DOCSLIB.ORG

Democracy in the Turmoil of the Future

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Democracy in the Turmoil of the Future D e m oc racy in the Turmoil of the Future Democracy in the Turmoil of the Future Cover: Statue “Future” by Wäinö Aaltonen, 1932/1969 Bronze. Eduskunta, Parliament of Finland, Assembly Chamber Mika Mannermaa Committee for the Future Eduskunta, Parliament of Finland tel. +358 9 4321 fax +358 9 432 2140 tuv@parliament.fi ISBN 978-951-53-2961-5 (printed) www.parliament.fi ISBN 978-951-53-2962-2 (PDF) kansi DTF.indd 1 23.05.2007 14:24:55 Democracy in the Turmoil of the Future Societal influence within a new frame of reference Mika Mannermaa Original work in Finnish language: Demokratia tulevaisuuden myllerryksessä, 2007 Committee for the Future Eduskunta, Parliament of Finland www.parliament.fi ISBN 978-951-53-2961-5 (printed) ISBN 978-951-53-2962-2 (PDF) Helsinki, Finland 2007 To the reader Since it was set up in 1993, the Committee for the Future of the Finnish Parliament has touched on the subject of democracy in many ways. However, it is only now as its mandate draws to an end that the Committee for the Future has decided to address this subject specifically. The decision was not an easy one. Democracy is a difficult and challenging subject. To provide background for its debate, the Committee commissioned a report from fu- tures researcher Dr Mika Mannermaa. Produced in conjunction with the Committee as part of the Parliament’s centenary anniversary and launched to coincide with the Pori Jazz Festival in summer 2006, first a book with an international focus Democracy and Futures was published (appeared later in Finnish as Demokratian tulevaisuudet). The focus then shifted to Finland, and the Committee is now delighted to publish this book Democracy in the turmoil of the future. Thanks are due to Mika Mannermaa. We can all assess the result for ourselves. I can already report that the Committee has received a great deal of input to its own work, particularly in what is an election year. It has also become clear that the next committee will have to consider the ideas and con- crete proposals made in the book in its work on futures policy. At the very least, the following ideas and issues require further political discussion. • The different manifestations of democracy in the future – what direction will the Finnish model move in? What is happening at European and global level? What ought to happen? • The relationship between democracy and freedom is multifaceted, and democracy is a demanding system, the models of which have to be constantly reformed, inter alia by exploiting the opportunities provided by technology. • The idea of there being democracy everywhere in the world is rather problematic – in some parts of the world there has never been a model of a functioning de- mocracy – and it takes time for democracy to develop. Can democracy be export- ed at all? • If parliamentary democracy is on the decline even in developed countries and citi- zens’ trust in it is fading, we have to prepare ourselves for dangerous setbacks even in developed democracies. In a democracy even the worst threat scenario has to be prepared for using democratic means. • We have to develop our ability to recognise new contemporary phenomena in de- mocracy as opportunities as well as threats. • The “every man’s weapon of mass destruction” phenomenon raised in Democracy and Futures will in itself pose new challenges for societal governance, both at na- tional and supranational levels. • In spite of the difficulties it faces, parliamentary democracy is an important and positive thing – it has to be taken care of. The Committee for the Future’s Democracy publication and the Russia 2017: Three scenarios publication, which will be completed almost simultaneously, have in common the fact that the future is in part being examined rather actively. This may well be due to the subject matter and the mandate of the committee. In all its reports on democracy, the Committee for the Future has been assisted by a steering group chaired by Deputy Chairman Kalevi Olin and comprising the following members of parliament: Kyösti Karjula, Päivi Räsänen, Esko-Juhani Tennilä, Anne Huotari and Jyrki Kasvi. Each of them deserves my heartfelt thanks. Democracy has long been the subject of philosophical interest. In J V Snellman’s bi- centenary year, it is appropriate to end with a few thoughts from our philosopher, who reflected a great deal on matters of state, dating from 1863 (Political Studies Lecture Series, p. 341, Helsinki 2004): “It may be said that the duty of the nation is to act for the good of humanity. Cosmopoli- tan interest should thus guide our action. But there is no rational basis for such an inter- est. No one can know what humanity desires – nor for that matter does humanity exist as yet – it is still unborn. The interests of humanity form part of the interests of each nation, i.e. the interests of each nation require attention to be paid to its relationship with other nations. There is awareness of this in Christian nations, and a system of states is currently weaving a web around the world – so that European nations are dependent upon what happens in America, India, China, Japan and Australia. And vice versa. What all these circumstances demand of nations – that a person can know – and such we can at least demand of him. And patriotism provides an outlook - cosmopolitanism as an interest is empty speculation.” Jyrki Katainen Chair of the Committee for the Future Foreword by the author In 1906 the Assembly of Representatives of the Estates approved a new act of parlia- ment which brought about a modern single-chamber parliamentary assembly as well as universal and equal suffrage. At the same time, democracy was extended to encom- pass a greater proportion of the male population and women received full state rights, which were exercised for the first time in parliamentary elections held the following year. In the 1907 elections, 19 female members were elected to the Finnish Parliament. In 2007, 100 years will have passed since the first plenary session of the single-chamber Finnish Parliament in its current form. In 1993 the Finnish Parliament set up a temporary Committee for the Future to draft opinions on the positions taken by the Finnish government. This was preceded by an initiative signed in 1992 by 167 members of parliament, according to which the govern- ment should present the Parliament with a report on the perspectives for Finland’s long-term development. The Committee for the Future has been a permanent commit- tee since 2000, when Finland’s new constitution entered into force. The Committee for the Future is unique in its kind: it is through it that Finnish parlia- mentarianism has served as a trail-blazer in futures work regarding societal decision- making, even in the international arena. Indeed, it is natural for this committee to be where the future prospects for societal development and democracy are discussed. The future of societal decision-making has received less attention in systematic futures research than the development prospects for economy and technology. The subject is a demanding and multifaceted one. When I participated for the first time in a world conference on futures research in Stockholm in 1982, the theme of the conference was The Future of Politics. Back then, in my report in the journal for members of the Finn- ish Society for Futures Studies, I wrote: “It was noted during the conference’s conclud- ing debate that no single set of conclusions had emerged from the work, but that opin- ions of the current state and future of the contemporary political decision-making system varied enormously. In the view of some participants, the party-based political system operating in most countries today, with its contingent problems of disaffected citizens, is undergoing a significant crisis, which societies will survive only as a conse- quence of significant change, perhaps brought about by popular movements … In the view of other participants, there was no discernible crisis.” There is something topical about that quotation even today. On the other hand, the last quarter of a century has borne witness to surprising changes and quite new phe- nomena. Personal computers became widespread and then portable, mobile phones were invented and the Internet emerged. Socialism collapsed, the Baltic countries gained their independence and joined Nato. The Nokia phenomenon was born. Fin- land joined the European Union in 1995, even though it was still a taboo subject in po- litically correct debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Treaty of Friendship, Co- operation and Mutual Assistance, the token of an age-old love between two nations carved in stone, was replaced by EMU and other agreements. A new globalisation swamped the world, and there were many other surprising developments. In a democratic society, the debate on the individual’s relationship with decision- making which affects him is an eternal one in that each generation has to devise its own interpretation of democracy and come up with solutions concerning the future which are always provisional in nature. The centenary celebrations of the Finnish Parliament provide the Committee for the Future with a wonderful opportunity to lay the foundations for a civil debate on the prospects for societal development in the future and on related issues and models of decision-making. This report aims to provide a stimulus for such a debate. I would like to thank the Committee for the Future for this opportunity to engage in such reflections and for the fruitful cooperation throughout the whole project. Ac- knowledgements are also due to a large number of Finnish and international experts, who in different ways have made their views available to me.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Resituating Culture
    Resituating culture edited by Gavan Titley Directorate of Youth and Sport Council of Europe Publishing This publication is an edited collection of articles from the resituating culture seminar organised in the framework of the partnership agreement on youth research between the Directorate of Youth and Sport of the Council of Europe and the Directorate-General for Education and Culture, Directorate D, Unit 1, Youth, of the European Commission. The opinions expressed in this work are those of the authors and do not neces- sarily reflect the official position of the Council of Europe. All correspondence relating to this publication or the reproduction or translation of all or part of the document should be addressed to: Directorate of Youth and Sport European Youth Centre Council of Europe 30, rue Pierre de Coubertin F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex Tel: +33 (0) 3 88 41 23 00 Fax: +33 (0) 3 88 41 27 77 e-mail: [email protected] http://www.coe.int/youth All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic (CD-Rom, Internet, etc.) or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing from the Publishing Division, Communication and Research Directorate. Cover: Graphic Design Publicis Koufra Council of Europe F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex ISBN 92-871-5396-5 © Council of Europe, April 2004 Reprinted May 2005 Printed at the Council of Europe Contents Pags List of contributors ........................................................................................... 5 Resituating culture: an introduction Gavan Titley ...................................................................................................... 9 Part l. Connexity and self 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Fifty Years on Culture, Politics and Cultural Policy
    Cinquante ans après Culture, politique et politiques culturelles Fifty Years On Culture, Politics And Cultural Policy Sommaire Table of Contents Sommaire Table of Contents Ouverture Opening Session Frédéric MITTERRAND Frédéric MITTERRAND Maryvonne DE SAINT PULGENT Maryvonne DE SAINT PULGENT Élie BARNAVI Élie BARNAVI Le modèle français en question Examining the French Model Les missions de 1959, vues de 2009 A 2009 perspective on the aims of 1959 Antoine COMPAGNON ............................................... Antoine COMPAGNON .......................................... 5 Redéfinir une culture véritablement cultivée Redefining a genuinely cultured culture Élie BARNAVI Élie BARNAVI Réponse à Antoine Compagnon et à Élie Barnavi Response to Antoine Compagnon and Élie Barnavi Jack LANG Jack LANG CHAPITRE 1 SESSION 1 La construction de l’Europe suppose-t-elle Does the Construction of Europe une politique culturelle commune ? Presuppose a Common Cultural Policy? Les politiques culturelles dans le temps Cultural policies in European time and space. et l’espace européens. Modèles et évolutions Models and evolutions Pierre-Michel MENGER ............................................ Pierre-Michel MENGER ......................................... 10 TABLE RONDE ROUND TABLE Présidée par Jack LANG Chaired by Jack LANG Modérateur : Emmanuel LAURENTIN Facilitator: Emmanuel LAURENTIN Intervenants : Liz FORGAN, Jan-Hendrik OLBERTZ, Panel members: Liz FORGAN, Jan-Hendrik OLBERTZ, Jacques RIGAUD, Ivaylo ZNEPOLSKI Jacques RIGAUD, Ivaylo ZNEPOLSKI La politique
    [Show full text]
  • Minister of Counterculture
    26 Guardian Weekly December 23 2005-January 5 2006 Culture Gilberto Gil is a musical legend - and now a senior Brazilian politician. He tz Minister of counterculture Gilberto Gil wears a sober suit and tie these days, and his dreadlocks are greying at the temples. But you soon remember that, as well as the serving culture minister of Brazil, you are in the presenceof one of the biggest l,atin American musicians of the 60s and 70s when you ask him about his intellectual influences and he cites Timothy l,eary. "Oh, yeah!" Gil says happily, rocking back in his chair at the Royal SocietyoftheArts in London. "Forexam- ple, all those guys at Silicon Valley - they're all coming basically from the psychedelic culture, you know? The brain-expanding processesof the crystal had a lot to do with the internet." Much as it may be currently de rigueur for journalists to ask politicians whether or not they have smoked marijuana, the question does not seem worth the effort. Gil's constant references to the hippy counterculture are not simplythe nostalgia of a 63-year-old with more than 4O albums to his name. For several years now, largely under the rest of the world's radar, the Braeilian government has been building a counterculture ofits own. The battlefield has been intellectual property - the ownership ofideas - and the revolution has touched everything, from internet file- sharing to GM crops to HIV medication. Phar- maceutical companies selling patented Aids drugs, for example, were informed that Brazil would simply ignore their claims to ownership and copy their products more cheaply if they didn't offer deep discounts.
    [Show full text]
  • Capital and Culture
    Capital and Culture An Investigation into New Labour cultural policy and the European Capital of Culture 2008. Mark Connolly Presented in fulfilment o f the requirements for the degree o f Doctor o f Philosophy at the University of Wales, Cardiff. December 2007 UMI Number: U584278 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U584278 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Statements of Declaration This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed .. ...............(candidate) Date ........... STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD (insert MCh, MD, MPhil, PhD etc, as appropriate) Signed .. (candidate) Date M .U/L/.firk. STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sourcesurces are acknowledged by explicit references. Signed (candidate) Date ....?. 9. /. I A./.^. STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations.
    [Show full text]
  • Making Culture Accessible
    Making culture accessible The enjoyment and fulfilment of the right to participate in culture requires an enabling environment and a legal Making culture accessible Access, participation and cultural provision framework that offers a solid basis for the protection of rights related to cultural actions. A society that demonstrates an interest in nurturing cultural and spiritual needs in conditions of liberty has a greater chance of developing a sense in the context of cultural rights in Europe of social responsibility among its members. Annamari Laaksonen This study is a general overview of existing legal and policy frameworks in Europe, covering access to and participation in cultural life, cultural provision and cultural rights. It aims at facilitating an environment that enables the development of access and participation in this area. The study also pays due tribute to local civil society organisations and cultural associations, in recognition of the important role they play in making access to culture possible. www.coe.int The Council of Europe has 47 member states, covering virtually the entire continent of Europe. It seeks to develop common democratic and legal principles based on the European Convention on Human Rights and other reference texts on the protection of individuals. Ever since it was founded in 1949, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the Council of Europe has symbolised reconciliation. Council of Europe Publishing ISBN 978-92-871-6729-3 http://book.coe.int €19/US$38 Council of Europe Publishing www.culture.com Making culture accessible Access, participation and cultural provision in the context of cultural rights in Europe Annamari Laaksonen Interarts Agency, Barcelona Council of Europe Publishing The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • Culture and the Policies of Change Culture and the Policies of Change Conference Reader Conference Reader
    CultureWatchEurope Conference 2010 Culture and the Policies of Change Culture and the Policies of Change Culture and the Policies Conference Reader Conference Reader Brussels, 6-7 September 2010 European European Economic Commission and Social Committee EUNIC CultureWatchEurope Conference 2010 “Culture and the Policies of Change” Conference Reader TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword................................................................................................................................................. 5 by Robert PALMER, Director of Culture and Cultural and Natural Heritage, Council of Europe Contribution on the Conference: Culture and the Policies of Change................................................... 7 by Jan TRUSZCZYŃSKI, Director-General for Education and Culture, European Commission Report on the Conference ...................................................................................................................... 9 by Steve GREEN, EUNIC Work Group Session Notes.................................................................................................................. 23 Background Papers.............................................................................................................................. 49 The Empathic Civilization by Jeremy RIFKIN................................................................................... 49 Empathic Education: the Transformation of Learning in an Interconnected World by Jeremy RIFKIN............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • China Country Report
    CHINA COUNTRY REPORT CHINA COUNTRY REPORT CHINA COUNTRY REPORT WRITTEN BY: Yolanda Smits EDITED BY: Yudhishthir Raj Isar GRAPHICS & LAY OUT BY: Guillemette Madinier and Sarah Sajn DATE OF PUBLICATION: 19 May 2014 The content of this report does not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Responsibility for the information and views expressed therein lies entirely with the author(s). © 2013-2014 Preparatory Action ‘Culture in the EU's External Relations’ COUNTRY REPORT CHINA | 2 preparatory action CULTURE in EU EXTERNAL RELATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 4 OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 6 EXTERNAL CULTURAL RELATIONS IN THE CULTURAL POLICY CONTEXT .......................................... 11 The main elements of the Chinese strategy for culture in external relations .......................... 11 Chinese governmental bodies dealing with culture in external relations ................................ 14 Provincial and local strategies/policies/approaches ................................................................ 17 Geographical priorities ............................................................................................................. 19 Relations
    [Show full text]
  • New Culture Minister Jeremy Wright, Appointed This Week After a Cabinet
    New culture minister urged to digitise export licences for art works: New culture minister Jeremy Wright, appointed this week after a Cabinet reshuffle prompted by the resignation of David Davis and Boris Johnson, is being asked to prioritise the introduction of digital export licences for art works in time for Brexit. Unlike other categories of exports, the export of art, antiques and cultural goods remains a paper-based system, despite requests from art market leaders to speed up the process with a digital alternative. 12.07.2018, Antiques Trade Gazette: New culture minister urged to digitise export licences for art works New culture minister Jeremy Wright, appointed this week after a Cabinet reshuffle prompted by the resignation of David Davis and Boris Johnson, is being asked to prioritise the introduction of digital export licences for art works in time for Brexit. Wright, the former attorney general and a criminal barrister, was unveiled as secretary of state for digital, culture, media and sport (DCMS) to replace Matt Hancock, who moved to become health secretary after just six months heading the DCMS department. Paper-based licences Unlike other categories of exports, the export of art, antiques and cultural goods remains a paper- based system, despite requests from art market leaders to speed up the process with a digital alternative. The pressure to solve the issue has grown with concerns about possible border delays for art and antiques exports to the Continent once the UK leaves the EU in March 2019. “One area affecting the art market that falls in the remit of the DCMS, which is increasingly urgent, is the need for making export licensing digital,” chairman of the British Art Market Federation, Anthony Browne, told ATG.
    [Show full text]
  • Christians in the Contemporary Middle East: Religious Minorities and the Struggle for Secular Nationalism and Citizenship
    Christians in the Contemporary Middle East: Religious Minorities and the Struggle for Secular Nationalism and Citizenship Villanova University December 5-6, 2016 INTRODUCTION International scholars, government officials, and NGO representatives will convene at Villanova University this December 5-6 for the conference, “Christians in the Contemporary Middle East: Religious Minorities and the Struggle for Secular Nationalism and Citizenship.” The goals of this conference are to examine: (1) The reasons for the decline in pluralistic and cosmopolitan spaces in the Middle East, and the consequences for Christians and other minorities; (2) The historic role of Christian intellectuals and their contributions to Arab politics and promoting religious freedom; (3) Prospects for securing the equality of citizens, given current interpretations of Islamic law that tend to create separation and marginalization, even among Muslim citizens not of the majority sect; (4) Strategies that could be implemented to combat the persecution of minority and religious communities and enable them to stay in their home countries; (5) The geopolitical and regional tensions that have threatened the presence of Christians and other vulnerable communities in the Middle East, and (6) the impact of the Shia-Sunni conflict on the status of ethnic and religious minorities in the region. The conference will conclude with an open discussion with all the panelists and Q&A. 1 | Page SCHEDULE DAY ONE – Monday, December 5, 2016 9:15-9:30 a.m. | Welcome | Rev. Peter M. Donohue, OSA, PhD, President, Villanova University | Introduction | Rev. Kail C. Ellis, OSA, PhD, Assistant to the President, Conference Director, Villanova University 9:30-10:00 a.m.
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Policy in France Since 1959: Arm's Lenght, Or
    Cultural Policy in France Since 1959: arm’s lenght, or ’up close and personal?’ – by David Looseley © David Looseley & Nordisk Kultur Institut 2001. Publikationen indgår i forskningsprojektet ”Nordisk Kulturpolitik under Forandring.” Alle rettigheder forbeholdes. Mekanisk, fotografisk eller anden gengivelse af eller kopiering af teksten eller dele deraf er kun tilladt i overensstemmelse med overenskomst mellem Undervisningsministeriet og Copy-Dan. Enhver anden udnyttelse uden skriftligt samtykke fra forfatteren/forlaget er forbudt ifølge dansk lov om ophavsret. Nordisk Kultur Institut | Amalievej 15 | DK-1875 Frederiksberg C Tlf. +45 33 21 36 53 | [email protected] | www.nordiskkulturinstitut.dk 1. Preface Before I begin, I would like to clarify my approach to the subject of French cultural policy. I am not French, nor do I work in cultural administration in any form. I am neither political scientist nor sociologist. What I am is an academic working in the area of French studies, the main object of which is of course France itself. As such, I generally adopt a cultural-historical perspective in my research field, which I define as the contemporary history of French cultural policies, practices and institutions. What my perspective brings to the study of cultural policy, therefore, is a concern not just with administrative and distributive structures but with the importance the arts have been accorded in France for several hundred years. In his paper for this Tribunal, Kevin Mulcahy evokes the French state’s ‘strong sense of cultural mission’ (Tribunal Reader, 1999, 255), while a French writer on the subject, Jean-Michel Djian, starts from the fearlessly unequivocal view that ‘cultural policy is a French invention’ (Djian, 1996, 11).
    [Show full text]
  • Full Profile (2014)
    Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafi (Culture Resource) Organization launched in 2009 a regional initiative aims to identify the main features of cultural policy in Arab countries. The ultimate goal is to build a Knowledge Base that supports cultural planning and collaboration in the region, as well as propose mechanisms to develop cultural work in Arab countries. First stage of the project targeted preliminary surveys of policies, legislations, and practices that guide cultural work in eight Arab countries: Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. The process of Monitoring was conducted in the period between May 2009 and January 2010 by Arab researchers from all eight countries, and thus “Ettijahat. Independent culture” as the regional coordinator of the project developed the surveys and updated its information and data through specialized researchers who reviewed the information and amended it based on the most recent developments in the cultural scene. The study has been completed according to the Compendium model which is adopted in study about cultural policies around the world. Research is divided into the following: 1- Cultural context from a social and historical perspective. 2- Administrative Subsidiarity and decision-making. 3- General objectives and principles of cultural policies. 4- Current topics debated in cultural policy development. 5- Main legal texts in the cultural field. 6- Financing of culture events and institutions. 7- Cultural institutions and new partnerships. 8- Supporting creativity and collaborations. This survey has been conducted in 2009 and 2010 by the researchers Rita Azar and Watfaa Hamadi. The original material of the current survey is found below in black.
    [Show full text]
  • Government, National Identity, and the Arts in Singapore
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Undergraduate Humanities Forum 2013-2014: Penn Humanities Forum Undergraduate Violence Research Fellows 5-2014 State of the Arts: Government, National Identity, and the Arts in Singapore Shawn Teo University of Pennsylvania Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/uhf_2014 Part of the Asian History Commons, and the Cultural History Commons Teo, Shawn, "State of the Arts: Government, National Identity, and the Arts in Singapore" (2014). Undergraduate Humanities Forum 2013-2014: Violence. 1. https://repository.upenn.edu/uhf_2014/1 This paper was part of the 2013-2014 Penn Humanities Forum on Violence. Find out more at http://www.phf.upenn.edu/annual-topics/violence. This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/uhf_2014/1 For more information, please contact [email protected]. State of the Arts: Government, National Identity, and the Arts in Singapore Abstract In the 1960s, countries in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia and Malaysia were wreaked by ethnic violence. Race riots broke out in Malaysia in 1969 between Chinese and Malays. In 1973 and 1974 anti- Chinese riots and pogroms erupted in Indonesia. Amidst a sea of ethnic unrest, the Singaporean government became aware that the multiethnic nature of Singapore rendered it vulnerable to riots.Memories of the 1964 race riots and the 1950 Maria Hertogh riots were still fresh. The government hoped that the creation of a cohesive national identity would reduce the risk of ethnic and racial violence. In this project I examine the development of national identity in Singapore from 1965-1990 to see how the government and civil society interacted to create a national identity.
    [Show full text]