to Luke
Mastin, the “recall or retrieval of memory refers to the subsequent re-accessing of events or information from the past, which have been previously encoded and stored in the brain.”54 Even in our everyday life, we need retrieval cues to help us recall information stored in long-term storage and bring it to our conscious awareness. The current understanding of memory recall suggests that, “the success of retrieval depends on how well the retrieval cue reinstates the original conditions of encoding.”55 In other words, retrieval cues are effective when the conditions of learning closely match the environment in which recall is desired.
A cue in music can include what one sees on the score, hears at a cadence, or does with his or her hands when starting a passage. In contrapuntal music, cues can be the beginning of every subject, counter subject, and answer. Cues can be used as aids for
52. Helga Noice and Tony Noice, “What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us about Memory and Cognitive Functioning,” Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 1 (February 2006): 15.
53. Yolanda Williams, “Retrieval Cues: Definition & Examples,” Study.Com, accessed May 27, 2015, http://study.com/academy/lesson/retrieval-cues-definition -examples-quiz.html.
54. Mastin, “Memory Consolidation.”
55. Rom Harre and Roger Lamb, eds., The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology (England: Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited, 1983), s.v. “Memory: Theories of.”
19 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 smaller sections, or even every measure, in addition to marking large sections in the music. Repetition—and in this case, acknowledging and using the same cues every time a section is practiced—creates stronger connections between cues and what is subsequently played, aiding memory formation and later retrieval.56
4. Address all forms of memory used during learning. One goal of deliberate practice is to strengthen the connections between our memories and senses. Though music performance involves primarily motor memory, auditory and visual memories, as well as analytical recollections, are also needed to successfully perform this complex skill. It is important to engage all the senses as much as possible early in the learning process, because interconnected memories can be stronger and more reliable.
The auditory memory of a piece allows a pianist to remember the overall sound and progression of various voices in music. My belief is that forming a strong auditory memory of a piece can aid memory formation and recall. In my personal experience, I am more likely to have a memory slip when I have difficulty internally hearing what comes next in the music. Suggested means of strengthening aural memory include singing melodic lines, listening to recordings, and transposing a memorized piece to different keys.57 Singing melodic lines helps pianists sense the melodic direction, and it is likely that many pianists will link these motions to the movement of their body or hands when they play. Listening to recordings helps pianists become familiar with their pieces, and
56. Mastin, “Memory Consolidation.”
57. Jennifer Mishra, “Approaches to Memorizing,” Flute Talk 21, no. 5 (January 2002): 18.
20 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 later, they may be able to better internally hear their music while they play or while they practice away from the piano.
Visual memory in music can include remembering what we have seen on a score or recalling what the hands look like on the keyboard at a certain point in the music.
According to Walter Gieseking, visual memory can be developed by memorizing music through silent readings and visualizations of the score.58 I feel that extensive study of a score can help pianists develop a very detailed visual memory of the music, similar to that of photographic memory. It might take a long time of practicing this particular skill before one is able to “see” the score (even then, it may be only a single page) but it is worth the time to attempt it. Admittedly, photographic memory is neither the most important nor the most useful skill, yet many teachers suggest that students memorize a few measures at a time, close the score, visualize the notes as they appear in the music, and attempt to play the newly-learned material.
Rebecca Shockley’s book, Mapping Music, describes another way to utilize visual memory. Shockley suggests students study the music away from their instruments and draw a map, focusing on the first important or obvious feature in the music. As they continue their study, they can add more details to the map.59
Piano pedagogue John Ford suggests looking at the less dominant hand (generally the left hand) when practicing and playing that isolated part from memory to strengthen
58. Walter Gieseking and Karl Leimer, “The Shortest Way to Pianistic Perfection,” in Piano Technique (New York: Dover Publication, Inc., 1972), 11, 18.
59. Rebeca Shockley, Mapping Music for Faster Learning and Secure Memory: A Guide for Piano Teachers and Students, 2nd ed. (Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Edition, 2001), 6.
21 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 the visual memory.60 The reason for giving more attention to the less dominant hand when practicing is that pianists typically pay more attention to their dominant hands
(usually the right hand). Memory slips may happen because the memory of the less dominant hand is less secure. Another memory strategy that many piano teachers instruct their students to try is practicing and memorizing hands separately. This requires students be very familiar with how each hand looks on the keyboard and how each part sounds on its own. A combination of auditory and visual memory is used in this technique.
Kinesthetic memory (motor or muscle memory) is primarily developed via repeated experiences of the same task. It makes sense then that using the same fingering every time a particular passage is practiced (doing something the same way) leads to a more secure memory than playing the passage with a different fingering each time.
Understanding this also provides insight into why it is so difficult to correct an error once it has been committed to long-term memory through extensive repetition.
Most teachers agree that kinesthetic memory is the most implemented, least reliable memorization technique that young, inexperienced pianists use. However, kinesthetic memory can be very powerful if it is purposely associated with aural or visual memories. For example, teachers may encourage students to form the visual memory of a note on the piano at the end of a long running passage or to recall what intermittent melodic notes within a fast, embellished passage look like in the score. Listening carefully or softly singing along during these passages let students also consciously pair aural and kinesthetic memories.
60. John Ford, “Many Ways to Memorize,” Clavier 35, no. 3 (March 1996): 24.
22 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Analytical memory involves the declarative understanding of a piece. Analytical memory has been suggested to be the key to music learning and memorization.61 This type of memory can involve, for instance, recognizing key signatures, harmonic progressions, or patterns in the music. It also includes the story behind the piece or the composer’s known intention when using certain techniques. For younger students, the analytical learning of a piece might include knowing the starting note of the piece or recognizing hand position changes between phrases.
A strong background in music theory is an asset when it comes to memorization, especially when a thorough theoretical understanding of a piece is combined with associated visual, aural, and kinesthetic information. Some teachers may suggest that students analyze a new piece before they start to practice it. Analyzing before physically learning may increase one’s understanding of the piece and help trigger the memorization process earlier. When we analyze a piece before playing it on the piano, it is common to take note of what is visually happening on a score while internally audiating. Memorizing a piece in terms of its form, harmonic development, motives, and the relationship between sections, for example, can lead to intellectually knowing a piece before ever playing it.
The ideal combination of memory associations will vary between musicians.
Pianist Graham Fitch states in his blog: “These [memory] techniques are like buying
61. Wan, 73.
23 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 security features for the home: the more you have, the safer you feel.”62 Using different combinations of memory types in learning is certainly an effortful process, but one that becomes easier the more often it is implemented.
5. Add variability to practice. Practice variability refers to “the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill.”63
Extant research suggests that in the early stages of learning, there should be little to no variation in performance of a skill in order to stabilize its memory. During early memory acquisition, our brains form a generalized motor program (also referred to as a GMP) that retains the basic framework for movements.64 The memory is not restricted to one particular motion, but can generate variations based on similar motions. Soon after the new memory is stabilized, once the learner has a handle on the skill, changing characteristics of the skill every so often makes the retention of the skill even stronger.
Because a generalized motor program defines a pattern of movement, rather than every aspect of the movement, it allows for flexibility, which is typically built in by performing skills in different ways.65 In music learning, a pianist looking to add variability to her
62. Graham Fitch, “Tools for Memorisation,” Practising the Piano (blog), May 31, 2012, accessed June 30, 2015, http://www.practisingthepiano.com/tools-for -memorisation/.
63. R.A. Magill, Motor Learning: Concepts and Applications, 5th ed. (Boston, Mass: WCB McGraw-Hill, 1998), 20.
64. Matthew Leitch, “How Can Schema Theory Help You Learn Sports Skills?” Learning Ideas, last updated April 24, 2011, accessed June 26, 2015, http://www.learning ideas.me.uk/ schemas/.
65. R.R. Danielson, “Generalized Motor Program,” DrDnotes, last modified February 6, 2014, accessed July 1, 2015, http://danielson.laurentian.ca/drdnotes/2206 _schmidt_ch04.htm#GENERALIZED_MOTOR_PROGRAMS.
24 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 practice might repeat a difficult scalar passage by playing the scale faster, slower, with various articulations, or changing rhythms. The end result is the ability to recall the passage confidently in different conditions.
Another important reason why variability in learning is effective is because one is prompted to stay focused and engaged during the learning process. Every time learners change something about the skill being practiced—such as the tempo, articulations, rhythm, and practice environment—attention during that time is heightened. For example, playing something at a very slow tempo after the pianist has learned it faster can call for concentrated focus. Other pianistic techniques that add variability and, in turn, heighten mental engagement include practicing hands apart, playing one hand loudly while the other hand shadows silently, or performing one hand and singing the melody of the other, all of which require effort.
Other types of practices can add variability to learning and memorizing. For instance, pianists might consider memorizing a piece in sections from the end rather than from the beginning. It is not far-fetched to assume that young pianists spend more practice time on early sections of the music compared to the rest of the piece. Teachers might find it worthwhile to ask students to start memorizing later sections of the music first, encouraging more attention on parts of the score not typically practiced as much.
Playing on different instruments and in various spaces also add variability to learning scenarios. Doing so on a regular basis helps learners develop the ability to quickly and calmly adapt to different environments.
Adding variability to one’s learning routine undoubtedly takes time and effort.
Especially when practicing from memory, incorporating different ways to practice the
25 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 same task can be difficult, but the extra cognitive involvement and focus can result in more secure memories. Practicing strategies like this may enable pianists to adapt to new environments and situations more quickly and skillfully, especially during memorized performances.
6. Make concentration a priority during practice. Concentration is “the ability to direct one’s thinking in whatever direction one intends.”66 Concentration plays an important role in memorization and memory retrieval. In sports psychology, concentration is defined as the “ability to focus attention on the task at hand and not be affected or disturbed by internal or external distractions.”67 Internal distractions can include negative self-talk or other distractions that arise from the performer’s own thoughts. External distractions during practice can include being in an unfamiliar environment, sounds from the surrounding area, a room that is too hot or too cold, insufficient lighting in the practice space, a ringing cell phone, or an out-of-tune piano.
In order to address all of the facets related to the formation of secure memories, concentrated effort in the learning process is key. It is also important for pianists to be aware that concentration in performance requires concentration in practice. The ability to focus in high-pressure situations usually takes practice.
In developing positive concentration habits, pianists may try to vividly imagine the focus that will be required during a future stage performance and try to call upon that
66. “Concentration,” University Counselling Service, University of Cambridge, accessed July 1, 2015, http://www.counselling.cam.ac.uk/selfhelp/leaflets/concentration.
67. Gary Bennett, “Concentration and Attention,” Virginia Tech Athletics, accessed July 1, 2015, http://www.hokiesports.com/psychology/concentration.html.
26 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 same level of attention during the learning process. Another useful strategy borrowed from sports psychology that can help improve concentration for musicians is the use of
“performance routines.”68 Performance routines train athletes to focus their concentration consistently and eliminate unnecessary internal and external distractions, even if they are not performing under ideal conditions.69 Performance routines also provide a sense of familiarity to athletes, sending the reminder that the task at hand is just another race, game, or match. Through performance routines, athletes can maximize their potential for consistent performance.70 For musicians, a performance routine can be running through a recital program in different environments to improve concentration and simulate the concentration energy that will be required at the recital. This provides pianists opportunities for run-through rehearsals as well as chances to face and resolve unexpected situations that may come up during a performance.
Concentration span is another issue for pianists. The amount of time one can concentrate on a task before he or she loses concentration varies from person to person;71 some people can concentrate for only a short amount of time, while others longer. No doubt, practicing in shorter segments interspersed with breaks keeps the ability to focus high and fatigue low. Still, expanding one’s attention span is often desirable and possible.
Suggestions for doing so include the following steps:
68. Gary Bennett, “Concentration and Attention.”
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid.
71. “Concentration,” University Counselling Service, University of Cambridge.
27 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Stop wandering and refocus.72 Once you know your mind is wandering and not
focused on your task, put a stop to these thoughts and attend to your task. It may be
difficult at the beginning and you may find your mind wandering, but with practice,
you will be able to go longer stretches before your mind wanders.
Attend—maintain your concentration and do not be distracted by your environment.73
For example, try to ignore the noise from the hallway and stay focused on your music
by listening to the sounds produced by the piano.
Set aside your worrying time.74 Find a way to expel worries or negative thoughts that
come to mind. Worries cause us to lose focus and may increase anxiety, especially
prior to performance. Some psychologists suggest writing down negative thoughts,
throwing them away in the trashcan, and refocusing on the task. For many, this act
can be helpful for purging negative thoughts.
Find the learning style which best suits you.75 Each pianist has his or her own
learning style. Some may find that repeatedly listening to recordings may help them
memorize better, while others find that repeatedly practicing the same passage is
more effective. Focusing on our personal learning style helps us find meaning in our
learning and leads to a heightened cognitive load, thus heightening our attention and
increasing the length of time we can concentrate.
72. “Concentration,” University Counselling Service, University of Cambridge.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
28 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
7. Use emotion to your advantage. Emotion and memory are interconnected. We remember most vividly the things that have a strong positive or negative emotional impact on us. In our episodic memory system, we organize memories of our experiences by the emotions that are associated with them.76 In general, we tend to better remember emotionally-charged or traumatic events.
In music, our memories are regularly influenced by our moods or emotional states during learning and performance.77 Teachers can encourage students to explore the emotions they want to evoke in themselves and/or the audience when playing the piece and be mindful of these emotions from the onset of the learning process. An example of this could be to create a touching story line when learning the piece and use this story and the associated emotions as cues to help with memory recall during the performance. The emotion one associates with learning and memorizing the piece should be the same as when the piece is performed in public.
It is also important to keep in mind that states of stress and frustration can become associated with consolidated skill memories. When we are stressed or frustrated, the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine are released by the body. The body uses these hormones in dangerous situations; they enhance our memory of traumatic events in order to help us survive should a similar event take place in the future.78 It makes sense, then,
76. Tileston, 38.
77. Fiona McPherson, “The Role of Emotion in Memory,” About Memory, accessed July 1, 2015, http://www.memory-key.com/memory/emotion.
78. “Effects of Stress on Memory: Stress, Emotions and Memory,” Center for Study of Human Stress (CSHS), accessed, July 2, 2015, http://www.humanstress.ca /stress/effects-of-stress-on-memory/stress-emotions-and-memory.html.
29 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 that emotions such as anxiety, panic, and worry in the learning of a piece are likely to be recalled when we perform that piece. My belief is that pausing practice when one feels irritated and anxious can combat the persistence of negative emotions. Of course, the stress of having to memorize something very quickly for an imminent performance can lead to learning scenarios that are negatively charged. Consciously beginning to memorize early on in practice can help eliminate much of the stress that comes along with this difficult task.
8. Incorporate mental practice on a regular basis. Mental practice is the cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill without actual movements.79 While most are familiar with the concept of mental practice, not all pianists believe it is an effective way to strengthen memory. It is possible that this skepticism arises from an imperfect understanding of or an unwillingness to experiment with the approach. Nevertheless, mental practice has been deemed effective in the existing research mainly because it is shown to mimic physical practice at the neurophysical level. 80
In music, mental practice can include silent rehearsal of what a piece sounds like, looks like on the page or on the keyboard, or feels like in our bodies without the physical
79. Anne Plessinger, “Mental Practice in Sports for Skill Development and Competition,” Sport Training Adviser, accessed June 30, 2015, http://www.sports -training-adviser.com/mentalpractice.html.
80. Richard A. Schmidt, and Timothy D. Lee, “In Motor Learning, Is Mental Practice As Effective As Physical Practice?” Human Kinetics, accessed June 27, 2015, http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/in-motor-learning-is-mental-practice -as-effective-as-physical-practice.
30 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 exertion.81 According to Anne Plessinger, mental practice in sports is effective for learning and preparing for competition because it helps reduce performance anxiety during competition, motivates athletes, and builds self-confidence.82 The same might be said for musicians.
Mental practice can take on several forms. Internal imagery involves mental images formed from the perspective of being inside one’s body with attempts to experience situations that might be expected in real life.83 A person practicing external imagery would be “viewing themselves from a perspective of an observer like they are watching a movie.”84 Both types of imagery are useful for musicians. Pianists can be encouraged to imagine how they feel when playing on the piano. This imagery will be more powerful if pianists imagine how the music sounds and looks on the keyboard or in the score. To practice external imagery, pianists can visualize themselves as their favorite pianist performing on the stage.
An interesting approach to mental practice comes from Dr. Noa Kageyama, a performance psychologist who serves on the faculty at Julliard. Kageyama recommends
81. Noa Kageyama, “Does Mental Practice Work?” Bulletproof Musician (blog), August 14, 2009, accessed January 20, 2015, http://www.bulletproofmusician. com/does -mental-practice-work/.
82. Annie Plessinger, “The Effects of Mental Imagery on Athletic Performance,” Vanderbilt University Health Psychology Home Page, accessed July 2, 2015, http://www .vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/ health_psychology/mentalimagery.html.
83. Shane Murphy, ed., Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology (New York, Oxford Press, 2012), 216.
84. Plessinger, “Mental Practice in Sport.”
31 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 lying down and relaxing the entire body when practicing mentally.85 This approach further reinforces the feeling of calm and ease that should be associated with the memory of the skill. Further, he suggests six specific steps for the musician when engaging in mental practice:
1. Calm yourself. Have no tension from your head to your toes. Close your eyes and
focus only on your breathing.
2. Focus on something specific or small. Make it more vivid. Then, slowly expand your
focus to bigger sections of music.
3. Imagine yourself warming up on the piano with scales or exercises. Try to listen to
what you play. Be aware of how your muscles feel when you imagine yourself
playing warm-up passages.
4. Imagine yourself playing your piece and feeling it with all of your senses. See how
your hands look on the piano, hear how the music sounds, and feel the motion in your
hands and body. Keep practicing the piece until you make a mistake or hear
something you do not like, then fix the problem.
5. Even in mental practice, stop and solve problems when you see or hear something
going wrong in your imagery practice. Make sure you pause and think about the
problem. Before you continue to the next passage, find a way to fix the problem and
repeat it a few times, just as you physically practice on your instrument.
85. Kageyama, “Does Mental Practice Work?”
32 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
6. Make your imagery practice as real as you can. Imagine yourself sitting at the piano,
feel your instrument under your fingers, listen to your sound production, and check
into your emotions.86
Pianists can highly benefit from mental and physical practice in conjunction.
Physical practice helps us develop motor memory and hopefully leads to automaticity when we play in recital. Mental practice requires more cognitive load, but it can also help us avoid injury caused by too much physical repetition. Alternating between mental and physical practice can make our practice sessions more effective. One way to do this is to imagine a passage then play it on the piano to confirm the two versions are the same.
Memorization is a process and a secure memory is not going to be achieved in an hour or even a day. The length of time and preparation it will take to have a piece securely memorized will vary from person to person. As stated previously, memory formation and refinement happen over hours, days, and even months. Deliberate, careful practice spread out over time allows the brain to reconsolidate improvements and refinements, leading to more secure memories. Repetition is the main vehicle for secure memories because it gives the brain energy to begin the consolidation process. However, too much repetition will interfere with consolidation. Once something feels stable in practice, one should leave it alone or move to something else in order for the brain to complete the process on its own. This means taking breaks during practice, not mentally over-rehearsing in stressful conditions, taking naps, getting restful nights of sleep, and, in
86. Kageyama, “Does Mental Practice Work?”
33 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 general, understanding that the practice–rest cycle will work to your advantage over time.87
87. Cash, “Effects of Early and Late Rest Intervals on Performance and Overnight Consolidation of a Keyboard Sequence,” 262–263.
34 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Chapter 4
Performance Recall: Problems and Remedies
Most often, the goal of the learner who has memorized repertoire is to perform it publicly. One hopes that time spent practicing in a deliberate manner to secure memory will result in a performance that is accurate, expressive, stylistically appropriate, comfortable, and confident.
For many pianists, a performance outside of the practice room can trigger anxiety.
Performance anxiety is a common psychological barrier that can affect the quality of performance. Anxiety is defined as “a negative emotional state in which feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension are associated with activation or arousal of the body.”88 According to Barbara Schneidermann, author of Confident Music Performance, performance anxiety refers to “those symptoms that inhibit the natural expression of emotion and the secure functioning of muscle and memory.”89 Performance anxiety is alternately described as stage fright, performance anticipation, nerves, or stress.90
88. Ryan Gelinas and Krista Munroe-Chandler, “Research Note: Psychological Skills for Successful Ice Hockey Goaltenders,” Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology 8, no. 2 (June 2006): 66, accessed July 4, 2015, http://www.athletic insight.com/Vol8Iss2/HockeyPDF.pdf.
89. Barbara Scheneiderman, Confident Music Performance: The Art of Preparing (Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, Inc.), 6.
90. Noa Kageyama, “What You May Not Know about Performance Anxiety,” Bulletproof Musician (blog), July 8, 2009, accessed May 27, 2015, http://www .bulletproofmusician.com/what-you-may-not-know-about-performance-anxiety/.
35 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
When we get anxious, our body releases adrenaline.91 Adrenaline helps us to survive in “fight-or-flight” situations.92 Anxiety is a healthy emotion; it protects us from danger and helps us deal with environmental threats.93 In music, a certain amount of anxiety can help us increase the quality of our performance, because adrenaline helps us concentrate and deal with challenges in our environment. However, too much anxiety can become problematic. Some unwanted physical symptoms of anxiety include chest pain, cramps, increased tension in the body, cold hands, dry mouth, increased heart rate, shaking, sweating and dizziness.94 All of these can decrease our motor sensitivity and fine muscle coordination and, in turn, can cause more anxiety.95
Performance anxiety in pianists can stem from many causes, including general nervousness about performing, fear of memory lapses or making mistakes, and not wanting to disappoint themselves and/or the audience. These worries are not necessarily rooted in a lack of preparation; performance anxiety can be a problem even when performers believe they are adequately prepared.96
91. “Physical Symptoms of Anxiety and Stress,” Mental Health Daily (blog), accessed July 4, 2015, http://mentalhealthdaily.com/2014/09/09/physical-symptoms-of -anxiety-and-stress/.
92. Ibid.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid.
95. Wan, 21.
96. Ibid., 23.
36 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
The chemical and hormonal changes in the brain that are triggered by anxiety can lead to issues with performance quality, including one’s memory recall.97 Memory lapses such as blanking out, forgetting, or losing track of where one is and where one is going can be an unsettling occurrence during memorized performances. There are two main reasons for this: (1) the memory or the memorized skill is never stabilized and secured, due to either not enough practice (repetition) or not enough time allowed for consolidation, and/or (2) the recall or recollection of the memory of something is compromised.
The successful recall of a skill memory depends on a number of factors. One factor is context dependency.98 Memories are encoded with information from the environments in which we learn. We are more likely to remember successfully if the environment remains stable between learning and recall phases. These factors, particularly for pianists, can include the practice room, the room’s temperature, the piano itself, the time at which we usually practice, our general state of emotion, and the people who are listening to us play. When any of these factors change, the recall of the memory can be affected. We can solve this problem by better preparing ourselves for a changing environment and practicing memory recall often in different settings. Such approaches might include using different rooms or instruments, playing for various listeners, and
97. Myra Morales, “Anxiety Can Cause Memory Problems,” Calm Clinic, accessed July 4, 2015, http://www.calmclinic.com/anxiety/symptoms/memory-problems.
98. Noe Kageyama, “Evidence That Pianists Might Have It Tougher Than the Rest of Us When It Comes to Performing from Memory,” Bulletproof Musician (blog), November 20, 2014, accessed June 26, 2015, http://www.bulletproofmusician.com /evidence-that-pianists-might-have-it-tougher-than-the-rest-of-us-when-it-comes-to- performing-from-memory/.
37 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 playing at different times of day. These can begin providing the variability that is needed to form a memory that is flexible and adjustable to different scenarios.
A natural result of procedural skill practice is the automatic way with which we can perform the skills we have spent months learning and refining.99 Being able to perform a piece with fluency and little mental effort is the goal. Automaticity in many ways reflects learning at its best. Often, however, excessive thinking and worry easily interrupt automaticity during performance. Worried thoughts take up space in our working memory, which at the same time may be trying to bring forth our well-practiced skill memories. Consequently, we lose the brainpower we need to recall successfully.
An inability to recall a learned skill as intended is often referred to as “choking under pressure.” Research has found that test takers, speech givers, musicians, and top athletes often choke when they let anxious thinking distract them or when they start trying to control well-learned motor skills.100 In these situations, performers may begin to overthink or think differently about skills that for much of the time have seemed easy and effortless. The results are often memories that are difficult to recall due to stark differences in the thought processes between practice and performance.
Understanding the possible triggers and symptoms of performance anxiety can help musicians better address this sometimes debilitating condition. The suggestions
99. Ronald T. Kellogg, Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology, 3rd ed. (Singapore: Sage Publication Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd., 2015), 86.
100. Claudia Hammond, “Sport: Why We Choke under Pressure,” BBC Future, March 19, 2014, accessed July 3, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140319-why -we-choke-under-pressure.
38 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 below describe the work musicians can do in preparation of performance to reduce negative symptoms of anxiety and improve conditions for optimal memory recall:
1. Practice in conditions that mimic performance. This could involve playing on the actual instrument to be used in the performance space or playing for an audience of friends and/or family. Either of these scenarios can easily make pianists feel physically uncomfortable, causing some level of anxiety and memory recall issues. Working through the anxiety in different settings, particularly at the end stages of practice, can provide the player with the variability needed to further secure memories that can later be successfully recalled in similar contexts. 101
2. Maintain good physical health. If musicians are healthy, they can better combat anxiety when it strikes.102 Exercise can improve stamina and reduce physical tension.
According to Jonathan Meyers, a health research scientist at the Palo Alto Veterans
Affairs Health System in California, exercise improves cardiovascular and respiratory functions.103 He states, “When a person exercises, the heart muscle contracts forcefully and frequently, increasing blood flow through the arteries. This leads to subtle changes in the autonomic nervous system, which controls the contraction and relaxation of these vessels.” Exercise has the additional benefit of warming hand and arm muscles before
101. Kageyama, “Evidence That Pianists Might Have It Tougher.”
102. Wan, 54.
103. Coco Ballantyne, “Does Exercise Really Make You Healthier?” Scientific American, January 2, 2009, accessed June 30 2015, http://www.scientificamerican.com /article/does-exercise-really-make/.
39 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 playing. Warm-up and stretching exercises are crucial to helping pianists prevent hand injury.104 Warm-up exercises also increase flexibility and range of physical motion.
Exercises that strengthen postural muscles, including yoga and Pilates, may also improve strength, balance, flexibility, and overall health. Yoga has been used for several thousand years in the Northern Indian culture as a practice of physical centering and meditation.105 The practice focuses on breathing exercises and physical poses that unite the mind and body in order to relieve stress and promote balance.106 According to Dr.
Ruby Roy, a chronic disease physician and certified yoga instructor, the right yoga practice can help us relax by lowering our heart rate and blood pressure.107
Another practice musicians can incorporate to reduce body tension is Alexander
Technique. Alexander Technique is a method of changing everyday movements and habits to facilitate the relief of unnecessary tensions within the body.108 This method improves ease and freedom of movement, balance, support, and coordination.109 It is
104. Wan, 55.
105. Kristen Urbanski, “Overcoming Performance Anxiety: A Systematic Review of the Benefits of Yoga, Alexander Technique, and the Feldenkrais Method,” (BA of Music thesis, Ohio University, 2010), 9.
106. Ibid.
107. Serena Gordon, “What Yoga Can or Can’t Do for You,” WebMD, December 30, 2013, accessed July 3, 2015, http://www.webmd.com/balance/news/20131230/what -yoga-can-and-cant-do-for-you.
108. “The Complete Guide to Alexander Technique,” Alexander Technique of Lincoln, Nebraska, and Toronto, Canada, accessed February 23, 2015, http://www .alexandertechnique.com/at.htm.
109. Ibid.
40 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 usually studied in private lessons or in workshops. Alexander Technique teachers or instructors observe students’ regular movements, such as walking around the room or performing on their instruments, and then provide feedback on where the students could be unnecessarily tensing their muscles and wasting energy. This technique is effective for musicians who are recovering from injuries and for those who suffer with unnecessary tension that interferes with the ability to perform well.
3. Cultivate self-confidence and a positive image.110 Confidence is belief and trust in oneself. In a performance, we want to be confident in ourselves and in our preparation.
Self-confidence and a positive self-image can help us move past performance anxiety.
We can build our confidence through reflecting upon previous positive experiences playing our instruments. For example, one might think about the most successful recent performance, reflect on how one felt at that time, and determine what type of preparation and mindset are needed to repeat that same type of experience.
Musicians can gain self-confidence through self-talk.111 Self-talk is an internal dialogue that we have with ourselves.112 Learners will want to use positive images in their self-talk113 and consciously direct themselves to these thoughts during the learning
110. Bill Moore, Playing Your Best When It Counts: Mental Skills for Musicians (Norman, Oklahoma: Moore Performance Consulting Publication, 2011), 76.
111. Noa Kageyama, “How to Become a More Confident Performer,” Bulletproof Musician (blog), August 7, 2009, accessed March 28, 2015, http://www.bulletproof musician.com/how-to-become-a-more-confident-performer/.
112. Ibid.
113. Moore, 91.
41 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 process to increase confidence.114 Avoiding critical statements is important.115 Instead of saying, “I will not make this mistake again,” one may change the statement to be more supportive and encouraging: “I am confident of my abilities to improve this passage.”
4. Medication may be appropriate.116 Some musicians use medical treatments such as beta blockers (Propranolol) to control performance anxiety. Propranolol is one of the most popular drugs prescribed for performance anxiety. It was developed for and is most often used to treat tremors, angina, hypertension, heart rhythm disorders, and other heart or circulatory conditions, but has become increasingly common in the treatment of many types of anxiety.117 It works by targeting part of the biochemical system responsible for the fight-or-flight response, consequently reducing the physiological discomfort often associated with the release of adrenaline.118 Many musicians have called this drug “a miracle” that helps them stay calm while performing.119
While it is suggested that musicians with unmanageable anxiety speak to a medical professional about the benefits of medication, including antidepressants and other anti-anxiety medication when appropriate, it is equally important to be aware of the
114. Moore, 91.
115. Ibid., 82.
116. Wan, 46.
117. “Proparanolol,” Drugs.com, accessed July 4, 2015, http://www.drugs.com /propranolol.html.
118. Wan, 46.
119. Ibid.
42 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 risks of such treatments. 120 My personal thought is that a calm demeanor is best during performance, but it does not necessarily guarantee optimal playing. Manageable doses of adrenaline can provide us the physical energy and mental acuity to perform at peak levels.
120. Melissa Conrad Stoppler, “Treatment with Beta Blockers,” RxList, last modified September 10, 2013, accessed July 3, 2015, http://www.rxlist.com/treatment _with_ beta_blockers-page2/drugs-condition.htm.
43 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Chapter 5
Conclusions
The purpose of this project was to explore effective strategies for memorization and recall that pianists can use to strengthen their skills and improve both their practice and performance. Memorization can be a problem for pianists, especially for those who have not performed in public much or who have had negative experiences on stage.
Problems can usually be traced to one or more reasons, including not practicing enough, not knowing how to practice for optimal memorization, and/or not entering performance situations with peak recall potential. In these cases, the memory of the material learned is not stably secured or the conditions in which the pianist is in at the moment differ significantly from that in which the material was learned and rehearsed.
It is suggested that piano teachers and students understand how memories are formed in order to approach memorization in intelligent and informed ways. This will assist them in figuring out why students fail to confidently memorize and offer more effective ways to solve memorization problems.
The following list summarizes the memorization tips offered to students in this document:
1. Memorize early on. We remember best what we do the most. Remember, the final
goal is to play without the music. The more we can practice without the music, the
more comfortable we will feel playing without it.
2. Memorize in manageable chunks. Our brains naturally break big portions of
information into smaller chunks. We can approach learning understanding this
44 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
process and break extensive pieces into understandable sections that have clear
beginnings and ends. Trying to memorize too much at once can lead to unstable
memories.
3. Consciously establish retrieval cues as soon as you start to memorize. Cues help us
recall memories when needed. Practicing in an engaged fashion and picking cues that
trigger memories related to what we want to hear, feel, and see will likely lead to
more secure memories.
4. Consider all the memories that are formed when learning music: auditory, visual,
kinesthetic, and analytical. Give time to developing each of these when committing
something to memory and when testing yourself in the practice room.
5. Vary your practice. Approaching your music in different ways is effective because
changing a variable in the way we do something prompts us to pay attention, which
can play a big role in creating a secure memory. Varying practice can take many
different forms—from changing tempos to playing around with different dynamics
and expressive approaches.
6. Be cognitively engaged when you practice. Concentrating on the task at hand allows
us to make continuous, active decisions about all of the things that are going on when
we play music. As with any other method, increasing the length of time and intensity
of our concentration requires practice. It is not reasonable to expect to be able to
concentrate intensely on demand when one has not worked to build the skill. With
continued effort, we can translate the concentration we have developed in our practice
into our performances.
45 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
7. Make emotional connections with the music. What does the music convey? What
does it make you feel? Taking time to explore this in your learning may help
strengthen your memory for it. If it is meaningful to you, you are more likely to
remember it.
8. Use mental practice. Mental practice helps with both strengthening our memory and
alleviating performance anxiety. Mental practice is imagery practice and can employ
visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and even analytical memories. It can be done with or
without the music and almost anywhere. As is the case with most skills, mental
practice can be initially difficult to implement, requiring time and energy to develop.
9. Practice performing. While pianists are generally very good at practicing their music,
not all are as comfortable performing. Like any other strategy, this skill requires
repetition to strengthen. Practicing as if we are performing provides us a chance to
overcome unexpected situations like having memory lapses, playing with errors, or
losing concentration. It also helps us mentally prepare for different performing venues
and playing on different instruments, which are all too common for pianists. Spending
time practicing in different practice rooms and having a few trial recitals at separate
venues will help add the variety one needs to practice recalling memories in differing
settings.
Some additional strategies might include using memorization games, whether you play them by yourself or with friends. When I want to test my memorization, I ask a friend to help quiz my memory. For example, I will test my memory by writing out few measures of the main melody on staff paper and asking my friend to quiz me by picking odd places to start the piece, transposing certain sections into another key, or singing the
46 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 entire piece while we walk. Memorization can be a lonely and long journey, but trying to make it a more engaging and enjoyable process can make it more accessible for students.
An added benefit is that we heighten our attention whenever we do something different in our practice, so using memory games may help us become better memorizers.
I also strongly suggest keeping a log when testing your memory. Record every detail in your log book when you have a trial performance just for yourself or a real performance for your friends or in a recital. Make sure you write down the sections in which you have memory lapses, the reasons you think the lapses happened, your thoughts when you had the lapse, and how you fixed the problem on the spot. The purpose for this log book is to help you to record and track your memorization process and let you evaluate your memorization after you perform. It does not matter whether you perform for yourself, to make a recording, or for your friends. The important part is to make records of instances when you play from memory without stopping, as you would in a performance. Be honest in your log book. Try to come up with suggestions for yourself that you can apply to your next trial performance; this will help you determine which memorization strategies work best for you. You may also want to write down the things you did that led to a successful performance (or practice performance). You can begin writing in your log as soon as you start memorizing the piece. I believe this is the best way to test, evaluate, and solve your memory problems.
The second main section of this document focused on performance anxiety and its relationship to memory slips. There are a lot of effective ways to help us reduce anxiety, but bear in mind that a little bit of anxiety can actually help one perform better. I believe that if our memory is secure enough, anxiety will not cause memory issues. Facing
47 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015 memorization problems and working to find a good solution will hopefully reduce anxiety about performance.
There is no doubt that different learners will gravitate toward different strategies to improve memorization for optimal performance. The first key to successful memorization is to better understand the way in which we learn best and then experiment with a variety of strategies and eventually tailor these methods to our individual needs.
With work and self-awareness, I believe good memorization skills and, consequently, better performances are attainable for all musicians.
48 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Bibliography
Altenmüller, Eckart. Music, Motor Control and the Brain. Edited by Jurg Kesselring. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Baddeley, Alan D. Human Memory: Theory and Practice. Revised ed. East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2002.
Ballantyne, Coco. “Does Exercise Really Make You Healthier?” Scientific American, January 2, 2009. Accessed June 30 2015. http://www.scientificamerican.com /article/does-exercise-really-make/.
Bastein, James. How to Teach Piano Successfully. 3rd ed. San Diego: Neil a Kjos Music Co, 1988.
Beres, Karen E. “An Analysis of Memorization Strategies for the Advanced Pianist.” M.M. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1993.
Bryant, Celia Mae. “Memorizing: A Science.” Clavier Companion 38, no. 8 (September/October 1999): 28–32.
Cash, C.D. “Effects of Early and Late Rest Intervals on Performance and Overnight Consolidation of a Keyboard Sequence.” Journal of Research in Music Education 57, no. 3 (2009): 252–266.
Cardwell, Mike, and Cara Flanagan. Psychology AS: The Complete Companion. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd., 2003.
Clark, Frances. Questions and Answers: Practical Advice for Piano Teachers. Northfield, IL: The Instrumentalist Company, 1992.
Domjan, Michael. The Principles of Learning and Behavior. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2014.
Duke, Robert A., and Carla M. Davis. “Procedural Memory Consolidation in the Performance of Brief Keyboard Sequences.” Journal of Research in Music Education 54, no.2 (Summer, 2006): 111–124.
Duke, R.A., A. L. Simmons, and C.D. Cash. “It’s Not How Much, It’s How: Characteristics of Practice Behavior and Retention of Performance Skills.” Journal of Research in Music Education 56, no. 4 (2009): 310–321.
Eaton, Jack Lyman. “A Correlation Study of Keyboard Sight-Reading Facility with Previous Training, Note-Reading, Psychomotor, and Memorization Skills.” D.M.E. thesis, Indiana University, 1978.
49 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Elias, Stimac. “Try to Remember: New Ways to Strengthen Your Memorization Skills.” Backstage, July 21, 2004. Accessed April 20, 2015. http://www.backstage.com /news/try-to-remember_2/.
Freiberg, Sarah. “The Role of Memorizing Should Be in a Performance.” All Things Strings, July 2000. Accessed June 2, 2015. http://www.allthingsstrings.com/layout/set/print/How-To/Study-Practice/The -Role-of-Memorizing-Should-Be-in-a-Performance.
Ford, John. “Many Ways to Memorize.” Clavier 35, no. 3 (March 1996): 24–26.
Froneman, Anchen. “Musical Memory and Musical Analysis: Strategies for the Memorization of Selected Tonal Piano Compositions.” M.Mus thesis, University of the Free State, 2008.
Gazzaniga, Michael S. The Cognitive Neurosciences. 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2004.
Gelinas, Ryan, and Krista Munroe-Chandler. “Research Note: Psychological Skills for Successful Ice Hockey Goaltenders.” Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology 8, no. 2 (June 2006): 64–71. Accessed July 4, 2015. http:// www.athleticinsight.com/Vol8Iss2/HockeyPDF.pdf.
Ginsborg, Jane. “Strategies for Memorizing Music.” In Musical Excellence: Strategies and Techniques to Enhance Performance, edited by Aaron Williamon, 123–143. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Gieseking, Walter and Karl Leimer. “The Shortest Way to Pianistic Perfection.” In Piano Technique. New York: Dover Publication, Inc., 1972.
Gordon, Stewart. “A Choice to Be Made.” Clavier Companion 5, no.4 (July/August 2013).
———. Memorization in Piano Performance. Alfred Music, 2007. DVD. Alfred Music Publishing, 2007.
———. “Technique to Secure Memorization.” In Mastering the Art of Performance: A Primer for Musicians, 81–90. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Harre, Rom, and Roger Lamb, eds. The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology. England: Basil Blackwell Publisher Limited, 1983.
Hettrick, Jane Schatkin. “Presence of Mind: Hints for Memorization of Organ Music.” American Organist 33, no. 3 (March 1999): 69.
50 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Hough, Stephen. “Liszt: The Man Who Invented Stage Fright.” Telegraph Culture Blog, June 8, 2011. Accessed May 27, 2015. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/culture /stephenhough/100053906/liszt-the-man-who-invented-stage-fright/.
Houston, John P. Fundamentals of Learning and Memory. 4th ed. San Diego, CA: Harcourt College, 1991.
Hughes, Edwin. “Musical Memory in Piano Playing and Piano Study.” Musical Quarterly 1, no.4 (October 1915): 592–603. Accessed January 15, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/738068.
Jones, Alfred Russell. “The Role of Analytical Prestudy in the Memorization and Retention of Piano Music with Subjects of Varied Aural/Kinesthetic Ability.” PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1990.
Kellogg, Ronald T. Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. 3rd ed. Singapore: Sage Publication Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd., 2015.
Karpinski, Gary S. Aural Skills Acquisition: The Development of Listening, Reading, and Performing Skills in College-Level Musicians. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Klickstein, Gerald. “How to Memorise Music for Performance.” Strad, April 16, 2014. Accessed June 30, 2015. http://www.thestrad.com/cpt-latests/how-to - memorise-music-for-performance/.
Klingenstein, Beth Gigante. The Independent Piano Teacher’s Studio Handbook. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2008.
Lim, Serene Shueh-Liang. “The Effects of Mental Practice on the Memorization of Piano Music.” M.S. thesis, Western Washington University, 1986.
Magill, R.A. Motor Learning: Concepts and Applications. 5th ed. Boston, Mass: WCB McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Mastin, Luke. “Memory Consolidation.” Human Memory. Last modified 2010. Accessed October 16, 2014. http://www.human-memory.net/processes_consolidation.html.
Mishra, Jennifer. “A Theoretical Model of Musical Memorization.” Psychomusicology 19.1 (Spring 2007): 75–89.
———. “Approaches to Memorizing.” Flute Talk 21, no. 5 (January 2002): 18.
———. “Predicting Memorization Efficiency through Compositional Characteristics.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no.177 (Summer 2008): 45–62. Accessed January 15, 2014. http://libe2.lib.ttu.edu/login?url=http:// search.proquest.com/docview.1335058?accountid=7098. 51 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Mitchell, Julie Elaine, and Alice-Ann Darrow. “Teaching Memory at the Piano: A Pre- College Student Workbook Based on Research in Psychology and Piano Pedagogy.” M.A. thesis, Florida State University, 2010. Accessed February 15, 2014. http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-11072010-160051/.
Montparker, Carol. “One Pianist's Choice Not to Memorize.” Clavier Companion, July/August 2013.
Moore, Bill. Playing Your Best When It Counts: Mental Skills for Musicians. Norman, Oklahoma: Moore Performance Consulting Publication, 2011.
Murphy, Shane, ed. Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology. New York, Oxford Press, 2012.
Newman, William S. The Pianist’s Problems: A Modern Approach to Efficient Practice and Musicianly Performance. 4th ed. New York: Da Capo Press, 1984.
Noice, Helga, and Tony Noice. “What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us about Memory and Cognitive Functioning.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 15, no. 1 (February 2006): 15–18. Accessed November 1, 2014. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/pdf/cd/actors_memory.pdf.
Parncutt, Richard, and Gary McPherson. The Science and Psychology of Music Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and Learning. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.
Reich, Nancy B. Clara Schumann, The Artist and the Woman. Rev. ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001.
Reubart, Dale. Anxiety and Musical Performance on Playing the Piano from Memory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 1985.
Richard, François L. Music in Your Head: Mental Practice, How to Memorize Piano Music. Fort Worth, TX: FLR Music Resources, 2011.
Rubin-Rabson, Grace. “The Psychology of Memorizing.” Music Educator Journal 36, no.3 (January 1950): 22–23. Accessed January 15, 2014. http://www.jstor.org /stable/3388606.
Schlabach, Eugene Lee. “The Role of Auditory Memory in Memorization at the Piano.” M.M. thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1975.
Schmidt, Richard A. “A Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning.” Psychological Review 82, no.4 (July 1975), 227.
Scheneiderman, Barbara. Confident Music Performance: The Art of Preparing. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, Inc., 2008. 52 Texas Tech University, Wen Ling Chua, December 2015
Shinn, Frederick G. “The Memorizing of Piano Music for Performance.” Proceedings of the Musical Association 25th Sess. (1898–1899): 1–25. Accessed January 15, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/76515.
Shockley, Rebecca Payne. Mapping Music: For Faster Learning and Secure Memory, A Guide for Piano Teachers and Students. 2nd ed. Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, 1997.
———. “An Experimental Approach to the Memorization of Piano Music with Implications for Music Reading.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1980.
Snyder, Robert. Music and Memory: An Introduction. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000.
Spanswick, Melanie. “Ten Top Tips for Effective Memorization: The Memory Game.” The Classical Music and Music Education Blog, December 7, 2014. Accessed, March 20, 2015. http://melaniespanswick.com/2014/12/07/ten-top-tips-for -effective-memorisation-the-memory-game/.
Svoboda, Elizabeth. “How to Avoid Choking under Pressure.” Scientific American, February/March 2009. Accessed July 3, 2015. http://www.kslinternationalarchery .com/Sport%20Psychology/How%20to%20Avoid%20Choking%20under%20Pre ssure.pdf.
Tileston, Donna E. Walker. What Every Teacher Should Know about Learning, Memory, and the Brain. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2003.
Urbanski, Kristen. “Overcoming Performance Anxiety: A Systematic Review of the Benefits of Yoga, Alexander Technique, and the Feldenkrais Method.” BA of Music thesis, Ohio University, 2010.
Waterman, Fanny. On Piano Teaching and Performing. London: Faber Music, 1983.
Wan, Ho Yan Agnes. Physical and Mental Issues in Piano Performance: The Interrelationships between Physical Tension, Performance Anxiety, and Memorization Strategies. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag, 2008.
Wilson, Karen, and James H. Korn. “Attention during Lectures: Beyond Ten Minutes.” Teaching of Psychology 34, no.2 (April 2007): 85–89.
Whiteside, Abby. “Rhythm,” in On Piano Playing. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 2003.
53