The 42nd George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology 1981 MOSLEM REBELLION IN CHINA: A Yunnan Controversy T'IEN JU-K' ANG 2332034 11111111111111 111 11111 ~Il l ~ 1 11 11111 11111 111 1 1111 ~ ity A. N.U . LIBRARY ' MOSLEM REBELLION IN CHINA: A Yunnan Controversy T'IEN JU-K' ANG The Forty-second George Ernest Morrison Lecture in Ethnology 1981 The Australian National University Canberra 1981 2 and other centres of Moslem resistance, are still known as the 'Grave of Thousands', and the 'Grave of Tens of thousands'. Indeed, in terms both of duration and intensity, this rebellion was undoubtedly one of the most protracted and brutal, not only in nineteenth-century China, but in the whole of Chinese history. The Yunnan Moslem Rebellion, as you well know, was not the only such upheaval in China during this period. The nineteenth century, marked by the White Lotus Rebellion at the beginning, to the Boxer outbreak at the close, saw China torn by almost continuous uprisings and rebellions at a time when she was also threatened by foreign invasions - the best known of these internal upheavals being the Taiping Rebellion (1849-1864), the Nien Rebellion (1853-1868), the Miao Rebellion (1854-1872), the Moslem Rebellion of the Northwest (1862-1873) and the Yunnan Rebellion. I shall not dwell on the causes common to all these outbreaks, but rather limit myself to some special features of the Yunnan Rebellion and what the present controversy is all about. To the Chinese, the word 'hui-hui', denoting 'Moslems', does not signify all those of the Islamic faith. There are many national minorities in China, especially in Xinjiang province, who practise Islam, yet who are not regarded as 'Hui' people. The term 'hui-hui' applies only to a particular ethnic group of Islamic people. Some of you who have been to Beijing may have been to one of the restaurants that now line one of the city's better-known thoroughfares, Wangfujing Dajie, widely known in former days as Morrison Street, after the celebrated Australian who once lived there. The cooks and waiters in some of these restaurants are indistinguishable in physique, dress and language from the Han Chinese, and you would not know they were Moslems except for a small wooden board hanging outside, with the Chinese words 'hui-hui' or 'Moslems from the Western Regions' in Arabic script. These are the Moslems or Hui people to whom I am referring here; they have become in­ distinguishable from other Chinese as a result of a long historical process. Moslems in China are of two origins. By far the largest group to come to China were Central Asians and Near Eastern peoples, such as Persians, Arabs, and others, who arrived in the first part of the thirteenth century in the wake of the Mongol conquest, particularly during the period from _Chinggis Khan's invasion in 1219 to Hulegu's occupation of Baghdad in 1258.6 During this period, various Moslem kingdoms and tribes in the vast territory to the west of the Belaturh Mountains and 3 east of the Black Sea were brought under Mongol domination. With each conquest, inhabitants in the conquered territory were dispatched en masse to the east. 7 With official encouragement, these were later joined by traders, artisans and others. In the official documents of the Yuan Dynasty they were referred to as 'hui-hui', and were listed side by side with other ethnic groups such as Han, Naiman, Uighur, Tangut, Khitan, and so on. In their enforced exile, many of these prisoners enlisted as soldiers, while others worked as artisans and farmers, and a small number became government officials, merchants and preachers. All of them referred to themselves by the term the Mongols used, 'hui-hui'. The smaller group of Moslems were mostly merchants who had come to China at the beginning of the Tang dynasty in the seventh century. It was recorded by an Arab traveller that there were more than one hundred and twenty thousand Arabs, Persians and Jews living in Canton at the time when Huangchao captured this international port in 879.8 Despite their long residence in China, the Moslems descended from these West Asian settlers are not regarded as 'hui-hui', nor indeed, did they add significantly to the total Moslem population in China. Equally insignificant are the numbers of Han, Mongol, Uighur, and other ethnic peoples who were converted to the Islamic faith through marriage and other social and economic processes. Upon the overthrow of the alien Mongol rule in 1368, the Ming rulers ushered in a period of intensive nationalism. Among the first edicts of the first emperor, Daizu, were those proscribing the use of foreign clothing, language and names.9 In 1372, a proclamation was issued, forbidding intermarriage among the Mongols and their former allied peoples, encouraging instead intermarriage between all these and the Han Chinese, on the ground that they were now all Chinese subjects. The punishment for offenders against such prohibitions was confiscation of property and enslavement. 10 This system of inter­ marriage not only resulted in the growth of the number of the Chinese Moslems, but also made them increasingly less foreign through their gradual adoption of the Chinese pattern of living, except in the crucial areas of diet and religious practices. Moslems began to adopt mono­ syllabic Chinese names by selecting certain syllables of their original names; hence Maharnmed became Ma, Nasir became Na, Sayed became Sai and so on, in conformity with the traditional Chinese so-called 'one hundred surnames' .11 They also adopted Chinese dress and gradually 4 local Chinese dialects began to replace Arabic and Persian, only a few phrases and terms being preserved for use on religious occasions and in speaking among themselves. When the massive migration from Central Asia took place, the Han Chinese had long been living on the land the Moslems were to settle. The newcomers were therefore unable to congregate in any one place as a single entity, nor were they encouraged to do so.1 2 In fact, it was a deliberate policy of the successive dynasties of Ming and Qing to disperse these forced immigrants to localities and regions widely separated from one another, and compel them to live interspersed among Han Chinese and other ethnic groups. This policy was particularly strictly enforced under the Qing dnasty. It was common practice, even after the middle of the last century, to up-root forcibly whole rural Moslem communities and transport them to regions thousands of miles away in complete disregard of environment, climate, living conditions and work opportunities.13 But despite these and other repressive measures, the Chinese Moslems always tried wherever possible to keep together and to keep to themselves. This physical separateness, whether in a street, in a city or a village in a rural area, enabled them to retain a certain separate cultural and social identity. One interesting and distinctive feature was that, in order to ensure communication between settlements, Moslems always chose to live by main roads or rivers. Their concentration along the banks of the Grand Canal is a good illustration of this long tradition.14 They tended also, by force of circumstance more than by choice, to settle in thinly populated areas. This explains the high percentage of Moslems in the north-western and south-western provinces of China. Before the middle of the last century, the ratio of Moslems to Han Chinese was as high as seven to three in Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai and three to seven in Shaanxi.15 But these numbers were sharply depleted following the slaughter by the Qing army under Zuo Zongtang during the suppression campaign against the Moslems of the northwest in 1862-1873. After this, Shaanxi ceased to be an area of concentration of Moslem population, which was reduced from an estimate of over one million to some twenty thousand. Zuo Zongtang, whom Morrison and others described as one of the greatest butchers of modern times, even boasted that: 'At present, except for some twenty thousand or so still living in Xian, the whole Moslem population of Shaanxi has been wiped out family by family leaving no heirs to speak of. Nine-tenths of them died by the sword, through epidemic or starvation. It is indeed 5 the greatest catastrophe for Moslems for more than a thousand years' .16 According to an estimate made in 1953, the figure for Moslems in Shaanxi was then little more than fifty thousand,17 or less than 5 per cent of the number of nearly a hundred years before. The present Moslem population in Yunnan is estimated at a little over two hundred thousand, 18 or about 10 per cent of that before the Rebellion over a hundred years ago. The ancestors of these Moslems went to Yunnan in the thirteenth century under the Mongols as military colonists.19 It was they who fust brought the land under cultivation; and tillers of the soil formed by far the largest component of the Moslem population in Yunnan.20 As owners of the land, some Moslems also became owners of mines, particularly copper and silver mines.21 And partly because of their adventurous spirit, many became traders, especially in the caravan trade with Burma which was virtually in their hands.22 Some of the more successful of these traders reinvested their profits in farrnland.23 This little bit of background is necessary because although insofar as it was an ethnic conflict, the Yunnan Rebellion was the culmination of an antipathy between Moslems and Han Chinese rooted in long-standing political and economic discrimination, the immediate causes of the spontaneous uprising in 1855 are to be found in disputes involving land, mines and, indirectly, overland trade.