Glossary of Chinese and English Terms

The main Chinese and English terms, slogans, and names used in the book are listed here with their equivalents in Chinese characters and in pinyin, the standard form of romanization used in the PRC. An asterisk indicates a personal name.

achieving a basically well-­off society成就小康社会 chengjiu xiaokang shehui. A slogan developed by Hu Jintao, ccp Secretary from 2002 to 2012, and declared by Xi Jinping to be an objective that China should achieve by 2021. agricultural production mutual aid groups 农业生产互助组 nongye shengchan huzhuzu. Mutual aid groups (also called mutual aid teams) were created by the ccp during the first stage of land reform in the 1950, prior to the creation of communes. The groups shared labor and some capital but individual households remained the basic unit of ownership and production. By 1960, eight thousand mutual aid teams had been established in Tibet. amban 安办 anban. The Manchu term for the imperial commissioners posted to Tibet and other areas during the Qing dynasty to oversee and liaise with local rulers. anti-­splittism 反分裂主义 fan fenlie zhuyi. A term used by regime critics and dissidents from the late 1990s onward to mock officials who exaggerate reports of “splittism” (see below) in order to enhance their positions or to increase their access to government funding. April 1 Directive 四‧一指示 siyi zhishi. Instructions issued by Mao and the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group in April 1967 ordering the military to stop suppressing rebels and Red Guards. The April 1 Directive praised leftist students and others who had earlier attacked the military. See February Countercurrent. armed rebellion 武装叛乱 wuzhuang panluan. In the Tibetan context, this is the official term used by the ccp to refer to the uprising or revolt by Tibetans against Chinese rule in March 1959. See also full-­scale rebellion. August 19 Rally 八‧一九群众大会 bayaojiu qunzhong dahui or bayijiu qunzhong dahui. A rally of fifty thousand people in Lhasa in 1966 to celebrate the Cultural Revolution, led by Zhang Guohua (see below). August 24 revolutionary action 八‧二四革命行 ba’ersi geming dingdong. The first “Destroy the Four Olds” action in Lhasa in 1966, namely the sacking of the Jokhang. Apparently organized the day before by the “superior authorities,” it included a march to the Jokhang by student Red Guards from Lhasa Middle School and active involvement by members of local Neighborhood Committees. backbone militia 基干民兵 jigan minbing. Units composed of civilians who were trained in their local areas as a military reserve force. They were given special training to detect and prevent “class enemies” from carrying out sabotage in their localities, as well as to serve as combat forces in the event of war. See also People’s Armed Forces Department. bad elements 坏分子 huai fenzi. Maoist term for people who were to be attacked in political campaigns. See also class enemies. baicai 白菜. Chinese term for cabbage. An example of a Chinese term commonly used in modern Tibetan. Bajiao Jie 八角街. Chinese term for the Barkor, the intermediate circumambulation route that runs around the Jokhang at the heart of Lhasa. Often mistranslated as “eight-corner­ street” or “octagonal street.” See also Lixin Dajie and establish the new. banshichu 办事处. An administrative office, here referring to an urban district governed by a banshichu. After 1959, the Inner City District (Chengguanqu) of Lhasa was divided into three banshichu: the South City District, the East City District, and the North City District. beef and potato stew 土豆烧牛肉 tudou shaoniurou. A derisory ccp term referring to Khrushchev’s statement in 1964 that communism should be about practical benefits, such as providing “good goulash,” rather than primarily about revolution. Beijing Road 北京路 Beijing lu. The new name given to the major thoroughfare in Lhasa running from the Potala to the East Lingkor, which at its western end included the area traditionally known as Changseb Shar (East Willow Grove). The new street had been known as Dekyi Lam (“Happiness Road” in Tibetan) when it was built in the 1950s but was soon renamed Beijing Road and divided into Beijing West Road, Beijing Middle Road, and Beijing East Road. big-­character posters 大字报 dazibao. Posters handwritten in large characters and put up on walls, usually proclaiming a political comment or statement. bombarding the headquarters 炮打司令部 paoda silingbu. See paoda silingbu. Bright Neighborhood Committee 光明居委会 Guangming jüweihui. The new name given to the former Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee in Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution. Buddhist Association 佛协 Foxie. See Chinese Buddhist Association. Capital Headquarters No. 3 首都三司 shoudu sansi. The title of an activist group during the Cultural Revolution, possibly a short name for the Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters of Red Guards from Colleges and Universities in the Capital (首都大专院校红卫兵造命造反司令部 shoudu dazhuan yuanxiao hongweibing geming zaofan silingbu), the Red Guards Headquarters No. 3 (红卫兵第三司令 部 hongweibing disan silingbu), or the Revolutionary Headquarters of Rebels from the Capital Going to Tibet (首都赴藏造反革命总部 shoudu fuzang zaofan geming zongbu), which was affiliated with Gyenlog. capitalist rightists 资产阶级右派分子 zichan jieji youpai fenzi. The targets of a nationwide struggle campaign in 1957. At the August 19 Rally in 1966, Zhang Guohua called for the permanent defeat of “counterrevolutionary revisionists, capitalist rightists, and the bourgeois reactionary authorities.” capitalist roader 走资派 zouzipai. Short for 走资本主义道路的当权派 (zou ziben zhuyi daolu di dangquanpai) or “Party persons in power taking the capitalist road.” This was the standard Maoist term for people within the cpp and within the nation who were considered sympathetic or susceptible to bourgeois objectives. The primary purpose of the Cultural Revolution was defined as overthrowing such leaders who had “sneaked into our Party” and were “taking the capitalist road.” In the 1981 “Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of our Party,” the ccp declared this form of targeting to have been an “erroneous thesis.” Central Committee (中共)中央委员会 (Zhonggong) Zhongyang weiyuanhui. The leading body of the ccp, with about three hundred members. In practice it is subordinate to its executive committee, the Politburo, which in turn is subordinate to the Standing Committee of the Politburo. Central Cultural Revolution Small Group 中央文化革命小组 Zhongyang wenhua geming xiaozu or simply 中央文革小组 Zhongyan wenge xiaozu or 文革小组 wenge xiaozu. The ruling group in the ccp that ran the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1969. At times it in effect replaced the Politburo Standing Committee. It was headed by Chen Boda, with Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, as a deputy head. Sometimes referred to more loosely as the Central Cultural Revolution Group. Central Mandala 金戈 jinge. The main prayer hall within the Jokhang temple complex in Lhasa. Also called the Mandala Hall. The Chinese term jinge is a phonetic rendering of the Tibetan word for a mandala, dkyil ‘khor. Central Military Commission (中共)中央軍事委員會 (Zhonggong) Zhongyang junshi weiyuanhui. The body that oversees all military issues in China, usually chaired by the ccp Secretary. Technically it can refer to either of two identical bodies, one within the ccp and one within the prc state administration. Central Nationalities Institute 中央民族学院 Zhongyang minzu xueyuan. The main teaching institution in China for training ethnic Chinese cadres to work in minority areas and also to train members of minorities for similar professions. Located in Beijing, it was upgraded to a university in 1993 and later renamed Central Minzu University. Central Newsreel and Documentary Film Studio 中央新闻记录电影制片厂 Zhongyang xinwen jilu dianying zhipianchang. The main production house in China for news films and documentaries after 1950. *Chairman Mao 毛主席 Mao zhuxi. Usual title for Mao Zedong (1893–­1976). He was the chairman of the ccp from 1943 to 1976 (since 1982 the head of the ccp has been titled General Secretary, not chairman). He founded the prc in 1949 and in effect was the ruler of theprc from 1949 to 1976. *Chiang Kai-­shek 蒋介石 Jiang Jieshi. Chiang (1887–­1975) was the ruler of China from 1928 until he fled to Taiwan in 1949, which he ruled as the Republic of China until his death. He was the head of the Guomindang (the Chinese Nationalist Party or kmt) from 1926 to 1927 and from 1936 until 1975. *Chen Jiajin 陈家进. Chief editor of the Chinese edition of Wind and Thunder Battle News (风雷激战报)¸ the newspaper issued in Lhasa by Nyamdrel (see Dalianzhi) from 1966 until 1968. *Chen Mingyi 陈明义. A Chinese military officer who was a founding member of the Tibet Working Committee in 1950. He was a major general and deputy commander of the Tibet Military Region from 1955, commander of the Tibet Military District 1970–75,­ deputy director of the tar Revolutionary Committee from 1968–­75, and Party Secretary of the tar from 1971 to 1975. *Chen Yonggui 陈永贵. Chen (c. 1915–­86) was Party Secretary of the Dazhai Commune in Shanxi (see below) and was made a national hero because of the commune’s claimed agricultural achievements. He was a Politburo member of the ccp from 1973 to 1979. He visited Tibet to promote the “Dazhai experience” in November 1974. *Cheng Demei 程德美. A high-­school student in Beijing who walked to Tibet for three months in 1966 to spread cultural revolution. He and his fellow marchers called themselves the Long March Team from the Capital to Continue the Red Mission. *Cheng Kuande 程宽德. The Chinese name of Tsering Dorje, the author’s father. Chengdu 成都. Capital city of Sichuan Province and the closest Chinese city to Kham and the tar. chengguanqu 城关区. Literally, “the area within the city walls,” a Chinese term often used to designate the inner city area of towns or cities. Translated here as the Inner City District, the Lhasa Chengguanqu was divided into three subdistricts or banshichu (see above). China dream 中国梦 Zhongguomeng. The slogan promoted by Xi Jinping from 2012 onward to signify the “rejuvenation” of the Chinese nation. Chinese Buddhist Association 中国佛教协会 Zhongguo fojiao xiehui. The official body overseeing Buddhism in the prc, composed of “patriotic” representatives of officially approved Buddhist groups. It is run by the Religious Affairs Bureau, which is under the United Front (see below). Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference 人民政治协商会议 renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi. The cppcc is an advisory assembly whose members are appointed and managed by the United Front (see below), with local assemblies at each administrative level in the country. The cppcc that meet once a year, shortly before the annual meeting of the npc. It has no obvious powers and exists largely to give token approval to decisions made by the ccp while providing nominal positions as paid “advisers” to religious leaders, former aristocrats, businessmen, non-ccp­ intellectuals, and other local dignitaries who are not or cannot be ccp members. It ceased functioning during the Cultural Revolution because it was seen as favoring reactionary elements. Up until the Cultural Revolution, the Lhasa cppcc had its office inside the Jokhang. class education 阶级教育 jieji jiaoyu. Maoist term for educating people about the nature of class oppression, leading to class struggle. class enemies 階级敌人 jieji diren. Maoist terms for targets of political campaigns, struggle sessions, or execution surges who were condemned because of their supposed history of oppressing the working classes. The term “class enemy” typically included alleged traitors, spies, capitalist roaders, capitalists, Guomindang “dregs,” landlords, and others. See also bad elements; class education; Five Black Categories; and struggle sessions. cleanse the class ranks 清理阶级队伍 qingli jieji duiwu. A campaign from 1967 onward by Mao and the Party Center to uncover “class enemies” who had supposedly infiltrated the revolutionary camp and contaminated the class ranks. Believed to have claimed more lives than any other movement during the Cultural Revolution, according to the historian Song Yongyi, it is said to have led to half a million deaths, with thirty million people subjected to struggle sessions. comfort money 安慰费 anweifei. Sums given to relatives of people who had been executed as supposed rebels or counterrevolutionaries but later officially rehabilitated. commune 公社 gongshe. See People’s Commune. Communications Department 联络部 lianluobu. One of the four administrative sections within the command structure of the Tibet Military Region, housed within the Tibet Military Region’s compound or base in Lhasa on the southern side of the Lingkor. Different from thetar Communications Office, housed in what is now the Tibet Welcome Hotel. Communist Youth League 共青团 gongqingtuan. The youth wing of the ccp, open to “advanced youth” between the ages of fifteen and twenty-­five. It had fifty-­two million members in 1987 and eighty-­ one million members in 2018. completely eradicate the Dalai, the root of feudalism 彻底挖掉达赖这个封建农奴主阶级的总根子 chedi waodiao Dalai zhege fengjian nongnuzhu jieji de zonggenzi. A slogan written on a Cultural Revolution poster paraded in the Lhasa Barkor. comprehensive management 综合治理 zonghe zhili. A term created in the early 1980s to describe a set of nationwide mechanisms and policies designed to increase security, social order, and “social stability.” Known in full as “comprehensive management for [the purpose] of social security” (社会 治安综合治理 shehui zhi’an zonghe zhili). conspiracy to riot 预谋叛乱 yumo panluan. The term used to classify twenty-­two of the counties in the tar that experienced “renewed rebellions” in 1969. The “renewed rebellions” in other counties were classified as either “full-­scale rebellions” or “semi=rebellions.” counterrevolutionary 反革命 fangeming. A term used widely in the 1950s and in the Cultural Revolution to describe perceived opposition to revolution or to its proponents. After the 1979 reforms, the term was used to refer to any kind of treason or opposition to the state, until it was replaced in the Chinese Criminal Code by the term “criminal actions that jeopardize state security” in 1997. During the Cultural Revolution, the term “active counterrevolutionaries” included “armed rebels” and “traitors,” such as those arrested along Tibet’s southern border trying to flee the country. counterrevolutionary violent turmoil 反革命暴乱 fangeming baoluan. The official term used in the 1970s to describe the revolts or uprisings that occurred in the tar in 1969, which had initially been categorized as “renewed rebellions” (zaipan). cppcc 中国人民政治协商会议 Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi. See Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference. Crown of the Five Buddhas 五佛冠 wufoguang. A crown with five petals often found in Buddhist paintings or on Buddhist statues. In Buddhist iconography the five petals represent the five “Buddha Families.” Cultural Palace 文化宫 wenhuagong. See Working People’s Cultural Palace. Cultural Revolution 文化大革命 wenhua da geming or simply 文革 wenge. See Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Cultural Revolution Small Group 文化革命小组 wenhua geming xiaozu or simply 文革小组 wenge xiaozu. See Central Cultural Revolution Small Group 中央文化革命小组. cultural work troupe 文化工作团 wenhua gongzuotuan or 文工团 wengongtuan. Performance troupes within the pla staffed by soldiers who served as actors, singers, and writers. They are known as “cultural workers” within the military or as “Literature and Art Soldiers.” Within the pla, only cultural workers could join Cultural Revolution factions. Culture Bureau of the tar 西藏自治区文化局 Xizang zizhiqu wenhuajü. The office of thetar government in charge of all cultural activities in the region. It is under the direction of the ccp Propaganda Bureau. Dalai Clique 达赖集团 Dalai jituan. A polemical term used by the ccp to refer to supporters of the Dalai Lama or, more specifically, to his advisers and officials. It is sometimes translated in recent official Chinese documents in English as “Dalai group.” Dalianzhi 大联指. The Cultural Revolution faction known in Tibetan as Nyamdrel, meaning “the Alliance.” The Chinese name is a short form of “the Great Revolutionary Proletarian Alliance General Headquarters” (无产阶级大联合革 命总指挥部 wuchan jijie dalianhe geming zongzhihuibu), also known as the Proletarian Headquarters. It was formed in February 1967 and was generally seen as more proestablishment than its enemy, Gyenlog (Zaozong). After Gyenlog was discredited by the “renewed rebellions” of 1969, Nyamdrel became dominant. Its former leaders remained influential in thetar long after the Cultural Revolution. dare-­to-­die, unafraid to overthrow the Emperor 舍得一身剐， 敢把皇帝拉下马 shede yishengua, gan ba huangdi laxiama. Self-­description by Red Guards extolling their determination to overthrow existing rulers and officials. The terms were used by Red Guards in Tibet to indicate their determination to depose Zhang Guohua. dayang 大洋. Silver coins used during the Republican era and in the early prc period in Tibet. Dazhai 大寨. In the early 1960s, Dazhai Commune in Xiyang County, Shanxi Province, was championed for “transforming nature through the determination to battle against heaven and earth” (以战天斗 地的精神来改造自然 yi zhantiandoudi de jingshen lai gaizao ziran), a reference to its claimed ability to turn poor soil into rich farming land. From 1963 onward, Mao instructed all communes in China to “learn agriculture from Dazhai” (nongye xue Dazhai). Dazhai Flowers on the Tibet Plateau 西藏高原大寨花 Xizang gaoyuan dazhai hua. A documentary film released in 1976 that claimed dramatic agricultural achievements under communism in Tibet. See Dongkar; Dazhai. Democratic Reforms 民主改革 minzhu gaige. The official ccp term for the ending of the traditional class system and the imposition of radical socialist policies, primarily land redistribution. In Tibet, this took place immediately after the failure of the Lhasa revolt and the flight of the Dalai Lama into exile in March 1959. It included deposing the previous Tibetan government, establishing “people’s committees,” distributing all privately held land, and ending all debts owed by the peasantry. *Deng Xiaoping 邓小平. Deng (1904–­97) was Political Commissar of the Southwest Military Region from 1950 to 1952 and was thus involved with plans for the 1950 advance by the pla into Tibet. He was China’s finance minister from 1953 to 1954, vice premier from 1975 to 1980, and chair of the Central Military Commission of the prc from 1983 to 1990. He was the “paramount leader” of China from 1978 until 1992 and was responsible for the repudiation after 1976 of Maoist doctrines and of the principle of class struggle. denunciation statements 口诛笔伐 kouzhu bifa. An idiomatic expression, which, during the Cultural Revolution, specifically referred to attacks on individuals for their class backgrounds or counterrevolutionary nature. The denunciations were delivered orally at struggle sessions or put on walls in the form of “big-­character posters.” destroy the Four Olds 破四旧 po sijiu. See Four Olds. destroy the old, establish the new 破旧立新 pojiu lixin. The campaign to eradicate the Four Olds and replace them with the Four News. It began in August 1966 with changing street names and shop names and then spread to the persecution of intellectuals, teachers, artists, and others, and to the destruction of cultural works and buildings. See Four Olds; Four News. develop the West 开发西部 kaifa xibu. A campaign initiated in 1999 to redress the economic imbalance between China’s eastern and western regions. It became known as the Great Opening of the West (西部大开发 Xibu dakaifa) and mainly involved infrastructural development in western areas of China, including Tibet and Xinjiang. dig deep tunnels, keep vast stores of grain, never seek hegemony 深挖洞, 广积粮, 不称霸 shenwadong, guangjiliang, buchengba. The main slogan for the Maoist campaign known as “Prepare for War, Prepare for Famine, Serve the People,” which became prominent from 1969 onward. It called on people in the entire country to build war defenses, particularly in the form of air-raid­ shelters. diqueliang 的确凉. A popular fabric made of mixed wool and cotton. The term was also used for the synthetic material Dacron. It came to be used colloquially to refer to products that are considered mixed and impure. The literal meaning of diequeliang is “really cool.” douzheng dahui 斗争大会. Struggle sessions or rallies, also called “mass struggle assemblies,” at which “class enemies” were publicly denounced and humiliated. East City District 东城区 Dongchengqu. The areas of Lhasa known in Tibetan as Sharchog (shar phyogs), which was renamed as the East City District after 1959. It included the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee, the Jebumgang Neighborhood Committee, the Banakshöl Neighborhood Committee, and the Kyire Neighborhood Committee. It was renamed The East-Is-­ Red­ Administration Office in 1966. East-­Is-­Red Administration Office 东方红办事处 Dongfanghong banshichu. The Cultural Revolution name for the East City District. As with almost all Cultural Revolution names, by 1981 revolutionary names of this kind had been dropped and replaced with the former names. East-­Is-­Red Neighborhood Committee 东方红居民委员会 Dongfanghong jüming weiyuanhui. The Cultural Revolution name for the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee. “East of the Sun” 东方的太阳 Dongfang de taiyang. A popular Tibetan folk song that was rewritten in the Cultural Revolution with lyrics celebrating the ccp and communism. Eight-­One-­Eight 八‧一八 bayaoba or bayiba. The term used to refer to a mass rally in Beijing on August 18, 1966, when Mao first received a million Red Guards, mostly secondary-school­ students from all over the country. Eighteenth Army 十八军 shibajun. The Eighteenth Army, sometimes translated as the Eighteenth Corps. It was set up in February 1949 and consisted of the Fifty-­Second, Fifty-­Third, and Fifty-­ Fourth Divisions. In January 1950 it was ordered to proceed to Tibet from its base in Chengdu, leading to the Battle of Chamdo in October 1950. It was the main force responsible for the subsequent annexation or “liberation” of Tibet. Its primary function was taken over by the Tibet Military Region in 1951 and officially the name is no longer used. However, its members are still widely referred to as members of the shibajun. elimination of the rebellion. See pacification of the rebellion. emancipated serfs 翻身农奴 fanshen nongnu. The ccp term for former “serfs” or peasants who, in Tibet, were “freed” from feudal oppression and exploitation by the Democratic Reforms of 1959. See Democratic Reforms; Liberation. Erlang Mountain 二郎山 Erlangshang. A mountain in the Kardze (Ganzi) tap, Sichuan, on the main road leading from Ya’an to Lithang and Bathang, and onward to Chamdo and the tar. Ersuo 二所. Literally “No. 2 Guesthouse,” this was a name used for the tar Guest House No. 2, which was set up during the Cultural Revolution in the former Yabshi Taktser mansion. It was the main site of armed fighting and sniper fire during the factional fighting in Lhasa in 1967–68­ (see Melvyn Goldstein, Ben Jiao, and Tanzen Lhundrup, On the Cultural Revolution in Tibet, 35). The municipal equivalent—­the “Lhasa Guest House No. 2”—­was also known colloquially as Ersuo and during this period was housed within the Jokhang. establish the Four News 立四新 lisixin. See Four News. establish the new 立新 lixin. Part of the slogan “destroy the old and establish the new.” At a mass meeting in August 1966, the Barkor was renamed the Establish-the-­ ­New Avenue because the old name was “tinted with the color of feudal superstition.” The Barkor Neighborhood Committee was renamed the Establish-­the-­New Neighborhood Committee at the same time. See Four News. even socialist weeds are better than capitalist seedlings 宁要社会主义的草, 不要资本主义的苗 ningyao shehuizhuyi de cao, buyao zibenzhuyi de miao. A Cultural Revolution slogan that elevated leftist politics and the pursuit of revolution over all economic or practical issues. It was similar in meaning to two slogans that were later ridiculed by Deng Xiaoping: “political struggle overrules everything else” and “as long as we keep sharply focused on class struggle, it doesn’t matter if our fields lie idle.” everyone is a soldier 全民皆兵 quanmin jie bing. Slogan used by Mao calling on all citizens to step up to fight internal subversion, foreign threats, or natural disasters. February 5 Power Seizure 二‧五夺权 erwu duoquan. On February 5, 1967, Gyenlog activists and Red Guards carried out a major “power seizure” in Lhasa by taking over the offices and functions of thetar Party Committee. On February 17 they seized power at the Lhasa Department Store and raided the main pla hospital in Lhasa in an attempt to hunt down and detain Wang Qimei, a ccp and military leader. February 9 Incident 二‧九惨案 erjiu can’an. On February 9, 1967, Gyenlog activists and Red Guards forced their way into the Tibet Military Region compound in Lhasa in a ten-hour­ attempt to seize Zhang Guohua and other leaders. February Countercurrent 二月逆流 eryue niliu. A term used by Mao and the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group in Beijing from around April 1967 to denounce the nationwide actions of the military in suppressing leftist rebels and Red Guards in February 1967. fish-­and-­water feelings 鱼水情 yushuiqing. The close feelings supposed to exist between the people and the pla. See also junmin yijia qin. Five Black Categories 黑五类 heiwulei. These categories were landlords, rich peasants, counterrevolutionary elements, bad elements, and rightists. In Tibet, they included the nga-­dag or Three Great Masters. See Four Bad Categories. Five Directives on Ceasing Armed Conflict in Tibet 关于制止西藏武斗的五项指示 guanyu zhizhi Xizang wudou de wuxiang zhishi. A set of instructions issued by Zhou Enlai, Jiang Qing, and the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group on September 18, 1967, after receiving a delegation of major military and local officials from Tibet. The instructions called unsuccessfully on factions to end their fighting. five-­star red flag 五星红旗 wuxing hongqi. The Chinese national flag showing a large yellow star with four small stars on a red background. It is often referred to by Tibetans as the Red Flag. The four smaller stars were originally supposed to represent unity around a central star or four social classes clustered around a larger star representing the ccp. Some sources claim that the stars were meant to represent the five main “peoples” or races in China (Han, Manchu, Muslim, Mongolian and Tibetan), but that was a view propagated by Sun Yat-­sen (see below), not by Communist leaders. Four Bad Categories 四坏分子 sihuai fenzi. Same as the Five Black Categories but with “rotten elements” instead of “bad elements” and “rightists.” Four Boundlesses 四无限 siwuxian. The Four Boundlesses, also translated as the Four Infinites, were boundless love, boundless faith, boundless adoration, and boundless loyalty. These referred to devotion to Mao. Usually grouped with the Three Loyalties (see below). Four Cleanups 四清运动 siqing yundong. Also known as the Four Purifications, these referred to carrying out “socialist education” in the fields of politics, ideology, organization, and economy. They were the principal tasks in the Socialist Education Movement, a movement started by Mao in 1963 that included many of the concepts and techniques that later typified the Cultural Revolution. Four News 四新 sixin. In August 1966 the ccp called on the people to get rid of the “Four Olds” of the bourgeois and exploiting classes and to “establish the Four News” (立四新 lisixin) of the proletariat in their place. These were usually listed as new ideology, new culture, new customs, and new habits. Four Olds 四旧 sijiu. The Four Olds were old thoughts, old culture, old customs, and old habits. These were to be destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and to be replaced with the Four News, hence the slogan “destroy the Four Olds” (破四旧 posijiu). full-­scale rebellion 全叛 quanpan. During 1969, fighting by Tibetans against Chinese forces took place in fifty-­two of the seventy-­one counties in the tar. Eighteen of these conflicts were officially categorized as “full-­scale rebellions.” The most violent and brutal of these took place in Nyemo County near Lhasa and in Palbar County in Chamdo Prefecture, tar. See also conspiracy to riot; renewed rebellion; semi-rebellions.­ Gang of Four 四人帮 sirenbang. A group of four ultraleftist ccp leaders, led by Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, who had been prominent in the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group when it was formed in 1966 and became increasingly influential after 1973. A month after Mao’s death in 1976, the four, now officially described as “Jiang Qing’s Counterrevolutionary Clique,” were arrested, tried, and convicted of counterrevolutionary activities and the persecution of 730,000 people. Their actions were said by the prosecutors to have led to thirty-­five thousand deaths. Ganzi News 甘孜报 Ganzibao. The official newspaper in the Kardze (Ganzi), Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, in Sichuan. Gao Yuanhong 高原红. A popular name chosen by Tibetans during the Cultural Revolution. It meant “Red Plateau.” Garrison Command 警备区司令部 jingbeiqu silingbu. In Lhasa, the main pla force responsible for maintaining military control of the city itself. See also Lhasa Military District. Gongchandang 共产党. The Communist Party. Founded in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (ccp) took over China in 1949. Membership increased from eighteen million in 1966 to thirty-­five million by 1977. grasp revolution, increase production 抓革命, 促生产 zhua geming, cu shengchan. When Revolutionary Committees (see below) were formed across China in 1968 they were ordered to carry out campaigns to “grasp revolution, increase production.” This included campaigns to “cleanse the class ranks” (see above) and to “carry out One Strike and Three Againsts,” as well as to “prepare for war, prepare for famine.” grassroots organizations 基层组织 jizeng zuzhi. The ccp and the Chinese state have four main levels of formal administration below the national level: the provincial, prefectural, county, and township levels. Grassroots administration refers to ccp and state organizations at the level of townships (including Neighborhood Committees, which are the urban equivalents of townships). The state had no formal, full-­time administrative presence at the village level until 2011, when new village-­ level institutions were established in the tar. Great Courtyard 前院 qianyuan or 庭院 tangyuan. The term covers a number of general expressions used in Chinese to refer to the courtyard between the western entrance to the Jokhang temple complex, which faces what became the Barkor Square after 1985, and the Central Mandala (the main prayer hall) in the center of the complex. Great March 5 Rally 三‧五群众大会 sanwu qunzhong dahui. On March 5, 1967, a rally with some thirty thousand people who were affiliated with Nyamdrel was held in Lhasa “to thoroughly destroy the new counterattack of the reactionary capitalist roaders.” The rally had the support of the military and was an expression of opposition to Gyenlog but was among the activities that would soon be denounced by Mao as part of the “February Countercurrent.” Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution 无产阶级文化大革命 wuchan jieji wenhua dageming or simply 文化大革命 wenhua dageming or 文革 wenge. The full title for the Cultural Revolution. It began officially in May 1966 and was officially declared to have ended in July 1969. In fact, ultraleftist policies continued to be implemented until 1976 or, by some accounts, until 1979 in Tibet. Great Revolutionary Proletarian Alliance General Headquarters 无产阶级大联合革命总指挥部 wuchan jieji dalianhe geming zongzhihuibu. The full name for the group more commonly known as Nyamdrel (Dalianzhi), “the Alliance.” *Guo Jinlong 郭金龙. Party Secretary of the tar from 2000 to 2004. He was born in 1947 in Nanjing and after his work in Tibet was appointed as mayor of Beijing in 2008 and as the Party Secretary of Beijing from 2012 to 2017. *Guo Xiangzhi 郭祥志. An activist who was in charge of a neighborhood in Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution, probably that of Tengyeling. Guo led at least one of the thirty-five­ struggle sessions carried out against Ribur Rinpoche (see below). *He Zuyin 何祖荫. Deputy head of the United Front in Tibet from 1957 to 1960 and first Secretary of the Lhasa Municipal Party Committee from July 1964 until August 1966. He was one of the first targets singled out for criticism by Zhang Guohua in mid-1966,­ before Zhang himself became a target. *Hebi 赫比. Head of the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee. Also called “Old Brother Hebi,” he was a Gya Kache (the Tibetan term for a Chinese Muslim). help-­develop-­the-­border-­areas youth 支边青年 zhibian qingnian. The term for a number of Chinese youths who came from mainland China to help with production and propaganda work in Tibet. Help Tibet 援藏 yuanzang. A term used by the ccp for numerous campaigns and initiatives to send Chinese personnel, funding, supplies and know-­how from the mainland areas to the tar to boost modernization and infrastructure there. Since the 1980s it has referred in particular to the several thousand Chinese cadres working at any one time in government and ccp offices in the tar, usually staying for three years each. See yuanzang. Heluxuefu 赫鲁雪夫. Chinese transliteration for Nikita Krushchev (1894–­1971), leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. His denunciation of Stalin and the cult of personality in 1956 precipitated Mao’s turn against the USSR and led to the Sino-­Soviet split. Henan Opera Troupe 豫剧团 yujütuan. One of the opera troupes brought from mainland China to entertain pla soldiers serving in Tibet, a number of whom were from Henan Province. The troupe was based during the Cultural Revolution at the former Meru Monastery in Lhasa. highest instruction 最高指示 zuigao zhishi. A term for statements by Mao, based on slogans such as “We must regard Chairman Mao’s writings as our highest instructions” and “Mao Zedong Thought is our political orientation, the highest instruction for our actions.” Also translated as “highest directive.” hong baoshu 红宝书. “Precious Red Books,” a term describing publications by Chairman Mao. The two major ones were The Selected Works of Mao Zedong (毛泽东选 Mao Zedong xuan) and The Quotations of Chairman Mao (毛主席语录 Mao zhuxi yulu). Other works in this category were the Five Articles by Chairman Mao and Poems of Chairman Mao. Hongqi 红旗. Chinese name meaning “Red Flag.” It was chosen by some Tibetans when they were required or chose to change their names during the Cultural Revolution. *Hu Yaobang 胡耀邦. Hu Yaobang (1915–­89) was the Chairman or General Secretary of the ccp from 1981 until 1987, when he was ousted by leftist opponents who accused him of “laxness.” In May 1980, he visited Lhasa and openly criticized Chinese cadres in Tibet for their failure to reduce poverty, improve development, or encourage Tibetan culture in Tibet. *Hua Guofeng 华国锋. Hua Guofeng (1921–­2008) was appointed by Mao as his successor shortly before his death in 1976 and briefly became chair of the Central Committee of the ccp before being sidelined by Deng Xiaoping. He visited Lhasa in 1975 to mark the tenth anniversary of the founding of the tar. *Hua Xiaoqing 华小青. A half-­Tibetan, half-Chinese­ girl who was caught while trying to escape across the Tibetan border with her boyfriend, Thubten Jigme, in 1966 or soon after. She committed suicide in prison after being raped by a jailer. Thubten Jigme was executed. Huangmei Opera Troupe 黄梅剧团 Huangmei jütuan. Huangmei Opera is a style associated mainly with Anhui or Hubei Provinces. During the Cultural Revolution one such troupe was brought to Lhasa. Its members used Zhide Dratshang as their base during the Cultural Revolution. Hui 回. Chinese Muslims, recognized as one of China’s official fifty-five­ minorities. *Hui Yiran 惠毅然. Head of the United Front in Tibet from 1953 to 1956 and a member of the Standing Committee of the Tibet Party Committee and director of its Organization Department from 1957 to 1966. He was one of the first targets singled out for criticism by Zhang Guohua in mid-1966­ before Zhang himself became a target for denunciation. in the final analysis, the nationality issue is a question of class. See minzu wenti de shiizhi shi jieji wenti. increase production 促生产 cu shengchan. One of the instructions given to the Revolutionary Committees when they were set up in August 1968 or soon after. It referred to establishing communes as part of the “preparing for war, preparing for famine” campaign. See also grasp revolution. inland China 内地 neidi. The term used in Chinese by officials to refer to areas that are inland from Tibet in the sense that they lie to its east but are still within China, that is, the lowland, Han-majority­ areas of China. This area was referred to by Tibetans prior to 1950 as Gyanag (rgya nag), meaning simply “China,” and that term is still used in private. The word neidi was imposed on Tibetans by Chinese officials after 1950 to stop Tibetans from referring to China as a separate country. It is also translated as “mainland China” or “the China heartlands.” Inner City District 城关区. See Chengguanqu. Inner City District Construction Team 城关区建筑队 Chengguanqu jianzhudui. A branch of the Lhasa Inner City government responsible for construction work. The team was involved in the destruction of the Khanigoshi Stupa in 1966. January 6, 1967 (the January Power Seizure) 一月夺权 yiyue duoquan. An incident when Mao endorsed the seizure of power by rebel Red Guards at a number of key government offices in Shanghai, notably the offices of the newspaper Wenhui bao. The incident is also referred to as “the January Storm” (一月风暴 yiyue fengbao). It triggered similar power seizures across the country, including the takeover by Gyenlog activists of the offices of the Tibet Daily in Lhasa on January 11. See also February 5 Power Seizure. January 23, 1967 Rally 一二三大会 yi’ershisan dahui or yao’ersan dahui. A rally involving over three hundred rebel organizations in Lhasa that supported or were affiliated to Gyenlog, including the Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels General Headquarters itself (Gyenlog), the Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels Commune (拉萨革命造反公社 Lasa geming zaofan gongshe), and the Revolutionary Headquarters of the Rebels from the Capital Going to Tibet (首都赴藏造反革命 总部 shoudu fuzang zaofan geming zongbu). Some twenty thousand people are said to have taken part. *Jiang Qing 江青. Wife of Mao. She was made deputy head of the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group in 1966 and a Politburo member in April 1969. She was arrested a month after Mao’s death in 1976. She was born in 1914, joined the ccp in 1933, and committed suicide in prison in 1991. See Gang of Four. Jiangsu Road 江苏路 Jiangsu lu. New name given to the southern Lingkor in 1990 as a gesture of thanks to Jiangsu Province for having donated funds to the tar as part of the policies known as “Help Tibet” and “Develop the West.” The road runs beside the Tibet Military District compound. jiefang 解放. The Chinese word for “liberation,” referring in the Tibetan context to the takeover of Tibet by the pla in 1950–­51. At that time it referred to the liberation of Tibetans from imperialism, but since 1959 has been used to refer to the liberation of Tibetan serfs from feudal oppression. Also refers to a brand of trucks in China. jieji jiaoyu 阶级教育. See class education. jigan minbing 基干民兵. See backbone militia. *Jin Sha 金沙. The general editor of the Tibet Daily from 1960 to 1962 and again in early 1966, and the deputy director of the tar Propaganda Department from 1960 to 1966. He was one of the first targets singled out for criticism by Zhang Guohua in mid-1966.­ jinzhumami 金珠玛米. A Chinese phoneticization of the Tibetan phrase jingdrol magmi (bcings ‘grol dmag mi), which was the literal Tibetan translation of the Chinese term jiefangjunren, “liberation [army] soldier.” From soon after the pla arrived, this Tibetan term, or its shorter form jingdrol mag (“Liberation Army,” rendered back into Chinese as jinzhuma) was popularized in Chinese propaganda songs, films and dramas about Tibet. It became one of the few Tibetan words used in Chinese, where it is used to signify Tibetans’ appreciation for the pla. July 1 (Seven-­One) Agricultural Machinery Plant 七一农机场 qiyi nongjichang. A government factory housed in the former Chapa family mansion in Lhasa after 1959. The Seven-One­ in the name stood for July 1, the date which is used by the ccp as the anniversary of its founding in 1921. See Chapa Kalsang Wangdu in the glossary of Tibetan terms. July 22, 1967. On this date Jiang Qing, the deputy head of the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group in Beijing, gave a speech advocating wengong wuwei (“attack with words, defend with arms”) or armed struggle. This triggered a sharp increase in the use of violence in factional conflict across the country. See wengong wuwei. June 7 Jokhang Incident 六‧七大昭寺事件 liuqi dazhaosi shijian. The June 7 Jokhang Incident took place in the summer of 1968, when pla troops seized control of the Jokhang temple complex from Gyenlog activists and Red Guards. The Gyenlog faction had been using the Jokhang to broadcast aggressive propaganda throughout the city. Ten people inside the Jokhang and two others on the streets nearby were killed by the troops, while many others were wounded. Both Mao and Lin Biao subsequently ordered the Tibetan military to apologize to Gyenlog. junmin yijia qin 军民一家亲 junmin yijiaqin. Literally, “army people, one family,” referring to the family-­like intimacy supposed to exist between the pla and the people. See fish-­and-­water feelings. Kangding 康定. The administrative seat of the Kardze (Ganzi) tap (Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) in Sichuan Province. It was traditionally called Dartsendo or Dartsedo in Tibetan and was known in Chinese before the 1950s as Tachienlu. the kindness of the motherland is deep 祖国母亲深恩 zuguo muqin shen’en. Slogan seen on a poster in the Potala Square in 2012. It was a part of a drive at the time to carry out “feeling-gratitude-­ ­to-­ the-­Party education” among “the masses” in the tar following widespread unrest in 2008. Kongzi Miao 孔子庙. A temple dedicated to Confucius. Here it refers to the Confucius Temple in Beijing, originally built in 1302. kou maozi 扣帽子. Literally meaning “made to put a hat on” or “hatted,” kou maozi in effect means labeling a person according to their political or class status. It refers to the ccp practice of making struggle targets wear a conical white hat to indicate that they have been categorized as class enemies or bad elements. *Kuai Dafu 蒯大富. A Red Guard commander at Qinghua University in Beijing who was in contact with Gyenlog leaders in Lhasa. He was imprisoned after the Cultural Revolution but later became a businessman in Shenzhen. *Lan Zhigui 蓝志贵. A Chinese military photographer (d. 2016) who worked in Lhasa, first with the Eighteenth Army during the advance into Tibet, and subsequently with the Tibet Military Region. lao Xizang 老西藏. Literally “old Tibet,” this is an affectionate term of praise used by Chinese officials and the Chinese media to describe Chinese cadres who traveled to Tibet in the 1950s and worked there as ccp or state administrators, usually for ten or twenty years. They are assumed to have acquired some familiarity with the culture and sometimes even with the language in Tibet. Their dedication and fortitude is often referred to in Chinese propaganda as “the lao Xizang spirit.” The term is often written as lao Xizangren, which can be translated as “the old Tibet hands.” leadership in opening up 有领导的开放 you lingdao de kaifang. An approach to foreign policy in 1972, which included China’s resumption of diplomatic relations with the United States and Japan. learn agriculture from Dazhai. See Dazhai. leave no loopholes, no blind spots, and no blank spots 无漏洞, 无盲点, 无空白 wu loudong, wu mangdian, wu kongbai. A formulation used frequently after the introduction of the policy of “stability maintenance” in 2007 to describe security operations that are exhaustive and that identify prospective threats as well as past ones. Legend of the Red Lantern 红灯记 Hongdengji. One of the “eight model operas” that were permitted during the Cultural Revolution. Most performances of this opera in Tibet were in Chinese, but a Tibetan-­language version was performed at the Sungchöra by the Tibetan Opera Troupe. *Lei Feng 雷锋. Lei (1940–­62) was the most famous of the model heroes created by the ccp during the Maoist era. Chinese citizens were expected to replicate his reputed dedication and sacrifice to the ccp, to other soldiers, and to members of the masses. letter of determination 决心书 juexinshu. During the Cultural Revolution activists and Red Guards wrote public declarations known as “letters of determination” in which they stated their political loyalties and objectives. Lhasa Martyrs’ Cemetery 拉萨烈士陵园 Lasa lieshi lingyuan. The cemetery for those who had died during the Liberation of Tibet or while working there. It is situated in the western suburbs of Lhasa and was listed as a “Patriotic Education Base” in 2001. Lhasa Middle School 拉萨中学 Lasa zhongxue or simply 拉中 Lazhong. A boarding school in Lhasa with approximately 360 students, of whom about one hundred were Chinese. Students from the school, along with those from the Tibet Teacher Training College, were the first to set up organizations of Red Guards in the tar and the first to take to the streets to destroy the Four Olds. Lhasa Military District 拉萨军区 Lasa junqu. A subdivision of the Tibet Military Region responsible for military security in Lhasa. It was later implicated in the destruction of Ganden Monastery. See also Garrison Command; Lhasa Municipal Garrison. Lhasa Municipal Garrison 拉萨警备区 Lasa jingbeiqu. The pla force responsible for military security in Lhasa Municipality (the term “municipality” or “city” refers not to the urban area of Lhasa but to the entire prefecture that it administers, which consists mostly of rural grasslands). The Garrison troops largely supported Nyamdrel and carried out the June 7 Jokhang Incident. See Garrison Command. Lhasa Municipal Party Committee 拉萨市党委 Lasashi dangwei, 拉萨市委 Lasashiwei, or 拉萨党委 Lasa dangwei. The ccp organ overseeing the government of Lhasa Municipality, which administers the prefecture-­level area that has Lhasa at its center. Lhasa Municipal People’s Committee 拉萨市人民委员会 Lasashi renmin weiyuanhui or 拉萨市人委 Lasashi renwei. The official name for the local government of Lhasa Municipality, a prefectural-­ level administrative institution, at the start of the Cultural Revolution. Control of this committee was seized by Gyenlog forces in January 1967. Lhasa Municipal Women’s Militia 拉萨市女民兵 Lasashi nüminbing. The woman’s militia force for Lhasa Municipality. Lhasa rebellion 拉萨叛变 Lasa panbian. The official term in China for the revolt or uprising by Tibetans in Lhasa in March 1959. It was suppressed by the pla and led to the Dalai Lama’s flight to India, together with about eighty thousand other Tibetans. The revolt had begun some three years earlier in Kham, included major conflict in Amdo in 1958, and continued in some areas until 1962. Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels Commune 拉萨革命造反公社 Lasa geming zaofan gongshe. One of the groups affiliated with Gyenlog, consisting mainly of farmers and nomads. Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels General Headquarters 拉萨革命造反总司令部 Lasa geming zaofan zongsilingbu or simply 造总 Zaozong. The full name for Gyenlog. See Zaozong. Lhasa Song and Dance Troupe 拉萨歌舞团 Lasa gewutuan. A government performance troupe that was linked to Nyamdrel. During the Cultural Revolution its members lived in the former Surkhang family mansion. Some members who supported Nyamdrel took part in the June 7 Jokhang Incident in 1968. Lhasa Trading Company 拉萨贸易公司 Lasa maoyi gongsi. The largest shopping center in the city at the time, known popularly as “the Auditorium.” It was located on Yutog Lam, opposite the tar Party compound. It was later renamed the Lhasa Department Store. Lhoba 珞巴 Luoba. One of the fifty-­five ethnic minorities officially recognized by theprc , consisting of about 3,500 people living in southern Tibet. *Li Xiannian 李先念. Li (1909–­92) became China’s finance minister in 1954 and was a vice premier of the prc from 1954 to 1980. He was a Politburo member from 1956 onward and was a key figure in bringing down the Gang of Four in 1976. He was president of the prc from 1983 to 1988. *Li Xiran 李希然. Deputy commander of the tar Military Region and head of financial and economic affairs for the Lhasa Revolutionary Committee. He was also General Secretary of the Lhasa Municipal Party Committee from 1972 to 1975. Implicated in the destruction of Ganden Monastery. *Li Zhiyuan 李知远. A teacher of mathematics at Lhasa Middle School during the early part of the Cultural Revolution. Liaison Committee against the Local Emperor 专打土皇帝联络委员会 zhuanda tuhuangdi lianluo weihuanhui. A Red Guard force affiliated with Gyenlog. liberation. See jiefang. Liberation Township 解放乡 Jiefangxiang. The Cultural Revolution name for a township on the edge of Lhasa called Lhalu Township, named after the family that had owned the area before 1959. liemin erzhi 裂民而治. A strategic principle meaning “divide and rule,” referring here to a practice carried out by activists that was known as paidui (see below). “Lift Up Our Gaze to See the Northern Stars” 抬头望见北斗星 taitou wangjian beidouxing. One of the songs chosen by Gyenlog to represent its aims. light the fire of the Great Cultural Revolution in every corner of Tibet把文化大革命的熊熊烈火烧遍西 藏各个角落 ba wenhua dageming de xiongxiongliehuo shaobian Xizang gege jiaoluo. A slogan chanted by Lhasa Middle School students as they marched to the Jokhang on August 24, 1966, during the first action in Lhasa to “destroy the Four Olds.” Lin 林. A Chinese surname chosen by some Tibetans during the Cultural Revolution up until 1971 to indicate support for Mao’s then designated successor, Lin Biao. *Lin Biao 林彪. Lin Biao (1907–­71) had been a marshal in the pla and became a vice premier of the prc in 1954 and a vice chair of the ccp in 1958. He was instrumental in creating unquestioning support for Mao and from 1966 he was identified as Mao’s successor. He died with his family in a plane crash in 1971 while supposedly fleeing after an alleged coup attempt. He then became a target of political campaigns defending Mao. Lin Biao bourgeois military line 林彪资产阶级军事路线 Lin Biao zichan jieji junshi luxian. A posthumous campaign against Lin Biao accusing him of having supported bourgeois ideas. linking up 串联 chuanlian. A drive that arranged for ethnic Chinese Red Guards to travel to other areas of China in order to mobilize or join forces with their local counterparts. Zhang Guohua appealed to Beijing in October 1966 to stop student Red Guards from traveling to Tibet to link up with activists there, but they continued to arrive. Literature and Art Soldiers Headquarters 文艺兵司令部 wenyibing silingbu. A pro-Nyamdrel­ group formed by cultural workers in the Tibet Military Region compound who identified with Nyamdrel. Among the troops, only the cultural workers were allowed to join factions during the Cultural Revolution. little generals 小将 xiaojiang. Short form of the term “revolutionary little generals” (革命小将 geming xiaojiang), a form of praise for young activists. In Tibet, the phrase was used by activist teachers at Lhasa Middle School and others to encourage student Red Guards to carry out revolutionary actions such as the August 24, 1966, march on the Jokhang. little red book 小红书 xiaohongshu. A term used to refer to various compilations of the sayings of Chairman Mao. These collections were also known as 毛主席语录 Mao zhuxi yulu or simply 毛语录 Mao yulu, The Quotations of Chairman Mao. See also hong baoshu. *Liu Shaomin 刘绍民. Commander in chief of Nyamdrel (Dalianzhi). He had previously been the Secretary of the tar Party Committee and in 1968 was made a deputy director of the tar Revolutionary Committee. He went on to become deputy commissioner of Lhokha Prefecture after 1977 and later became the principal of the Tibet School of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. *Liu Shaoqi 刘少奇. Liu Shaoqi (1898–­1969) was the first vice chair of theccp and president of China at the start of the Cultural Revolution, and so was then the third most powerful leader in China, with only Mao and Zhou Enlai above him. He had been declared the successor to Mao in 1961 but became a target for attacks after he indicated disagreement with some of Mao’s more extreme policies. He was subjected to numerous struggle sessions and beatings during the Cultural Revolution and died in 1969 after some two years under house arrest. See also Secretary Liu. Liuyuan 柳园. A town in what is now Jiuquan Municipality (formerly Suzhou) in Gansu Province. It was set up as a transportation hub in 1958 for rail routes that connected mainland China with roads leading to Qinghai, Tibet, and Xinjiang. Lixin dajie 立新大街. Establish-­the-­New Avenue, the name given to the Barkor during the Cultural Revolution. Lixin guangchang 立新广场. Establish-the-­ ­New Square, the name given to the Sungchöra during the Cultural Revolution. local nationalists 地方民族主义者 difang minzu zhuyizhe. People condemned for giving preference to the interests of their own nationality or people rather than to the state or the ccp. The term can include those accused of rebellion or treason. Logistics Department 后勤部 houqinbu. One of the four administrative sections within the command structure of the Tibet Military Region, housed within the Tibet Military Region’s compound or base in Lhasa on the southern side of the Lingkor. *Long Guotai 龙国泰. A scholar of Tibetan literature who taught at Lhasa Middle School in 1966. His Tibetan name was Sonam Gyaltsen. His mother was Tibetan, while his father was descended from a soldier who had been sent to Tibet during the Qing era. He was also a translator and researcher, and during the early years of the Cultural Revolution he was allowed to work from an office in the Norbulingka on compiling a Tibetan dictionary. Long Live Chairman Mao 毛主席万岁 Mao zhuxi wansui. Literally meaning “ten thousand lives for Chairman Mao,” this was the most popular of the Cultural Revolution slogans. It was painted in giant characters on the top of the Potala Palace during the Cultural Revolution period. It is also found in the form “Long Live Great Leader Chairman Mao!” See also wangse. Long Live the Great Chinese Communist Party! 中国共产党万岁 Zhongguo gongchandang wansui. Slogan used frequently during the Cultural Revolution. Long Live the Great Unification of All Nationalities!民族大团结万岁 minzu datuanjie wansui. Slogan frequently used in Tibet and other “nationality areas” during the Cultural Revolution. It was painted in giant characters on the wall of the Potala. Also translated as “Long Live the Great Solidarity of the Peoples of All Nationalities.” See also nationality. Long Live the People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国万岁 Zhonghua renmin gongheguo wansui. Slogan frequently used during the Cultural Revolution. This slogan was also painted in giant characters on the wall of the Potala. looting in the daylight and receiving gifts at night 明投暗送 mingtou ansong. A term used during the Cultural Revolution to refer to military units or soldiers who pretended to guard armories but in fact allowed members of the rival factions to raid them and take weapons. mainland China. See inland China. *Mao Weihua 毛卫华. A popular name chosen by some Tibetans during the Cultural Revolution meaning “a person from a Mao family who protects China.” *Mao Zedong 毛主席. See Chairman Mao. Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Teams 毛泽东思想宣传队 Mao Zedong sixiang xuanchuandui. See Military Propaganda Teams. Mao zhuxi de hua, juju shi zhenli 毛主席的话, 句句是真理. “When Chairman Mao’s speaks, every sentence expresses the truth.” A slogan that indicated a “whateverist” policy of absolute support for Mao’s policies. Mao zhuxi wansui! See Long Live Chairman Mao. Martyrs’ Cemetery. See Lhasa Martyrs’ Cemetery. mass organizations 群众组织 qunzhong zuzhi. Large-­scale membership organizations that are run by the ccp and are claimed to represent sections of society outside the government, military, or Party. The most notable mass organizations are the official trade unions, the China Women’s Association, and the Communist Youth League. See also United Front. May 16 Circular 五‧一六通知 wuyiliu tongzhi or wuyaoliu tongzhi. The Cultural Revolution began officially with a circular or notice issued by the Politburo on May 16, 1966. The notice condemned unnamed figures “who have sneaked into the Party, the government, the army, and various spheres of culture” as “a bunch of counterrevolutionary revisionists.” It called for “a great cultural revolution, by openly and fully mobilizing the broad masses from the bottom up to expose these sinister phenomena.” May 23 Headquarters 五‧二三司令部 wuersan silingbu. A faction of cultural workers in Lhasa who were allied with Nyamdrel, including members of the tar Modern Drama Troupe, the Shanxi Opera Troupe, and the Henan Opera Troupe. They took their name from the date of famous speeches on literature and art delivered by Mao at Yan’an in 1942. Known in full as the “May 23 Culture and Arts Combat Headquarters.” Military Control Commission. See Tibet Military Control Commission. Military Propaganda Teams 军宣队 junxuandui. Literally, “Army Propaganda Teams,” the full title of these was “pla Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Teams.” From 1967 onward they were tasked with implementing the “Three Supports, Two Militaries” campaign. They carried out agricultural and medical work as well as propaganda. Military Region. See Tibet Military Region. Military Region Office for Supporting Local Cultural Revolution 军区支持地方文化大革命办公室 junqu zhichi difang wenhua dageming bangongshi. In March 1967, as the military in Tibet attempted to recover control from Red Guards and activists, it created an Office for Supporting Local Cultural Revolution to attempt to coordinate Cultural Revolution activities. The Office was under the Tibet Military Region and was led by Yin Fatang, one of the standing committee members of the Party Committee in the Tibet Military Region and the director of its Political Department. militia. See backbone militia. minzu wenti de shiizhi shi jieji wenti 民族问题的实质是阶级问题. “In the final analysis, the nationality issue is a question of class.” A statement by Mao in August 1963 that signaled an end to gradualist, cooperative approaches by the ccp in its dealings with the non-­Chinese (non-­Han) nationalities. See also nationality. *Mo Jianzhang 莫建章. The target of a struggle session carried out by the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. Apparently a merchant from Qinghai, Mo was known in Tibetan as Gyami Tsering, meaning Chinese Tsering. He had a small general store in the Barkor and was accused of smuggling weapons from Qinghai to Tibet and “conducting traitorous activities, using vegetable gardening as cover.” Mo Yuzhen 莫玉珍. Daughter of Mo Jianzhang (see above). monastery resident work team 驻寺工作组 zhusi gongzuozu. In 2011 the tar, for the first time in China, sent teams of cadres to live permanently in each monastery at township level or above. The teams, whose members are rotated after one to two years, have taken over the running of those monasteries, which previously were run by “Democratic Management Committees” whose members were monks from within each monastery. the most aggressive and the most dare-to-­ ­die 最积极, 最敢作敢为 zui jiji, zui ganzuo ganwei. A phrase used to express praise for the revolutionary credentials of a Red Guard or student activist. Mountain of the Medicine King 药王山 Yaowangshan. The Chinese name for Chagpori, the hill southwest of the Potala on which the Tibetan Medical College had been sited before 1959. Municipal Party Committee 市党委 shi dangwei. See Lhasa Municipal Party Committee. mutual aid groups. See agricultural production mutual aid groups. Nationalities Pictorial 民族画报 Minzu huabao. An official photographic journal published in Chinese, with versions in Tibetan and three other minority languages. The journal aims to depict the happiness and unity of the nationalities in China. nationality 民族 minzu. The term used by the ccp to refer to the different peoples within China. China recognizes fifty-­six nationalities within its borders, of which approximately 91 percent are classified as the ethnic Chinese, known in China as Han. Since 1995, the official English translation used by the ccp for this term has been changed from “nationality” to “ethnic group.” neighborhood committee 居民委员会 jümin weiyuanhui or simply 居委会 jüweihui. At the time of the Cultural Revolution, and still in most parts of China today, Neighborhood Committees are the lowest-level­ bodies in the Chinese administrative system in urban areas. They ensure that government policies are implemented at the grassroots level and work with local police (see paichusuo) on maintaining security. During the Cultural Revolution, there were twelve Neighborhood Committees in Lhasa, four for each of the three banshichu or subdistricts of the city (East, North, and South). nets in the sky, traps on the ground 天罗地网 tianluo diwang. A term used by officials in China to describe multiple systems of security that enable complete surveillance and control. Official usage of the term increased in Tibet significantly after 2008. New-­Forever Neighborhood Committee 永新居委会 Yongxin jüweihui. Cultural Revolution name for one of the Neighborhood Committees in Lhasa. New Potala Square 新布达拉广场 xin Budala guangchang. A square constructed in 1995 in front of the Potala Palace in Lhasa to provide a large space for parades and rallies. It enlarged a previous square. *Nie Conghe 聂聪和. A female teacher who was a leader of the Liaison Committee against the Local Emperor, affiliated with Gyenlog. She had arrived in Lhasa with a group called the Red Flag Sub-­ Team to Tibet, which was composed of students from the Beijing College of Aeronautics. nine must-­haves campaign 九有工程 jiuyou gongcheng. Literally, the Nine-­Haves campaign. This was a policy launched by the tar authorities in 2011 requiring all monasteries and temples in the region to be equipped with paved roads, water, electricity, facilities to receive national radio and television broadcasts, films, books and national newspapers, national flags, and portraits of the nation’s primary leaders. niugui sheshen 牛鬼蛇神. See ox-­demon-­snake-­spirits. no construction without destruction 不破不立 bupo buli. A saying by Mao, first published in 1940. It referred to “sweeping away” reactionary culture. nongye xue Dazhai. See Dazhai. Not Allowed to Be Born 不准出生的人民 buzhun chusheng de ren. A fictional account in Chinese about twin Tibetan girls whose father, a serf, has been blinded by a cruel lama. The two girls foil a plot by the lama to stage a rebellion against the pla in 1957, after which one of the girls joins the pla and helps them liberate her village. The story was produced as a film under the name Tears of Snow Mountain (Xueshan lei, directed by Hua Chun and Ren Pengyuan, 1979). not having a firm standpoint 立场不坚定 lichang bu jianding. A term used to denounce or “label” people who failed to take part in revolutionary activities. Not as serious as being labeled a “counterrevolutionary,” but still dangerous. Office for Exhibiting the Red Guards’ Outstanding Achievement in Destroying the Four Olds 红卫兵破 四旧成果展览办公室 hongweibing po sijiu chengguo zhanlan bangongshi. A government body tasked with setting up an exhibition in the Jokhang Temple during the Cultural Revolution showing religious, cultural, and other objects that had been confiscated from all over Lhasa as examples of the Four Olds. One Strike and Three Againsts 一打三反 yida sanfan. A campaign launched in 1970 to strike against counterrevolutionaries and to struggle against bribery and theft, opportunism and speculation, and extravagance and waste. The campaign continued for up to three years in some areas. ox-­demon-­snake-­spirits 牛鬼蛇神 niugui sheshen. Originally a traditional Chinese term referring to visible representations of demons or spirits, it was used by the ccp during the Cultural Revolution to describe and demean those regarded as class enemies, bad elements, or other types of political reprobates who were to be used as struggle targets. pacification of the rebellion 平叛 pingpan. In Tibet, this refers to a prolonged military campaign to suppress the 1959 revolt or uprising and to track down and punish any Tibetans suspected of supporting it. The same term was used for military efforts to suppress the “renewed rebellions” of 1969. Also known as “eliminating the rebellion” or “pacifying the counterrevolutionary rebellion.” paidui 排队. A political practice during the Cultural Revolution meaning to “line up,” according to which people were divided into four categories: those who were reliable, those who could be united with, those who should be protected, and those who were to be attacked. See yikao duixiang. panluan 叛乱. Armed rebellion. See also wuduo. paoda silingbu 炮打司令部. These words, which mean “bombarding the headquarters,” were the title of a “big-­character poster” that Mao wrote in August 1966. It in effect accused Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping of opposing the Cultural Revolution and called on activists to attack them and their supporters. From then on, the phrase “bombarding the headquarters” became a popular slogan for rebels physically attacking party officials and offices at various levels. participation in the rebellion 参叛 canpan. In the Tibetan context, this refers to involvement in the panluan or “armed rebellion” that took place in Tibetan areas from 1956 onward, culminating in the Lhasa Revolt of March 1959. It includes suspected support for the uprising. Party Congress 党代表大会 dangdaibiao dahui. The ccp holds a congress approximately every five years at national, provincial, prefectural, and county levels, attended by delegates elected from lower-­level ccp committees. Because of the Cultural Revolution, the first session of thetar Party Congress was not held in Lhasa until August 1971, six years after the tar had been established. the Party is the army, the Party is the gun 党就是军队, 党就是枪 dang jiushi jundui, dang jiushi qiang. A paraphrased version of Mao’s principle that “the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party” (枪杆子里面出政权 qiangganzi limian chu zhengquan), first used by Mao in 1927. He wrote further, “having guns, we can create Party organizations, [and] we can also create cadres, create schools, create culture, create mass movements . . . only with guns can the whole world be transformed” (1938). Party Secretary 党委书记 dangwei shuji. See Secretary. the pavilion closest to the water enjoys moonlight first 近水楼台先得月 jinshui loutai xiandeyue. A Chinese saying referring to those who benefit from intimacy or connections with an influential person or profiteer. peaceful liberation 和平解放 heping jiefang. Refers to the takeover of Tibet by the pla in 1950–­51. Although the Tibetan forces fought a major battle with the pla at Chamdo in October 1950, the Tibetan government was subsequently unable to prevent the Chinese advance and in May 1951 signed a surrender agreement acceding to China’s claims to sovereignty over Tibet. See liberation. Peasants and Nomads Headquarters 农牧民司令部 nongmumin silingbu. An activist group affiliated with Nyamdrel that consisted of peasants, nomads, and city residents. During the Cultural Revolution it was based at Meru Temple. People’s Armed Forces Department 人民武装部 renmin wuzhuang budui. Organizations established by the pla in counties throughout the country in conjunction with local governments to organize military reserve forces and local militia forces in each area. The officers in each People’s Armed Forces Department were in charge of training the local militia and had direct command over them. People’s Armed Police 人民武装警察 renmin wuzhuang jingcha. A paramilitary force that was formed in 1982 with about 1.5 million troops. It is responsible for military aspects of security within China, including policing borders, suppressing riots and major unrest, and protecting special sites. After unrest in Lhasa in 2008, pap units carried out twenty-­four-­hour armed patrols and sentry duty throughout the old quarter of the city until 2014. People’s Commune 人民公社 renmin gongshe. Communes, where all property and income is shared, were considered the highest form of socialism and were gradually introduced throughout China from 1958 onward. They were each equivalent to a township, usually consisted of twenty thousand to thirty thousand people and included all the villages formerly administered by that township, which were usually reclassified as “production brigades,” while villages became “production teams.” By 1975, 99 percent of the townships in the tar had been communalized. See Dongkar; Pangdö. People’s Congress 人民代表大会 renmin daibiao dahui. Known in full as the National People’s Congress (npc), it meets once a year and serves as a legislature, giving token approval to laws decided by the ccp and the government. Delegates are elected from local-­level People’s Congresses, which are found in each province, prefecture, and county, but all elections are controlled by the ccp and are nominal. Technically the People’s Congress is the highest body in the Chinese political system, but in practice its role is symbolic. People’s Cultural Palace 人民文化宫 renmin wenhuagong. See Working People’s Cultural Palace. People’s Daily 人民日報 Renmin ribao. The official newspaper of theccp and its main vehicle for communicating public statements, slogans, policies, and ideology. It was not issued in a Tibetan version until August 1, 2009. People’s Park 人民公园 renmin gongyuan. The Cultural Revolution name for the Norbulingka, the summer palace of the Dalai Lamas. People’s Political Consultative Conference 人民政治协商会议 renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi. See Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference. People’s Road 人民路 Renmin lu. During the Cultural Revolution, People’s Road was the main thoroughfare in the city. Previously it had been named Yutog Lam. It runs from the Jokhang to the tar Party and government compound, just south of the Potala Square. People’s Stadium 人民体育场 renmin tiyuchang. See Polingka in the Tibetan glossary. perform as a political flower vase充当政治花瓶 chongdang zhengzhi heaping. A mocking phrase used to deride people such as lamas and former aristocrats who have accepted token positions in the Chinese administrative system. See United Front personages; cppcc. pine trees imperishable, red rebels invincible 青松不老, 造总不倒 qingsong bulao, zaozong budao. A slogan favored by Gyenlog supporters. pingpan 平叛. See pacification of the rebellion. pla Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Teams 人民解放军毛泽东思想宣传队 renmin jiefangjun Mao Zedong sixiang xuanchuandui. See Military Propaganda Teams. pla Pictorial 解放军画报 Jiefangjun huabao. A photographic journal founded in 1951 that provides positive news and images of the pla. Plateau-­Is-­Red 高原红. An activist group created by cultural workers among the troops serving under the Tibet Military Region who identified with Gyenlog. See also May 23 Headquarters. Plateau Soldiers News 高原战士报 Gaoyuan zhanzhibao. The newspaper of the pla in Tibet. It was published by the Tibet Military Control Commission after the commission was established in May 1967. po sijiu 破四旧. “Destroy the Four Olds.” See Four Olds. political commissar 政委 zhengwei. A political commissar is appointed to every unit in the pla at regiment level or above. His or her tasks are to implement decisions made by the ccp committee of that unit or above, to instill discipline among ccp members within that unit, and to provide political education to the troops. The political commissar is the Party Secretary of that unit’s Party committee, makes all political decisions for the unit, and is usually superior to the commanding officer of the unit. Political Department 政治部 zhengzhibu. One of the four administrative sections within the command structure of the Tibet Military Region, housed within the Tibet Military Region’s compound or base in Lhasa on the southern side of the Lingkor. power holders within the Party taking the capitalist road 走资本主义道路的当权派 zou ziben zhuyi daolu de dangquanpai. See capitalist roaders. precious red books 红宝书 hong baoshu. See hong baoshu. Preparatory Committee for the Autonomous Region of Tibet 西藏自治区筹备委员会 Xizang zizhiqu choubei weiyuanhui. The Preparatory Committee for the Autonomous Region of Tibet (pcart) was established by the Chinese authorities in Lhasa in 1956 as a transitional device to transfer power from the traditional government of the Dalai Lama to an “autonomous” local government. The Dalai Lama was notionally in charge of the Preparatory Committee, but after his flight to India in 1959 he was replaced by the Panchen Lama, who was in turn deposed three years later. The committee was replaced by the “People’s Government,” also known as the “People’s Committee” of the tar in 1965. prepare for war, prepare for famine, serve the people 备战, 备荒, 为人民 beizhan, beihuang, wei renmin. The slogan used to promote the war-­preparedness campaign from 1969 onward. In order to protect China from nuclear attack by “imperialists” and “revisionists,” it called on people to build war defenses in each area. It continued the earlier transfer of several hundred factories from eastern or coastal China to minority or western areas in the hinterland, as well as the sending of some twenty million youths from towns to the countryside. See also dig deep tunnels; sent-­down youth. Princess Wencheng 文成公主 Wencheng gongzhu. A Chinese princess in the Tang dynasty who was sent to Tibet to marry the Tibetan emperor Songtsen Gampo in 642. Since 1959 innumerable Chinese statues, operas, films, artworks, and monuments have been created by the state to commemorate her supposed role as the first unifier of Tibetans with Chinese. Proletarian Headquarters 无产阶级司令部 wuchan jieji silingbu. A title claimed by all factions in the Cultural Revolution, including the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group and, in Tibet, by Nyamdrel. Protect-­the-­East Commune 卫东公社 Weidong gongshe. An agricultural commune under the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee (see Protect-­the-­New Neighborhood Committee) in Lhasa. Protect-­the-­East Office 卫东办事处 Weidong banshichu. The Cultural Revolution name for the North City Office, one of the three subdistricts of the Inner City District of Lhasa. It supervised the Meru, Tsemonling, Tengyeling, and Shöl Neighborhood Committees. Protect-­the-­New Neighborhood Committee 卫新居委会 Weixin jüweihui. The Cultural Revolution name for the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee in Lhasa. Provisional Lhasa Municipal Communist Party Committee 中共拉萨临时市委 Zhonggong Lasa linshi shiwei. The main ccp offices in Lhasa at municipal (prefectural) level in 1967. The office was one of those briefly taken over by Gyenlog activists during the January 1967 power seizure. Public Security Bureau 公安局 Gonganjü. The Public Security Bureau (psb) is the Chinese term in the prc era for the police force. pusa bing 菩萨兵. Bodhisattva-­like soldiers. pla writers and propagandists sometimes described its troops as pusa bing in speeches or messages for Tibetans, meaning that the soldiers should be considered as bodhisattvas by the Tibetans whom they were liberating. Qiangganzi limian chuzhengquan 枪杆子里面出政权. See the Party is the army, the Party is the gun. *Qiao Shi 乔石. Qiao Shi (1924–­2015) was head of the ccp’s International Liaison Department from 1978, a member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the ccp from 1987 to 1997, and a vice premier of the prc from 1986. He visited Tibet in 1988. Qinghua University 清华大学 Qinghua daxue. One of the two top universities in China, also written as Tsinghua. The first Red Guards came from a school attached to the university and a number of Red Guards traveled from the university to Tibet to carry out cultural revolution there. See Red Guards from the Capital. quanpan 全叛. See full-scale­ rebellion. Rebels Commune 造反公社 zaofan gongshe. A short form of Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels Commune, a group affiliated with Gyenlog. Red Arts Headquarters 红色艺术司令部 hongse yishu silingbu. Known as the Red Art Division (红艺 司 hongyisi) for short, this group was made up of cultural workers from the tar Song and Dance Troupe, the tar Modern Drama Troupe, the tar Tibetan Opera Troupe, and other literature and arts organizations. It was affiliated with Gyenlog. The Red Detachment of Women 红色娘子军 hongse niangzijun. One of the “eight model plays” that were permitted during the Cultural Revolution. Most performances of the opera in Tibet were in Chinese, but a Tibetan-language­ version was performed at the Sungchöra. Red Flag Sub-­Team to Tibet 红旗赴藏小分队 hongqi fuzang xiaofendui. A Red Guard force dispatched from the Beijing College of Aeronautics. It was affiliated with Gyenlog. Red Guards 红卫兵 hongweibing. The first Red Guards were students at a middle school affiliated with Qinghua University in Beijing. They declared themselves to be Red Guards in May 1966 and their actions were endorsed by Mao, leading to Red Guard organizations emerging in almost every school in China. Their organizations are said to have raided ten million homes across China to destroy or confiscate artworks, antiques and other “Four Olds.” Red Guards from the Capital 首都红卫兵 Shoudu hongweibing. A loosely organized group of students from Beijing who traveled to Lhasa in 1966 to operate there as Red Guards. Some forty of the students were expelled from Lhasa by the pla after the February 9 Incident (see above) in 1967 but were able to return to Lhasa that April. Affiliated with Gyenlog. See also the Revolutionary Headquarters of Rebels from the Capital Going to Tibet. Red Guards from the School for Children of Transportation Bureau Employees 交通厅职工子弟学校 红卫兵 jiaotongting zhigong zidi xuexiao hongweibing. Name of a Red Guard group seen on a banner during a rally in Lhasa. Red Guards Headquarters No. 3 红卫兵第三司令部 hongweibing disan silingbu. Possibly the same group as the Capital Headquarters No. 3 or an abbreviation for the famous Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters of Red Guards from Colleges and Universities in the Capital, which had set up a branch in Lhasa. Red Palace in the East 东方红宫 dongfang honggong. The name that was reportedly proposed for the Potala Palace during the Cultural Revolution, but not formally imposed. Red Rebels News 红色造反报 Hongse zaofanbao. The newspaper put out by Gyenlog (Zaozong) in both Tibetan and Chinese. It was printed at the offices of the Tibet Daily. Red Rebels Regiment 红色造反团 hongse zaofantuan. A Red Guard force formed by students from the Tibet Nationality Institute in Xianyang, Shaanxi. The group was affiliated with Gyenlog. red roots, sturdy sprouts 根红苗正 genhong miaozheng. A Maoist term for people with good class origins and reliable political beliefs. reform-­through-­labor 劳动改造 laodong gaizao or simply 劳改 laogai. The ccp term for the main prison system in China, where prisoners were required to work in factories or prison farms as well as to undergo political education. The laogai camps were renamed prisons in 1994. Religious Affairs Bureau文化事务局 wenhua shiwujü. Also known as the State Administration for Religious Affairs, until 2018 the Religious Affairs Bureau was in charge of all religious institutions and personnel in China. Although nominally a government body, it was in fact run by the United Front (see below). In 2018 it was dissolved and its work was taken up directly by the United Front. Neither the United Front nor the Religious Affairs Bureau functioned during the Cultural Revolution. Ren Rong 任荣. Ren began his work in Tibet in 1964 as a deputy political commissar of the Tibet Military Region. From March 1967 he served as the deputy head of the Tibet Military Control Commission and from 1971 was head of the tar Revolutionary Committee. He was the Party Secretary of the tar from 1976 to 1980. He was supported by Zhang Guohua, protected Nyamdrel, strongly opposed Gyenlog, and crushed the “renewed rebellions” of 1969. renewed rebellions 再叛 zaipan. The official term for armed Tibetan resistance that occurred in the years after the suppression of the 1959 Lhasa revolt. It referred principally to the serious conflicts that broke out in fifty-­two out of the seventy-­one counties in the tar in 1969, following raids on pla armories by members of the two main factions the previous year. The “rebellions” involved attacks on ccp and government officials and the military. The most serious fighting took place in Nyemo County near Lhasa and in Palbar County in Chamdo Prefecture. The term “renewed rebellions” indicated that they were seen as continuations of earlier Tibetan resistance to Chinese rule, notably the March 1959 revolt. It was later replaced by the term “counterrevolutionary violent turmoil.” See conspiracy to riot; full-­scale rebellion; semi-­rebellion. renmin gongshe 人民公社. See People’s Commune. renmin lu. See People’s Road. reversing one’s spear head to make a strike 反戈一击 fange yiji. An expression describing people who shift their support from one faction to another as political conditions change; political opportunists. revisionist traitors 修正主义卖国贼 xiuzheng zhuyi maiguozei. The term used by China’s leaders to condemn the Soviet leadership after Khrushchev criticized the legacy of Stalin in 1956. Revolutionary Committees 革命委员会 geming weiyuanhui. From January 1967 “revolutionary committees” were set up throughout China to operate as the organs of government in each province, province-­level municipality, and autonomous region. They were based on the principle of the “Three-In-­ ­One Alliance,” combining representatives of the “revolutionary cadres,” the pla, and the “revolutionary masses.” Party Committees were reinstated from 1972 and Revolutionary Committees were abolished in 1979 and replaced by “People’s Governments.” Revolutionary Headquarters of Rebels from the Capital Going to Tibet 首都赴藏造反革命总部 shoudu fuzang zaofan geming zongbu. A Red Guard group active in Tibet, possibly the same as the Red Guards from the Capital, a loosely organized group of students from Beijing. It was affiliated with Gyenlog. Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters of Red Guards from Colleges and Universities in the Capital 首都大专 院校红卫兵革命造反司令部 shoudu dazhuan yuanxiao hongweibing geming zaofan silingbu. Also known as the Rebel Headquarters of Red Guards, this group had set up a Lhasa branch and was probably affiliated with Gyenlog. See also Capital Headquarters No. 3 and Red Guards Headquarters No. 3. Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters of Tibet Red Guards 西藏红卫兵革命造反司令部 Xizang hongweibing geming zaofan silingbu. See Tibet Red Guards Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters. Revolutionary Rebels Commune 革命造反公社 geming zaofan gongshe. See Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels Commune. Saikang Shopping Center 赛康商场 Saikang shangchang. The new, sinicized name for the former Surkhang mansion on the southeast corner of the Barkor after it was torn down and converted into a shopping mall in 1993. Secretary 书记 shuji. In the context of a ccp institution, the term always means a Party Secretary, that is, the head of a committee within the ccp. In non-ccp­ contexts the word can mean a secretary in the sense of a clerical assistant or aide (Chinese: mishu; Tibetan: drung yig). *Secretary Liu 刘书记 Liu shuji. See Liu Shaoqi. Security Bureau. See Public Security Bureau. semi-­rebellions 半叛 banpan. During the “renewed rebellions” that broke out in fifty-two­ of the seventy-­one counties of the tar in 1969, twenty-­four were labeled “semi-­rebellions.” See also conspiracy to riot; full-­scale rebellions. sent-­down youth 下放知青 xiafang zhiqing. Literally, “sent-­down educated youth.” The ccp began sending students to work in the countryside from about 1953, and sixteen million were sent down between 1962 and 1979. From about 1968 onward, large numbers of youths were sent down in order to defuse the violence caused by Red Guard conflicts. Groups of youths from China were sent to the tar from at least 1965. Serf Poleaxes 农奴戟 nongnuji. An organization formed by some of the Red Guard students from the Tibet Nationality Institute in Xianyang, Shaanxi. The term “serf poleaxe” referred to a line from “Shaoshan Revisited,” a 1959 poem by Mao: “The red flags roused the serfs, their poleaxes in hand.” The group was affiliated with Nyamdrel and was said to have been the largest Red Guard organization in Lhasa. The full name of the group was the “Serf Poleaxes’ Red Guard Rebels General Headquarters.” Serfs 农奴 Nongnu. A highly influential Chinese film (directed by Li Jun, 1963) set in the 1940s and 1950s. The film tells the life story of a Tibetan orphan called Jampa who takes an oath of silence in retaliation for abuse he has suffered at the hands of local Tibetan landlords and lamas. He is forced to become a monk but uncovers a plot by a local lama to stage an armed uprising against the pla. He finally agrees to speak again only after hearing that the 1959 “Democratic Reforms” have begun in Tibet. The film ends with him uttering his first words since he took his vow of silence: “Mao zhuxi!” (Chairman Mao!). seventy-­thousand-­character petition 七万言书 qiwanyan shu. The Tenth Panchen Lama, although publicly a strong supporter of the ccp and of China’s claim to Tibet, wrote a top secret 120-­page appeal to Mao and Zhou Enlai in 1962, begging them to end policies in Tibetan areas that he said threatened to wipe out Tibetan culture and religion. He spent the next sixteen years under house arrest or in prison, including nine weeks of daily struggle sessions in 1964. Sha Family’s Creek 沙家浜 Shajiabin. One of the “eight model operas” that were permitted during the Cultural Revolution. The show was performed in Lhasa in Chinese by the tar Modern Drama Troupe. shajie 杀劫. A Chinese phrase meaning “killing and looting” or “slaughter and plundering.” The word sounds similar to the Tibetan word for revolution, sarjé (gsar brje). Shanxi Opera Troupe 秦剧团 Qinjütuan. The pla brought in opera performers from Shanxi Province to Tibet to entertain troops from that province who were serving in Tibet. During the Cultural Revolution, the troupe took up residence in the former Surkhang mansion on the Barkor. Its members supported Nyamdrel and helped the military to close down the Gyenlog broadcasting station in the Jokhang in the run-­up to the June 7 Incident in 1968 and are said to have beaten up Gyenlog members who had been wounded in the incident. “Shaoshan Revisited” 到韶山 dao shaoshan. A 1959 poem by Mao that included the line “the red flags roused the serfs, their poleaxes in hand.” Shengli 胜利. A Chinese word meaning “victory” that was chosen by some Tibetans as a name during the Cultural Revolution. Shengli Office. See Victory Office. shuji. See Secretary. sijiu. See Four Olds; po sijiu. “Singing from My Heart to the Liberation Army” 我心中的歌献给解放军 wo xinzhong de ge xiangei jiefangjun. One of the two songs used as an anthem by supporters of Nyamdrel. Published in 1964, it was composed for propaganda use in Tibet by the Chinese musician Chang Liuzhu, with lyrics by Zhuang Tao. siqing. See Four Cleanups. Sixteen Instructions 十六条 shiliutiao. On August 8, 1966, the ccp adopted the “Resolution of the ccp Central Committee Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.” This became known as the “Sixteen Instructions” or “Sixteen Articles.” It defined the purpose of the Cultural Revolution as struggling against “capitalist roaders,” criticizing “bourgeois academic authorities and bourgeois ideology,” and transforming education and literary and art production through mass mobilization, “big-character­ posters,” great debates, and exposing all “ox-­demon-­snake-­spirits.” smallpox edict 劝人种痘碑 quanren zhongdoubei. An eighteenth-century­ edict carved onto a stone pillar that is still located in front of the Jokhang Temple in Lhasa. The edict advises on precautions to be taken to prevent the spread of the disease. Socialist Education Movement 社会主义教育运动 shehui zhuyi jiaoyu yundong. A movement from 1962 to 1966 that aimed to reinvigorate revolutionary spirit and collectivization among the peasants and local cadres, presented the army and soldiers as model citizens and educators, required people to learn Maoist texts by heart, and ordered class struggle to be carried out even within the peasantry. It is also known as the Four Cleanups (四清运动 siqing yundong). Southwest Bureau 西南局 xi’nanjü. After 1959 China was divided into six “large administrative regions”: Northeast, North, Northwest, South Central, and Southwest. Each of these corresponded to a military region with the same name, ruled by military leaders who were also in charge of the corresponding administrative regions. The administration of the Southwest Region was based in Chengdu, from where its military leaders led the pla advance into Tibet in 1950. spiritual atom bomb 精神原子弹 jingshen yuanzidan. A term used by Lin Biao to describe Mao Zedong Thought. splittism 分裂主义 fenlie zhuyi. The official term used in China for “separatism” or any suggestion that Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hong Kong, or other areas within China should or could be independent. State Council 国务院 guowuyuan. The highest-level­ executive body in the prc governmental system. It consists of all government ministers and is equivalent to a cabinet in democratic systems. struggle, criticize, correct 斗批改 dou pi gai. An instruction by Mao to “struggle against private ownership,” to “criticize revisionists,” and to “correct one’s political position.” struggle session 批斗大会 pidou dahui or 斗争大会 douzheng dahui. A rally or public meeting in which class enemies were paraded, denounced, abused, and ritually humiliated while being required to confess to political crimes. Based on Soviet forms of class struggle, struggle sessions were carried out throughout China from the 1950s onward until they were banned after 1978. suan luobo 酸萝卜. Pickled radish, an example of a Chinese term used constantly in modern Tibetan. sub–­police station 派出所 paichusuo. A police station or police post at township level. In urban areas, a paichusuo would be at the same administrative level as a Neighborhood Committee and one of its officers would serve on that committee. sugarcoated bullets 糖衣炮弹 tangyi paodan. A term used by Mao in 1949 to describe enticements offered by the bourgeoisie to tempt and destroy revolutionaries. *Sun 孙. The family name of a Chinese youth who was sent down from Fushun in northeast China to the tar, in 1976, where he worked in the Red Flag Commune in Chonggye County, Lhokha and learned Tibetan. He later became a businessman in Lhasa. Sun Chamber 日光殿 riguangdian. Literally “Sun Chamber” (nyi ’od gzim chung in Tibetan), this refers to a room on the second floor of the Jokhang Temple complex that looks down onto the Great Courtyard. It was the room from which the Dalai Lama would traditionally watch the monastic ceremonies held in the courtyard during the Monlam Chenmo festival each year. *Sun Yat-­Sen 孙逸仙 Sun yixian. Sun (1866–­1925) led the efforts to overthrow the Qing dynasty that led to the “Xinhai Revolution” in 1911. He was the first president of the Republic of China in 1912 and was the leader of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China) from 1919–25.­ Commonly referred to in the prc as Sun Zhongshan (孙中山). See Three Principles of the People. support the leftists 支左 zhizuo. On January 23, 1967, the pla was ordered to “support the leftists” and to provide military assistance when “truly revolutionary groups ask the army for support.” This meant that the military was to take control of government institutions in support of these groups. These instructions, which were known as the “Three Supports, Two Militaries,” led to the setting up of Military Control Commissions and subsequently Revolutionary Committees throughout China. suppression of the rebellion. See pacification of the rebellion. *Tao Changsong 陶长松. An ethnic Chinese teacher at Lhasa Middle School at the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution who became the commander in chief of Gyenlog. In 1968 he was made a deputy head of the tar Revolutionary Committee. He later became a researcher at the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences in Lhasa. tar. See Tibet Autonomous Region. tar Communications Office西藏自治区交际处 Xizang zizhiqu jiaojichu. The office within thetar administration with responsibility for managing communications and broadcasting. During the Cultural Revolution its premises in Lhasa (now the Welcome Hotel) were used as a broadcasting station by Nyamdrel. Different from the Communications Department 联络部( ) under the Tibet Military Region. tar Cultural Revolution Leadership Small Group 西藏自治区文化大革命领导小组 Xizang zizhiqu wenhua dageming lingdao xiaozu. An entity established by the Tibet branch of the ccp in May 1966 to try to direct the Cultural Revolution in the region. tar Modern Drama Troupe 西藏自治区话剧团 Xizang zizhiqu huajütuan. A governmental theater troupe that used Meru Monastery in Lhasa as its base during the Cultural Revolution. Some of its members supported Gyenlog, while others allied with Nyamdrel. tar Party Committee 西藏自治区党委 Xizang zizhiqu dangwei. The topmost body in the tar branch of the ccp and the effective rulers of the region after thetar was established in 1965. It replaced the Tibet Working Committee, which in effect had ruled Tibet since 1951. The functions of the tar Party Committee were taken over and its leaders deposed by radical activists in February 1967 and, in May that year, it was replaced as the topmost body in the tar by the Military Control Commission, which was in turn replaced by the tar Revolutionary Committee in September 1968. The Party Committee was reinstated as the topmost authority in the tar in 1978. Until January 1980, the area ruled by the tar Party Committee did not include Ngari in far western Tibet, which was under the Xinjiang branch of the ccp. tar People’s Broadcasting Service 西藏自治区人民广播电台 Xizang zizhiqu renmin guangbo diantai. The public broadcasting service of the tar government. tar People’s Committee 西藏自治区人民委员会 Xizang zizhiqu renmin weiyuanhui. The official name for the government of the tar from 1965 to 1967. It replaced the “Tibet People’s Government” once the tar was founded. It was taken over by revolutionary activists on January 24, 1967, and replaced in September 1968 by the tar Revolutionary Committee. tar People’s Government 西藏自治区人民政府 Xizang zizhiqu renmin zhengfu. The official name for the government of the tar from August 1978 onward. It replaced the tar Revolutionary Committee and remains the name for the current administration. Until 1980, Ngari Prefecture was under the administration of Xinjiang, not that of the tar. Under China’s law promising autonomy for minority nationalities, the chair of the tar People’s Government has to be a Tibetan. Accordingly, its first two chairs were Tian Bao and Ngapö Ngawang Jigme. tar Revolutionary Committee 西藏自治区革命委员会 Xizang zizhiqu geming weiyuanhui or simply 西 藏革委会 Xizang geweihui. The tar Revolutionary Committee was established on September 5, 1968, on orders from Beijing, with representatives from the ccp, state, and military, including the leaders of both Nyamdrel and Gyenlog, both of whom were given positions as deputy heads of the committee (the “Three-­In-­One Alliance”). It was disbanded in 1978. tar Song and Dance Troupe 西藏自治区歌舞团 Xizang zizhiqu gewutuan. A performance troupe established by the tar government. Many of its members were affiliated with Gyenlog. Teacher Training College. See Tibet Teacher Training College. three-­dimensional social stability preventive control system 立体化社会治安防控体系 litihua shehui zhi’an fangkong tixi. A policing system or monitoring network introduced in the tar and elsewhere in China from 2012 onward. It includes digital surveillance; monitoring at the grassroots level carried out by cadres based (in the case of the tar) in monasteries, villages, and local neighborhoods; and policing carried out by officials in grid management offices. The term emphasizes the integration of multiple information systems. Three Educations Work Team 三教工作团 sanjiao gongzuotuan. Members of the Three Educations Work Teams were dispatched to villages and the grasslands between 1963 and 1965 to “use education about class to lift up the lid of class struggle in the farming and nomadic areas.” Their job was to implement the “Three Great Educations”—­education about class, education about patriotism, and education about the socialist future. In practice, the campaign screened individuals to assess their political reliability and to identify dissidents. Three Great Masters 三大领主 san da lingzhu. “Three Great Masters” was the term used to refer to the “reactionary estate holders of the three kinds”—­that is, government officials, aristocrats, and high lamas in Tibetan society before it was “reformed” in 1959. See nga-­dag in the glossary of Tibetan terms. Three-­In-­One Alliance 三结合 san jiehe. The organizing principle behind the composition of each Revolutionary Committee. According to this principle, which was designed to bring an end to factional warfare throughout China, the leading group of each committee had to include representatives of the “revolutionary cadres,” the pla, and the “revolutionary masses.” In practice, the “revolutionary masses” were represented by leaders of the warring factions. Three Kinds of People 三种人 sanzhongren. The “three kinds” were “robbers and vandals,” “obsessive factionalists,” and “instigators of rebellion.” Three Loyalties 三忠于 san zhongyu. These were loyalty to Chairman Mao, loyalty to Mao Zedong Thought, and loyalty to Chairman Mao’s proletarian revolutionary line. They were usually linked to the Four Boundlesses (see above). Three Principles of the People 三民主义 sanmin zhuyi. The basis of Sun Yat-­sen’s political philosophy and his aims for China, and the title of his most famous book. He outlined the principles in a series of lectures in 1924. The three principles were “nationalism” or independence from foreign imperialist domination; “rights of the people” (sometimes translated as “people’s sovereignty” or “democracy”); and “the people’s livelihood.” Three Represents 三个代表 sange daibiao. A theory presented by the then Party Secretary of China, Jiang Zemin, in 2002. It stated that the ccp should represent “advanced social productive forces,” “advanced culture,” and “the interests of the overwhelming majority.” In effect, this meant widening membership of the ccp to businessmen, managers, and others who would formerly have been ostracized as capitalists. Three Supports, Two Militaries 三支两 军 sanzhi liangjun. This was the short title for the instructions given to the pla in January 1967 ordering them to establish military control after the initial chaos caused by the Red Guards and activists. The new Military Control Commissions were ordered to support the “leftist masses,” agriculture, and industrial production, and to impose military control (军管 junguan) on certain work units and administrative offices and by enforcing military training ( 军训 junxun) for students. See Support the Leftists. Tibet Autonomous Region 西藏自治区 Xizang zizhiqu. On September 9, 1965, the area recognized by the prc as Tibet (the western half of the Tibetan Plateau, including the area that had been ruled by the government of the Dalai Lama in Lhasa until 1950) was renamed “the Tibet Autonomous Region” (tar) and the tar People’s Government (or People’s Committee) was founded to administer this area. China’s Regional Nationality Autonomy law requires the head of the regional government and the head of the regional congress in the tar to be Tibetans. Tibet Daily 西藏日报 Xizang ribao. The ccp organ in Tibet. It has been published since the 1950s in both Chinese and Tibetan versions. Tibet local government 西藏地方政府 Xizang difang zhengfu. The official prc term for the former government of the Dalai Lama, which is seen by China and the ccp as having been a subsidiary or “local” entity under the “central government” in Beijing since historical times. From about the 1970s onward, the prc claimed that Tibet became a part of China in the thirteenth century, but in 2015 it announced that the Tibetan government had been a local government of China “since ancient times,” referring to relations between China and Tibet during the seventh century or even earlier. Tibet Military Control Commission 西藏[自治区]军事管制委员会 Xizang [zizhiqu] junshi guanzhi weiyuanhui. On May 11, 1967, Beijing ordered the pla in Tibet to establish the Tibet Military Control Commission (sometimes written as the tar Military Control Commission). It began operations on June 24 that year. Zhang Guohua was made the director of the new commission, with Ren Rong and Chen Mingyi as its deputy directors, all of them supporters of Nyamdrel. It was housed within the former tar Communications Office in what is now the Tibet Welcome Hotel. It continued in name until May 1973, but its main functions had been taken over by the tar Revolutionary Committee in September 1968. Tibet Military District 西藏省级军区 Xizang shengji junqu. In December 1968, the military system in China was reorganized and the Tibet Military Region was downgraded to a provincial-level­ unit known as the Tibet Military District, which was under the Chengdu Military Region. After January 1980 the Tibet Military District included Ngari, but before that time and again after 1987, Ngari was part of the Southern Xinjiang Military District. In 2017 the Chengdu Military Region became part of the Western Theater Command. Tibet Military Region 西藏军区 Xizang junqu. The term used variously to refer to either the Tibet Military Region Command, the Tibet Military Region Headquarters, the geographic area under their authority, or the Tibet Military Region compound in Lhasa. Tibet Military Region Cadre School 西藏军区干部学校 Xizang junqu ganbu xuexiao. The cadre training school run by the Tibet Military Region in Lhasa. Tsering Dorje, Woeser’s father, studied at the school in 1954. Tibet Military Region Command 西藏军区司令 Xizang junqu siling. The Tibet Military Region, also known as the Tibet Military Command, was established in February 1952. In 1955 it was made one of the twelve (later thirteen) military regions/commands in China. In December 1968 it was downgraded to a provincial-­level military district. It did not include Ngari in far western Tibet, which was administered by the Xinjiang Military Command. The four major work units within the Tibet Military Region were the Military Region Headquarters (军区司令部), the Political Department (政治部 zhengzhibu), the Communications Department (联络部 lianluobu), and the Logistics Department (后勤部 houqinbu). Tibet Military Region compound 西藏军区大院 Xizang junqu dayuan. The military base that houses the headquarters of the Tibet Military Region (renamed the Tibet Military District in 1968). It is located beside the Kyichu River on the southern stretch of the Lingkor, which has since been renamed Jiangsu Road. Tibet Military Region Flagship Hospital 西藏军区总医院 Xizang junqu zongyiyuan. The hospital in Lhasa operated by the Tibet Military Region and considered the best medical facility in the region. Often referred to as the pla Hospital, it is located to the north of the city, near Sera Monastery. Tibet Military Region Headquarters 西藏军区司令部 Xizang junqu silingbu. The command center for the Tibet Military Region. It is housed within the Tibet Military Region compound. Tibet Nationality Institute 西藏民族学院 Xizang mingzu xueyuan. A college-­level educational institution in Xianyang in Shaanxi Province that was established by the Tibet authorities in 1958 under the name Tibet Public School. Its mission was to train cadres, including Tibetans, to work in the tar. It was renamed the Tibet Nationality Institute in 1965 and is administered by the tar government. Tibet Red Guards Revolutionary Rebel Headquarters. A Red Guard group in Tibet affiliated with Gyenlog. Its members were mainly students. Probably a different group from the Revolutionary Headquarters of the Rebels from the Capital Going to Tibet. Tibet School of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 西藏农牧学校 Xizang nongmu xuexiao. A college-­ level educational institution based in Nyingtri, east of Lhasa. Also translated as the Tibet College of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (西藏农牧学院 Xizang nongmu xueyuan). Tibet Teacher Training College 西藏师范学校 Xizang shifan xuexiao. Commonly known as the Tibet Teacher Training College, the official name of this institution was the Lhasa Teacher Training College (拉萨师范学校 Lasa shifan xuexiao). It was established in 1960 and after some delay started accepting students in March 1966. In August 1966, students from the Tibet Teacher Training College, along with those from Lhasa Middle School, were the first in thetar to establish a Red Guard organization and the first to take to the streets to destroy the Four Olds. Tibet Academy of Social Sciences 西藏社会科学研究院 Xizang shehui kexue yanjiuyuan. The premier social sciences research institution in the tar, set up in 1985 to promote ccp objectives in the use of the social sciences in Tibet. It is also known as the tar Academy of Social Sciences (西藏自治区 社会科学研究院 Xizang zizhiqu shehui kexue yanjiuyuani). Tibetan Literature 西藏文学 Xizang wenxue. Tibetan Literature is an official journal for Tibetan literature that first appeared in 1977 under the name Xizang wenyi. It changed its name to Xizang wenxue in 1983. It is published in Chinese by the tar Culture Bureau. Tibetan Opera Troupe 藏戏团 Zangxituan. The official tar troupe for traditional Tibetan opera. It was based at Zhide Dratshang during the Cultural Revolution. to protect emperors is a crime, to commit a crime is to be put to death ten thousand times 保皇有罪, 罪该万死 baohuan youzui, zui gai wansi. A slogan favored by Gyenlog. “To Rebel is Right” 造反有理 Zaofan youli. A song favored by Gyenlog. the To-­Rebel-­Is-­Righteous Revolutionary Long-­Live Lhasa “Red Guards” 造反有理革命万岁拉萨”红卫 兵” zaofan youli geming wansui Lasa “hong weibing.” The description given in the headline on the front page of the August 26, 1966, edition of the Tibet Daily for the Red Guards who had carried out the first “revolutionary action” in Lhasa two days earlier. Toward-­the-­Sun Neighborhood Committee 向阳居委会 Xiangyang jüweihui. The Cultural Revolution name given to one of the twelve Neighborhood Committees in Lhasa. Traitorous Dalai-­Panchen Anti-­national Clique 达赖班禅反动卖国集团 Dalai Banchan fandong maiguo jituan. An official term used during the Cultural Revolution to refer to Tibetans who were considered class enemies, secret “splittists,” or supporters of the Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama, and Tibetan exiles. Traitorous Panchen Clique 班禅卖国集团 Banchan maiguo jituan. A term used after 1966 to denounce Tibetans such as Lhamön Yeshe Tsultrim who had once been close advisers to or supporters of the Tenth Panchen Lama. Even as early as 1965 Beijing Review denounced “the criminal activities of the anti-people,­ anti-­motherland, and anti-­socialist serf-owner­ clique represented by Panchen Erdeni.” Treaty Pillar 唐蕃会盟碑 Tang-­Fang huimengbei. A ninth-century­ stone pillar or stele (rdo ring in Tibetan) outside the Jokhang Temple. The text carved on the stone summarizes a treaty signed between Tibet and China in 823, which set the border between the two countries. tu huangdi 土皇帝. Literally, “local emperor.” The term was used for officials and others who exercised their powers excessively. ultraleftist 极左 jizuo. A term implying criticism of extreme leftist behavior or ideas. United Front personages 统战对象 tongzhan duixiang. People who have official positions in the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (cppcc), the People’s Congress, the local branch of the Chinese Buddhist Association, or similar quasi-governmental­ bodies. In Tibet these appointees are usually former aristocrats, religious leaders, or non-ccp­ intellectuals. See perform as a political flower vase. United Front Work Department 统战部 tongzhanbu. The agency within the ccp that carries out “United Front” tactics on behalf of the Chinese Communist Party. Adopted from the USSR in the 1920s, these tactics are designed to win over enemies or potential enemies—particularly­ local dignitaries who are not or cannot be ccp members—­and to turn them into supporters of the Party. The United Front Work Department typically operates by making secret offers of high-status­ positions, political concessions, or material gifts to local dignitaries or potential critics of the ccp in order to secure their support. Its primary targets are religious leaders, former local leaders, aristocrats, non-­ccp intellectuals, businessmen, and overseas leaders. It runs religious and nationality policies in China, appoints the members of the cppc, deals with overseas Chinese, and ran China’s policy for Hong Kong and Macao before reunification. upper-­strata patriotic personages 上层爱国人士 shangceng aiguo renshi. The official ccp term for former aristocrats, religious leaders, and other dignitaries from the former Tibetan elite who have supported the ccp and the Chinese state. Victory Office 胜利办事处 shengli banshichu. The Cultural Revolution name for the office formerly known as the South City Office, one of the three offices or subdistricts (banshichu) into which the Inner City District had been divided after 1959. The Victory Office oversaw the Barkor, Tromzikhang, Lugu, and Rabsel Neighborhood Committees. Victory Peak 胜利峰 shenglifeng. The Cultural Revolution name for Chagpori, the hill to the southwest of the Potala on which the Tibetan Medical College had been sited until it was destroyed in fighting in 1959. *Wang Qimei 王其梅. Wang Qimei was a military commander in the Eighteenth Army who led the advance force of pla troops on their march to Lhasa in September 1950. He was a deputy political commissar of the Tibet Military Region from 1952 until his death in August 1967 after extensive abuse in struggle sessions. When the Cultural Revolution began, he was made the leader of the Cultural Revolution Leading Small Group in the tar, but he was soon denounced and made a major struggle target. *Wang Tingyan 王廷彦. Wang was a soldier with the Eighteenth Army who became a deputy director of the Communications Department of the Tibet Military Region. During the Cultural Revolution he was persecuted by other soldiers in the Tibet Military Region compound because his family had been landlords. He committed suicide by hanging himself. wansui 万岁. Literally “ten thousand years,” this is the phrase used in Chinese for “long live.” In Tibetan, it sounds similar to the phrase wangse, which means “turn the power off.” War Flag News 战旗报 Zhanqibao. The newspaper of the Chengdu Military Region. “We Wish Chairman Mao a Long Life” 毛主席祝您万寿无疆 Mao zhuxi zhunin wanshou wujiang. A song that made the Tibetan “red songstress” Tseten Drolma famous. It was taken from the opera The East Is Red, which came out in 1964. *Wei Zhiping 魏志平. A leader of the Liaison Committee against the Local Emperor and the commander of the “Red Rebels’ Regiment,” which was formed of students from the Tibet Nationality Institute in Xianyang, Shaanxi. Both groups were affiliated with Gyenlog. Weidong 卫东. A Chinese name meaning “Protect the East” or “Protect (Mao Ze)dong.” During the Cultural Revolution it was chosen by some Tibetans to be their new, revolutionary name. Welcome Hotel 迎宾馆 Yingbinguan. A contemporary hotel in Lhasa, known in full as the Tibet Welcome Hotel, constructed on Beijing East Road on the site of the building which was used by the tar Communications Office in the 1950s and taken over for use as a broadcasting station by Nyamdrel during early stages of the Cultural Revolution. From June 1967 the building was used by the Tibet Military Control Commission as its base. *Wencheng 文成. See Princess Wencheng. wenduo 文斗. “Non-­armed struggle.” wengong wuwei 文攻武卫. “Attack with words, defend with force.” In July 1967 Mao Zedong’s wife, Jiang Qing, deputy head of the Central Cultural Revolution Small Group, gave a speech praising this principle, triggering violence by activists across the country. See July 22, 1967. The White Haired Girl 白毛女 Baimaonü. One of the “eight model operas” that were performed in China during the Cultural Revolution. The tar Song and Dance Troupe staged a version of it in Lhasa in Chinese. “Whoever Sides with the Revolutionary People Is a Revolutionary” 什么人站在革命立场上, 他就是革命派 shenme ren zhanzai geming lichang shang, ta jiushi gemingpai. A revolutionary song based on a quotation from a 1950 speech by Mao. It became one of the two songs favored by supporters of Nyamdrel. whom to trust—­the faction decides! 亲不亲, 派来分 qin buqin, pai lai fen. A popular Cultural Revolution slogan that meant that loyalty to one’s faction was more important than one’s family, relatives, or any other considerations. Also translated as “factional interests above all else!” Similar to the principle that “the correctness of the ideological and political line decides everything.” Wind and Thunder Battle News 风雷激战报 Fenglei jizhanbao. The newspaper issued by Nyamdrel. Nyamdrel ended publication of the paper in November 1968 as part of the supposed “Grand Alliance” that had been arranged between the two factions when the tar Revolutionary Committee was established. work team 工作队 gongzuo dui. A team of ccp cadres or soldiers and officials who are delegated to carry out a specific task. Work teams are usually sent temporarily to a specific location or work unit to respond to a conflict or to implement a particular political task. work unit 单位 danwei. A government or ccp office or enterprise. Work units are largely self-­ contained communities whose staff live and work within the premises of the community. Working Class General Headquarters 工人阶级总司令部 gongren jieji zongsilingbu or 工总司令 gong zongsiling. A group affiliated with Nyamdrel. It consisted of workers from several factories. Working People’s Cultural Palace 劳动人民文化宫 laodong renmin wenhuagong. A 1960s building on the south side of the Potala that was used for most important meetings in the tar until 1985. It was demolished in 2005. The Wrath of the Serfs 农奴愤 Nongnufen. An exhibition of about a hundred life-­size models of Tibetans carrying out acts of brutality before the Chinese arrived to liberate them. The exhibits were commissioned by the tar Revolutionary Committee in 1975 to show that the old Tibet was “the most miserable hell on earth.” Books showing photographs of the exhibits were published in multiple languages and distributed worldwide. wuduo 武斗. “Armed struggle.” See July 22, 1967. wuzhuang panluan 武装叛乱. Armed rebellion. *Xi Jinping 习近平. ccp General Secretary since 2012 and president of the prc since 2013. *Xie Fangyi 谢方艺. A language teacher at Lhasa Middle school who gave speeches encouraging the student Red Guards to launch their first action against the Jokhang in August 1966. He was General Secretary of the ccp branch in Lhasa Middle School and later became one of the leaders in Gyenlog, the “Rebel” faction. In the 1980s, he was transferred to Fujian, his home province. xilu xiaofu 希鲁晓夫. A misheard version of Heluxuefu (赫鲁雪夫 Heluxuefu, q.v.), the Chinese transliteration of Khrushchev. Xinhua 新华 Xinhua. Literally “New China,” usually referring to the national news agency, which had a branch office in Lhasa. Xinhua Road 新华路 Xinhua lu. The Cultural Revolution name for Do senge lam—­“Stone Lion Road”— ­ in Lhasa. “Xiyi ge” 洗衣歌. Literally the “Laundry Song,” this was the most famous of the revolutionary songs produced in the Mao era to praise the achievements and beneficence of theccp and the pla in Tibet. First released in 1964, the song describes a pla soldier helping a young Tibetan woman wash clothes in a stream on the grasslands. A dramatized version of the song was filmed and widely distributed at the time and since. xuanzhanshu 宣战书. Literally “Declaration of War Letters,” these were proclamations by Red Guard groups in imitation of an action by Red Guards from Beijing Middle School No. 2 on August 17, 1966, in which they “declared a war against the old world” (xiang jiushijie xuanzhan). In their “Declaration of War Letter” they had stated their commitment to the Sixteen Instructions (see above), which had been issued nine days earlier. *Yan Zhenzhong 阎振中. A Red Guard who came to Lhasa from the Tibet Nationality Institute in Xianyang, Shaanxi. A Hui (Chinese Muslim), originally from Henan Province, he went on to become the chief editor of the journal Tibetan Literature. *Yang Dongsheng 杨东生. A veteran Tibetan cadre whose Tibetan name was Sherab Dondrub (饶 登珠, 1918–92).­ He was a member of the Tibet Working Committee from 1957 to 1958, a standing committee member of the Tibet cppcc from 1959 to 1965, and a deputy director of the tar Revolutionary Committee. He was chair of the tar People’s Congress from 1981 to 1983. *Ye Jianying 叶剑英. Ye Jianying (1897–­1986) became a marshal in the pla in 1955 and China’s defense minister in 1975. He was a core member of the ccp Politburo in October 1976 and took part in the overthrow of the Gang of Four. He was chair of the National People’s Congress from 1978 to 1983. *Ye Xingsheng 叶星生. A Chinese artist who lived in Lhasa during the 1960s. He was born in Sichuan in 1948 and moved to Tibet when he was thirteen. He worked for the “Office for Exhibiting the Red Guards’ Outstanding Achievement in Destroying the Four Olds.” He later became president of the Tibet Artists’ Association. yikao duixiang, tuanjie duixiang, baohu duixiang, daji duixiang 依靠对象, 团结对象, 保护对象, 打击 对象. Literally “those who were reliable; those who could be united with; those who should be protected; and those who were to be attacked.” These four categories were used by local officials to categorize people’s political reliability. The third category—those­ who should be protected—­usually referred in the Tibetan context to upper-­class figures from Tibetan society who were cooperating with the regime. *Yin Fatang 阴法唐. Born in 1922, Yin Fatang arrived in Tibet as an officer in the Eighteenth Army during the 1950 advance into Tibet from Sichuan. He became a member of the Chamdo Working Committee in 1950, was General Secretary of the Gyantse Party Committee from 1953, a standing committee member of the Tibet Military Region Party Committee from 1963, and the director of the “Office for Supporting Local Cultural Revolution” from March 1967. He was Party Secretary of the tar from 1980 to 1985 but remained influential even in retirement. Yonghong 永红. A Chinese name meaning “Forever Red” that was chosen by some Tibetans as their name during the Cultural Revolution. Youth Palace 少年宫 shaoniangong. A two-­story building built near the Sungchöra in 1975 on the south side of the Lhasa Barkor. *Yu Xin 余新 (characters reconstructed from the pronunciation). A Chinese soldier who criticized Zhang Guohua during a meeting in the Tibet Military Region compound during the Cultural Revolution. He was beaten to death by other soldiers. yuanzang 援藏. “Help Tibet” or “Tibet aid” was a prc program for sending Chinese cadres to assist the administration in Tibet and for investment in the tar by eastern Chinese provinces. Also refers to an architectural style of the 1960s where nondescript modern buildings were constructed with a small number of exterior Tibetan features. See Help Tibet. *Yue Fei 岳飞. A legendary military leader from the twelfth century who is promoted by the current regime as a model of patriotism and loyalty. *Yue Zhongqi 岳锺琪. A Chinese general during the Qing dynasty. Yue (1686–­1764) led a military force to Lhasa in 1720 to expel Dzungar Mongol invaders. *Yulusi 玉鲁斯. An activist from Wapaling. A Muslim, he became the commander of the Peasants and Nomads Headquarters, which was affiliated with Nyamdrel. *Yuzhen 玉珍. A Chinese name that sounds similar to the Tibetan female name Yudron. It was used by some Tibetans when they were required to or chose to take Chinese names during the Cultural Revolution. zaipan 再叛. See renewed rebellion. Zaozong 造总. Literally “the Rebels General Headquarters,” known in Tibetan as Gyenlog. Its full name was “the Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels General Headquarters.” Zaozong was one of the two main factions in the tar during the Cultural Revolution. It was established on December 22, 1996, when over a thousand people from fifty-­six local organizations attended its founding rally. Its commander was Tao Changsong. It was seen as more radical than Nyamdrel. A number of its members were killed in the June 7 Jokhang Incident in 1968. It officially ended operations in March 1969 but was implicated in the violence of the “renewed rebellions” later that year. *Zeng Yongya 曾雍雅. Zeng Yongya (1917–­95) was a senior pla officer serving in Tibet. He was made a major general in 1955, a vice commander of the Tibet Military Region in 1964, and acting commander of the Tibet Military Region in 1967. Seen as a supporter of Gyenlog, he was appointed chair of the tar Revolutionary Committee in September 1968. He was deposed from his positions in Tibet in 1970. *Zhang Guohua 张国华. Zhang Guohua (1914–­72) was commander of the Tibet Military Region during and after the pla advance into Tibet. He commanded the pla ground forces during the Sino-­ Indian war of 1962 and was the General Secretary of the Tibet Working Committee from 1950 to 1952 and of the tar Party Committee from 1965 to 1967. He was heavily attacked by Gyenlog activists during the Cultural Revolution and in May 1967 he was transferred to Sichuan to take up the role of provincial governor. He died from a stroke in Chengdu in February 1972. *Zhang Jingwu 张经武. Zhang Jingwu (1906–­71) was the Representative of the Central Government in Tibet from 1951 to 1954 and Political Commissar of the Tibet Military Region from 1956 to 1965. He was First Secretary of the Tibet Working Committee from 1952 to 1965. In 1967 he was denounced as a “bourgeois reactionary,” tortured, and severely beaten. He died in 1971. zhaodai marpo 招待玛波 zhaodai mabo. A half-­Chinese, half-­Tibetan phrase meaning “the Red Guest House.” See Ersuo. zhiqing 知青. See sent-down­ youth. Zhongguo 中国. Literally “the Middle Kingdom,” the official Chinese name for China. *Zhou Enlai 周恩来. Zhou (1898–­1976) was premier of the prc from 1949 to 1976. He also served as foreign minister from 1949 to 1958. He was one of the few leaders not to be purged or persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. Some reports claim that he protected some monuments such as the Potala Palace and privately supported more moderate policies. *Zhou Renshan 周仁山. Zhou Renshan (1912–­84) was transferred from Qinghai to Tibet in December 1956 and appointed as a deputy Secretary of the Preparatory Committee for the Autonomous Region of Tibet. He was made a vice chair of the tar government in 1965 and became General Secretary of the tar Party Committee in May 1966. He was targeted by Nyamdrel, who suspected him of supporting Gyenlog. He later became Party Secretary of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region. *Zhu De 朱德. Zhu De (1886–­76) joined the ccp in the 1920s, met Mao in 1928, and helped found the Red Army. He was commander in chief of the pla from 1946 to 1954, one of the ten marshals of the pla, and chair of the National People’s Congress from 1975 to 1976. zuzhi 组织. A Chinese word meaning “organized”; an example of a Chinese loan word used in contemporary Tibetan instead of the Tibetan equivalent. Glossary of Tibetan Terms

The Tibetan spelling of each word or phrase is given in parentheses after each head-term,­ using the Turrell Wylie system of transcription. This is followed, where known, by the equivalent in Chinese (putonghua), both in characters and in hanyu pinyin. An asterisk indicates a personal name.

a kha (a kha kha) 哎呀 aiya. An exclamation expressing pity or regret. aja (a lcag) 阿佳 ajia. “Elder sister,” a respectful term used for older women. *Ama Kyi-la­ (a ma skyid lags) 阿妈几拉 ama Jila. A woman from the Wapaling area of Lhasa, described as an “ordinary commoner” as opposed to an activist. Amdo (a mdo) 安多 Anduo. The northeastern area of the Tibetan Plateau, now divided between the provinces of Qinghai, southern Gansu, and northern Sichuan. Tibetans from Amdo are known as Amdowa (a mdo ba). *Amdo Jampa (a mdo byams pa) 安多强巴 Anduo qiangba. Amdo Jampa (1911–­2002) was an innovative Tibetan thangka painter who became famous for murals he painted in the Norbulingka showing the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and for his experiments with propaganda art in the Maoist era. He was the first Tibetan artist to paint in photorealist style. *Ani Lhadrön 阿尼拉珍 ani Lazhen. See Wapaling Lhadrön. *Ani Sita-­la (a ni sri thar lags) 阿尼斯塔拉 ani Sitala. One of the sisters of Shakabpa Wangchug Deden, the tsipön (rtsis dpon) or finance minister in the Tibetan government before 1950 and the author of a major history of Tibet, which he produced after going into exile. Ani Sita-la­ remained in Lhasa, renounced worldly life and became a nun (a ni). She died in 2000. *Anu (a nu) 阿努 Anu. A Tibetan woman from Lhasa who worked in a garage run by the Logistics Department of the Tibet Military Region. Avalokiteshvara 观世音菩萨 Guanshiyin pusa. Sanskrit name for Chenrezig (see below). bango (spang po) 邦过 bangguo. Tibetan word for a beggar. Bargo-­kaling 巴嘎噶林 Bagagelin. See Drakgo-­kaling. Barkor (bar skor) 八角街 Bajiaojie. Literally the “middle circle” or “intermediate circuit,” the Barkor is the main circumambulation route that runs around the Jokhang, lying between the Lingkor (the outer circuit) and the Nangkor (the inner circuit). It was also the religious and commercial center of the Old City of Lhasa. It was renamed as Lixin jie (立新街), meaning “Establish-­the-­New Avenue,” during the Cultural Revolution. Barkor Neighborhood Committee (bar skor u yon lhan khang) 八角街居委会 Bajiaojie jüweihui. The Chinese authorities established a Neighborhood Committee in the Barkor in 1959 and changed its name to the Establish-the-­ ­New Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. In 1981 the name was changed back to the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. bayi-­la (sba ye lags) 北依啦 or 北依拉 beiyi-­la. A colloquial Tibetan term for a Chinese Muslim. *Bhrikuti Devi (bal mo bza’ khri btsun) 布里库蒂公主 Bulikudi gongzhu. A seventh-­century Nepalese princess who became the wife of the Tibetan emperor Songtsen Gampo. bo (’bo) 博 bo. A metal or wooden vat found in many Tibetan households that was used to measure out barley. According to Goldstein’s History of Modern Tibet, vol. 1 (University of California Press, 1989), 1 bho is equal to 15 seers, equivalent to roughly 30 pounds. *Buchung (bu chung) 布穷 Buqiong. Buchung was a leading Nyamdrel figure and head of the Revolutionary Committee in Chongye County in Lhokha during the Cultural Revolution. In the Reform era, he became a deputy Party Secretary of the tar and the Secretary of the tar Discipline Inspection Committee. *Buchung Tsering (bu chung tshe ring) 普穷次仁 Puqiong ciren. A vice chair of the tar government in the late 1980s. bumpa (’bum pa) 朋巴 pengba. A vase-­shaped vessel. These are often used in households for storing grain or for items that have been blessed in a religious ceremony and which are expected to attract good fortune. chabtog (chab tog) 恰朵 qiaduo. A gourd-­shaped metal or enamel bowl, commonly used as a urinal. The word is also used mockingly to refer to a style of haircut that was popular during the Cultural Revolution. chagda (lcags mda’) 将达 jiangda. A traditional Tibetan broad-­brimmed hat with gold braid and precious stones, usually worn in the summer. Chagpori (lcags po ri) 药王山 Yaowangshan or 夹波日 Jiaobori (phonetic). Chagpori is one of the three small hills situated in the middle of Lhasa Valley, immediately to the southwest of the Marpori, on which the Potala Palace is built. Chagpori was famous for the college of Tibetan medicine (Menpa Dratsang) built on its peak in the seventeenth century. The hill was renamed Victory Peak during the Cultural Revolution. Some sources say that the name Chagpori originates from the Tibetan word lcog po, meaning a corner, pinnacle, or turret, but most agree that it comes from the Tibetan word for iron (lcags) and means “iron hill.” Chamdo (chab mdo) 昌都 Changdu/Qamdo. A major town in the eastern part of what is now the tar. It was the seat of the Lhasa government’s Eastern Commissioner (Mdo smad spyi khyab). A major battle between the Tibetan army and the pla was fought there in October 1950. Since the 1950s the name is also used for the prefecture (upgraded to a municipality in 2014) and the county within which the town is located. Changseb Shar (lcang gseb shar) 坚斯厦 Jiansisha or 江思夏 Jiangsixia. An area of Lhasa just to the east of the Potala, as indicated by its name, which means “the eastern willow grove.” The name is sometimes romanized as Changseshag. The main thoroughfare of Lhasa, Beijing Road, built in the 1950s, goes through the area. Changseb Shar included the Yabshi Taktser mansion, which was used as their headquarters by Gyenlog activists during the Cultural Revolution. *Chapa Kalsang Wangdu (cha pa skal bzang dbang ’dus) 恰巴•格桑旺堆 Qiaba Gesang wangdui. Head of the mint in the pre–1950­ Tibetan government, he became a senior member of the cppcc in the 1950s, and later deputy mayor of Lhasa. His family, a branch of the Shatra family, had a mansion on the south Lingkor near the Lhasa mosque. It was taken over after 1959 and converted into the Seven-­One Agricultural Machinery Plant. Charpa Khangsang (sbyar pa khang bzang) 恰不嘎桑 Qiabugasang. An area of Lhasa. It included one of the largest schools in Lhasa before 1950, with over a hundred students. Chenrezig (spyan ras gzigs) 观世音菩萨 Guanshiyin pusa or 坚热斯 Jianresi (phonetic). The Bodhisattva of Compassion, known in Sanskrit as Avalokiteshvara and often regarded as their main patron figure by Tibetan Buddhists and as a tutelary figure for the Tibetan nation. The name means “the one who continually looks down.” In Tibetan iconography he appears in many forms, including that of the Thousand-­Armed Chenrezig. Tibetans are said to have originated as the offspring of a rock demoness and an emanation of the Chenrezig in the form of a monkey, and the Dalai Lamas are seen as emanations of Chenrezig. See also mani. *Chödrön (chos sgron) 曲珍 Quzhen. A Tibetan name meaning lamp of religion. Chongye (’phyongs rgyas) 琼结 Qiongjie. A county in Lhokha, to the south of Lhasa. Site of the tombs and a palace of the Tibetan kings until the ninth century. *Chöphel (chos ’phel) 群培 Qunpei. The leader of the Inner City District (Chengguanqu) office in Lhasa in 1981. Later became a vice chair of the tar People’s Congress. *Chubchi (bcu gcig) 久吉 Jiuji. Literally “eleven,” this word is used in Forbidden Memory as a pseudonym for a Tibetan woman who was a resident in the area of Lhasa under the Meru Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. *Chunyi (bcu gnyis) 久尼 Jiuni. Literally “twelve,” this is the word used as a pseudonym in Forbidden Memory for a Tibetan woman who worked in Tibet for the pla as a guide for the touring exhibition that the army sent round Tibet after the Nyemo Incident was put down in 1969. She worked in the Tibet Military Region compound and used to be a member of one of the military propaganda teams. chupa (phyu pa) 秋巴 qiuba. The traditional robe or wrap worn by ordinary Tibetans, usually made of wool. *Chushi (bcu bzhi) 久系 Jiuxi. Literally “fourteen,” this is the pseudonym in Forbidden Memory for a Tibetan woman who was formerly the head of the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. *Chusum (bcu gsum) 久松 Jiusong. Literally “thirteen,” this pseudonym is used in Forbidden Memory for a Tibetan woman who was a seventeen-­year-­old student at Lhasa Middle School in 1966. She took part in the “destroy the Four Olds” action of August 24, 1966. She was not herself allowed to become a Red Guard because she came from a merchant family. dakini (mkha’ ’gro ma) 空行母 kongxingmu. The Sanskrit word for a female deity or goddess, meaning, literally a “sky goer” or “sky traveler.” Also used for female consorts of high lamas in some Tibetan religious traditions. The Tibetan translation of this term is pronounced “khandroma.” *Dalai Lama (tA la’i bla ma) 达赖喇嘛 Dalai lama. The lineage of Gelugpa trulkus who from 1642 became the effective rulers of Tibet. Regarded as emanations of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, the most famous Dalai Lamas have been the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–82);­ the Thirteenth Dalai Lama (1876–­1933); and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama (b. 1935), who fled into exile in 1959 and lives in Dharamsala, in northern India. damaru (da ma ru) 达玛茹 damaru. Sanskrit term for an hourglass-­shaped, two-­sided drum used in tantric and other religious rituals. Damshung (’dam gzhung) 当雄 Dangxiong. A county in the grasslands just to the north of Lhasa. *Dawa (zla ba) 达娃 Dawa. A woman known as Older Sister Dawa (a cag zla ba; 阿佳达娃 ajia Dawa), a resident in the area administered by the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee. *Dawa (zla ba) 达瓦 Dawa. A pupil in the senior class at Lhasa Middle School in 1966. He was one of the first Tibetans in Lhasa to become a Red Guard and became a minor leader of the Red Guards from the school. He later worked for the tar government. *Dawa Tsering (zla ba tshe ring) 达瓦次仁 Dawa ciren. A Tibetan from Lhasa who was a student in the Department of Precision Instruments and Mechanology at Qinghua University in Beijing when the Cultural Revolution broke out in 1966. He returned to Lhasa with the group known as the Beijing Metropolitan Red Guards and helped initiate the “destroy the Four Olds” action against the Jokhang Temple. He later became a researcher for the Potala Palace Management Office. He died in 2002, aged fifty-­seven. *Dawa Tsering (zla ba tshe ring) 达瓦才让 Dawa cairang. A Tibetan from Lhasa who fled to India in the 1980s. He later became the representative for the Dalai Lama in Taiwan. Dechen Podrang (bde chen pho brang) 德欽頗章 Deqin pozhang. Literally “Palace of Happiness,” the Dechen Podrang, also known as the Dechen Kelsang Podrang, was the mansion built in Shigatse as a residence for the Panchen Lamas. It replaced a summer palace destroyed in a 1954 flood. The residence that was constructed in Lhasa for the Tenth Panchen Lama in the 1950s is sometimes referred to as Dechen Podrang but is properly the Dorje Podrang (“Thunderbolt Palace”). Dekyi Lam (bde skyid lam) 北京路 Beijing lu. The Tibetan name, meaning “Happiness Road,” for the main street in Lhasa, built after the Chinese arrival in the 1950s. It is known in Chinese as Beijing Road. *Dekyi Tsomo (bde skyid mtsho mo) 德吉措姆 Deji cuomu. A female Tibetan student at the Tibet Nationalities Institute in Xianyang, Shaanxi Province. She became a leading figure in the Serf Poleaxes, an activist group which was affiliated with Nyamdrel. She later became a standing committee member of the tar Party Committee. *Demo Rinpoche (de mo rin po che) 德木仁波切 Demu renboqie. The Demo incarnation lineage had been associated with Tengyeling Monastery in Lhasa since the eighteenth century. Three of the Demo incarnations served as regents during the minority of a Dalai Lama, including the Ninth Demo, Ngawang Lobsang Trinley Rabgye (1855–99).­ He had been the regent of Tibet during the minority of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, but some four years after the Thirteenth took up his position in 1895, the Ninth Demo was implicated in a plot to assassinate the Thirteenth by placing a curse on him. The Ninth Demo died under house arrest shortly after. Despite an initial ban on the recognition of further incarnations in the lineage, a successor, the Tenth Demo, was recognized in 1905. *Demo Lobsang Jampa Lungtog Tenzin Gyatso (de mo blo bzang byams pa lung rtogs bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho) 德木•洛桑绛白隆多单增加措施 Demu luosang jiangbai loungduo danzeng jiacuo. Demo Tenzin Gyatso (1901–­73) was recognized as the tenth reincarnation in the Demo lineage in 1905 and moved from his family home in Kongpo Gyamda to Tengyeling Monastery in Lhasa. He received his Geshe degree in 1920. In 1925, he was given a camera by a visiting Nepalese businessman, leading to a lifelong interest in photography and making him one of the earliest Tibetan photographers. In 1953 he became an editor with the Tibet Daily and in 1956 visited India. In 1959 he was made a member of the cppcc in the tar and the following year was a delegate to the Tibet People’s Congress. In his final years he was able to help with the partial restoration of the Jokhang in 1972. He was struggled against during the Cultural Revolution, along with his wife, by activists and cadres from the Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee, and both died not long after. *Demo Wangchug Dorje (de mo dbang phyug rdo rje) 德木•旺久多吉 Demu wangjiu duoji. The second son of the Tenth Demo. He was given a camera as a gift by his parents in 1956 on their return from their visit to India and went on to become a photographer. Since the 1980s, his work has been widely featured in the Chinese media, where it is presented as an example of a former Tibetan aristocrat celebrating modernity and development. Derge (sde dge) 德格 Dege. A former kingdom on the Drichu River (the Upper Yangzi) in Kham and the town that was the former winter capital of the royal Gonchen Monastery and the site of one of Tibet’s most famous printing houses. Since 1955 it has been the county seat of Derge County, part of present-­day Kardze (Chinese: Ganzi) tap, Sichuan Province. desi (sde srid) 摄政 shezheng. The Tibetan term for a regent or ruler, sometimes loosely translated as prime minister. The most famous regent of Tibet is desi Sangye Gyatso (see below), who ruled Tibet in the late seventeenth century. Deyangshar (bde yang shar) 德央厦 Deyangsha or Deyangxia. The “Eastern Courtyard of Happiness,” the main entrance courtyard of the White Palace of the Potala. Dharamsala (rda ram sa la) 达兰萨拉 Dalansala. The small mountain town in Himachal Pradesh, northern India, where the government and residence of the Dalai Lama in exile are located, together with some seven thousand to ten thousand exile Tibetans. Do Senge (rdo seng ge) 朵森格 duosenge. Literally “stone lion,” this is the name of a road running south from Dekyi Lam across Yutok Lam to Lingkor South Road. It was renamed Xinhua (New China) Road (新华路 Xinhua lu) during the Cultural Revolution. domdom (dom dom or gdom gdom) 咚咚 dongdong. A long tassel worn by a horse when ridden by a fourth-­rank or higher official of the Tibetan government before 1959. Also known in Tibetan and Chinese as a wadong 瓦咚. *Dondrub Tsering (don grub tshe ring) 顿珠次仁 Dunzhu ciren. See Tshogo Dondrub Tsering. Dongkar (gdong dkar) 通嘎 Tong’ga. A village in Tölung Dechen County, just to the west of Lhasa. In 1965 the first People’s Commune in thetar was established there. doring (rdo ring) 唐蕃会盟碑 Tang-­fan huimengbei. A stele or inscribed stone pillar. Among the best known is the doring erected outside the Jokhang Temple, which is inscribed with the text of a peace agreement made in 823 between then Tibetan emperor Tritsug Detsen and the Chinese emperor Muzong, defining boundaries between their two countries. dorje (rdo rje) 金刚杵 jingangchu. A ritual implement representing a thunderbolt scepter held by deities, known in Sanskrit as a vajra. It is used in numerous tantric and Tibetan Buddhist rituals, often with a bell. *Dorje Phagmo. See Samding Dorje Phagmo. *Dorje Tsering (rdo rje tshe ring) 多吉次仁 Duoji ciren. An activist during the Cultural Revolution who lived in the Wapaling area of Lhasa. draba (grwa ba) 扎巴 zhaba. The Tibetan term for an ordinary monk. Draglhalupug (brag lha klu phug) 扎拉鲁浦 Zhalalupu. A small, ancient cave-­temple on Chagpori, the “Iron Hill,” in Lhasa. Drakgo-­kaling (brag sgo ka gling or brag sgo kak+Ni) 姹谷戈林 Chagugelin. The three white stupas built to connect the Marpori and Chagpori hills just to the south of the Potala Palace. The central stupa formed a gateway through which travelers could pass and so served traditionally as the western entrance to Lhasa. They were demolished in the 1960s but rebuilt in 1995. The Tibetan word kaling (ka gling) is a rendering of the Sanskrit term kakni, referring to a stupa with a gateway beneath it. Drapchishag (grwa bzhi shag) 扎其厦 Zhaqisha or Zhaqixia. A house in the Barkor formerly owned by Sera Monastery. Drayab (brag g.yab) 察雅 Chaya. A county in western Kham on the east bank of the Dzachu (upper Mekong) River, administered since the 1950s as part of present-­day Chamdo Municipality (a prefecture until 2014) in the tar. Drepung Monastery (’bras spungs) 哲蚌寺 Zhebangsi. A monastery just to the west of Lhasa, founded in 1416. Along with Ganden and Sera Monasteries, it is one of the “Three Seats” or great monasteries of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, which were affiliated with the government. At its peak it housed seven thousand or more monks. Drolma (sgrol ma) 卓玛 Zhuoma. The female Bodhisattva (in Mahāyāna Buddhism) or Buddha (in Vajrayāna Buddhism) known in Sanskrit as Tara. Often referred to as 渡母 Dumu. Drolma Lhakhang (sgrol ma lha khang) 卓玛拉康 Zhuoma lakang. A chapel to Drolma (Sanskrit: Tara). In this case, it refers to a chapel in the Jokhang Temple complex. *Drolma Yangdzom (sgrol ma dbyangs ’dzoms) 卓玛央宗 Zhuoma yangzong. The wife of Horkhang Sonam Palbar, a Tibetan nobleman. Drungche Lingka (drung che gling ka) 仲吉林卡 Zhongji linka. Literally “the park of the secretaries.” This was one of the open picnic areas on the outskirts of Lhasa in the pre-1959­ era. The Lhasa Teacher Training College, usually called the Tibet Teacher Training College, was later built on the site of the former picnic area. Dugtsal Lekhung (sdug tshal las khung) 土则列控 Tuze liekong. A department under the Foreign Trade Office that was charged with collecting remaining objects and debris from pillaged monasteries during the Cultural Revolution. Ganden Darchen (dga’ ldan dar chen) 甘丹塔钦 Gandan taqin. The tall pole bearing prayer flags dar( chen) on the northeast corner of the Barkor. See zurshi. Ganden Monastery (dga’ ldan dgon pa) 甘丹寺 Gandansi. Thirty miles to the east of Lhasa, in Taktse County, and one of the most famous Gelugpa monasteries in Tibet. It was sacked in 1966, but the sacred reliquary of Je Tsongkhapa survived until 1969 when a second, larger act of violence took place, leading to the demolition of many of its buildings. Ganden Ngamchö (dga’ ldan lnga mchod) 甘丹安曲 Gandan anqu. A religious festival marking the death of the fifteenth-­century monastic reformer Tsongkhapa. It is held on the twenty-fifth­ day of the tenth Tibetan month and in Lhasa is marked by the lighting of butter lamps in windows throughout the Tibetan quarter of the city. Ganden Podrang (dga’ ldan pho brang) 甘丹颇章 Gandan pozhang. The Tibetan governmental system established by the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, in 1642, under Mongol tutelage. It lasted until 1959, though the last eight years were under Chinese rule. Ganden Podrang was the name of the main residence of the Dalai Lamas at Drepung Monastery before they were invited by the Mongols to take over the governance of Tibet. *Gangtsug (rgang tshugs) 岗珠 Gangzhu. A house painter living in the area of Lhasa administered by the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee who became the best known of all the activists during the Cultural Revolution. In its reports on the Red Guard actions of August 24, 1966, the Tibet Daily noted, “Painter Gangzhu of the Construction Bureau grabbed the Tibetan edition of Quotations of Chairman Mao that had just been distributed and rushed to the site where the Red Guards were giving speeches.” He later served as Party Secretary of the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee. ga’u (ga’u) 嘎乌 gawu. A traditional amulet box worn by Tibetans, often on a thong around the neck. More elaborate ones are made from gold and/or silver and decorated with precious stones. Gelugpa (dge lugs pa) 格鲁派 Gelupai. The school or sect of Tibetan Buddhism founded by Tsongkhapa in the fifteenth century, with an emphasis on rigorous academic training in monasteries. It was based initially at Ganden, Drepung, and Sera Monasteries in Lhasa (the “Three Seats”). After 1642 it became the established school of Tibetan Buddhism. The head of the school, the Ganden Tripa (dga’ ldan khri pa), is selected from senior monks and usually serves for three years, but the Dalai Lama is the most prominent and influential figure in the school. *Genlamé (rgan bla med) 格拉美 Gelamei. Literally “unexcelled teacher,” this was the name of a wealthy monk-merchant­ who in the past donated funds for the creation of a crown for the Jowo statue in the Jokhang. gen-­la (rgan lags) 先生 xiansheng or 格拉 gela (phonetic). The term means “teacher” but is also used to show respect to any older person. The suffix—­la (lags)—­is added by Tibetans to any name or title to indicate respect. *Gendun Chöphel (dge ’dun chos ’phel) 更敦群培 Gengdun qunpei. A dissident monk and intellectual in the early twentieth century who became a famous writer and scholar. Gendun Chöphel (1903–51)­ wrote an important if unfinished history of Tibet as well as volumes on religious philosophy, but was also a poet, essayist, and artist. During the 1930s and early 1940s he lived in British India, where he was denounced by the British as a Communist sympathizer because of his links to progressive and anticolonial thinkers. He returned to Tibet in 1946 but was imprisoned later that year. He was released after three years in jail and died one year later. Gesar (ge sar) 格萨尔 Gesa’er. A legendary Tibetan warrior-­king who is the subject of an oral epic, said to be the longest in the world. It is still recited by Tibetan bards today and is found in different versions throughout Tibet, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia. Gesar is believed by many Tibetans to have been a king of Ling in northern Kham, in the tenth or eleventh centuries. The prc regards the epic as folklore and encourages its circulation as an example of proletarian culture, but in fact it includes extensive Buddhist elements in many versions. geshe (dge shes) 格西 gexi. The title given to a monk in the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism who has completed a course of study (usually requiring fifteen to twenty years) in religious texts and philosophy. Often glossed in English as equivalent to a doctorate in theology. *Gonpasar Thubten Jikdral (dgon pa gsar thub bstan ’jigs bral) 贡巴萨•土登门晋扎 Gongbasa tudeng jinzha. The fourth reincarnation in the Gonpasar lineage, Thubten Jikdral (1917–2008)­ handed over his property and that of his monastery to the pla when its soldiers arrived in Tibet and in 1952 became a Tibetan teacher at the July 1 State Farm in Lhasa, then a director of the Liaison Office of the Tibet Military Region. In 1960 he was a member of pcart and in 1984 he was made a vice chair of the cppcc in the tar. gonpo (mgon po) 衮布 gunbu. A protector deity (Sanskrit: mahākāla). Gutsa (rgu rtsa) 古扎 Guzha. A kanshuosuo or detention center on the western outskirts of Lhasa near Ngachen (see below). Also the site of an open area where executions were carried out in the 1960s and later. Gya kache (rgya kha che) 加卡其 Jiakaqi. The Tibetan term for Chinese Muslims, referring to Muslims who come from Chinese provinces, such as Ningxia, Gansu, Sichuan, Shaanxi, Yunnan or other areas, as opposed to Muslims from Kashmir, who have been resident in Lhasa for centuries. In Lhasa, the area associated with Gya kache is Wapaling, where the main mosque of the city is located. *Gyalwa Rinpoche (rgyal ba rin po che) 嘉瓦仁波切 Jiawa renboqie. An honorific term for the Dalai Lama meaning “precious victorious one.” This is the term most frequently used by Tibetans to refer to him. *Gyatso (rgya mtsho) 江措 Jiangcuo. A leading figure in the Nyamdrel faction in the Tramo Machinery Factory in Powo Tramo (see below). He later became a vice chair of the tar People’s Congress. *Gyatsoling Thupten Kalsang Rinpoche (rgya mtsho gling thub bstan skal bzang rin po che) 江措林•土登格桑仁波切 Jiangcuolin tudeng gesang renboqie. The head of Gyatsoling Monastery in Palbar County, near Chamdo. Gyatsoling (1910–­1974) had been one of the tutors of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama before the arrival of the pla, but he had not followed the Dalai Lama into exile in 1959. He was a participant in the subsequent campaign against the “Traitorous Dalai Clique” and later was active in the struggle sessions against the Panchen Lama in 1964. After 1956 he served as a deputy director of the Tibet Affairs Committee ofpcart and as a vice chair of the cppcc in the tar. He was rehabilitated in 1979 and made a vice chair of the Tibet branch of the Chinese Buddhist Association. See also Panbarwa. gyawo (rgya bo) 加乌 jiawu. Tibetan word for a bearded person. Gyenlog (gyan log) 造总 Zaozong or 坎诺 Kannuo (phonetic). The Tibetan term for Zaozong, the “Rebels” faction in Tibet during the Cultural Revolution. The term is a shortened form of the faction’s full name, “the Lhasa Revolutionary Rebels General Headquarters.” Its leader was Tao Changsong, otherwise known as “Commander Tao.” It was involved in violent conflict with the Nyamdrel faction. It was disbanded in 1970. *Gyewa Lama (rgyas ba/dge bha mkhan po) 格巴喇嘛 Geba lama. One of the four major abbots of Drepung Monastery, used as a struggle target by activists during the Cultural Revolution. Gyumé (rgyud smad grwa tshang) 下密院 Xiami yuan or 居麦 Jümai (phonetic). The Lower Tantric College in Lhasa. *Horkhang Jampa Tendar (hor khang byams pa bstan dar) 霍康•强巴旦达 Huokang qiangba danda. Jampa Tendar was the son of Horkhang Sonam Palbar (see below). He worked as a cadre in Chamdo in the mid-­1970s. In 2016 he published a book based on his father’s papers that chronicled the history of the Horkhang family since the thirteenth century. *Horkhang Sonam Palbar (hor khang bsod nams dpal ’bar) 霍康•索朗边巴 Huokang suolang bianba. Sonam Palbar (1919–­95) was born in Medrogungkar near Lhasa into the aristocratic Horkhang family. He studied Buddhism under leading scholars, including Geshe Sherab Gyatso and Gendun Chöphel. From 1937 he worked for the former Tibetan government, gradually rising to the level of a third-­rank official, and was sent to Chamdo in 1947 as an officer in the Tibetan army. After the Tibetan army was defeated by thepla in 1950, he was made a member of the “People’s Liberation Committee” in Chamdo. Later in the 1950s he became a Tibetan teacher in the Tibetan Military Cadre School. He had been a principal patron of Gendun Chöphel and in later life published the definitive compilation of Gendun Chöphel’s writings. After the Cultural Revolution, he became a researcher and an institute director at the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences and a committee member of the National People’s Congress in the tar. hurtsönpa (hur brtson pa) 忽准巴 huzhunba. An alternative form of hurtsönchen (see below). hurtsönchen (hur brtson can) 积极分子 jiji fenzi or 忽准兼 huzhunjian (phonetic). The Tibetan term for a political activist. It referred to those who joined the Red Guards or were enthusiasts in the effort to “build a brilliant new Tibet.” Jampa (byams pa) 强巴佛 Qiangbafo. A common personal name that means loving kindness (as a religious ideal). It was also the name of the lead character in Serfs (Chinese: Nongnu, directed by Li Chan, 1963), a feature-­length film in Chinese about the abuse suffered by a Tibetan orphan in the 1940s and 1950s. The Buddha of the next era, known in Sanskrit as Maitreya, is also called Jampa in Tibetan. *Jampa Chökyi (byams pa chos skyid) 强巴曲吉 Qiangba quji. A carpenter on a building construction team in Lhasa and an activist during the Cultural Revolution. *Jampa Phuntsog (byams pa phun tshogs) 向巴平措 Xiangba pingcuo. Born in Chamdo in 1947, he became the commander of the Serf Poleaxes in the Chamdo area during the Cultural Revolution. He later got a degree from Chongqing University, became a ccp member in 1974, was Party Secretary of Bomi County, Chamdo, from 1980 to 1983, and rose to become Party Secretary of Lhasa from 1997 to 2003, a deputy Party Secretary of the tar, and governor of the tar from 2003 to 2010. He was a vice chair of the National People’s Congress from 2013 to 2018 and was a member of the Seventeenth Central Committee of the ccp. *Jampa Rinchen (byams pa rin chen) 强巴仁青 Qiangba renqing. Jampa Rinchen (1928–2003)­ was born in Lhasa, became a monk at Drepung Monastery as a child, and was an attendant to one of the tutors of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. After 1959 he became a member of the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee in Lhasa with responsibility for “people’s affairs,” a position that he also held during the Cultural Revolution. He became a Red Guard, a member of the local militia, and a member of the Gyenlog or “Rebel” faction. From 1986 until he died, he worked as a volunteer cleaner and lay attendant at the Jokhang Temple. For the full text of his personal testimony, see the appendix. *Jamyang Sherab (’jam dbyangs shes rab) 加央西热 Jiayang xire. A nomad who became a writer. His book, published in Chinese as Xizang zuihou de tuodui (The last caravan in Tibet), describes the traditional lifestyle of Tibetan nomads and the practice of salt harvesting. *Je Rinpoche (rje rin po che) 觉仁波切 Jue renboqie. See Tsongkhapa. *Je Tsongkhapa (rje gtsong kha pa) 宗喀巴大师 Zongkeba dashi. See Tsongkhapa. Jebumgang (rje ’bum sgang/rgya ’bum sgang) 铁崩岗 Tiebenggang. A temple in Lhasa on the northern side of the Barkor whose name originally meant “hundred thousand Chinese.” In 1959 it became the name used for the local Neighborhood Committee, also known as (North Lhasa) No. 2 Committee. Jerag River (bye rag chu) 流沙河 Liushahe. A small stream or rivulet near Sera Monastery, to the north of Lhasa. The sandbanks besides the river were used as an execution ground by Chinese troops or police during the 1970s and at other times. jéwa (brje ba) 更换 genghuan. To change or replace. In the 1950s it was combined with the word sarpa (gsar pa), meaning “new,” to create the Tibetan word for “revolution,” sarjé (gsar brje). Jingdröl magmi (bcings ’grol dmag mi) 金珠玛米 jinzhumami. Literally “liberation army soldiers,” this was the official term in Tibetan for soldiers of thepla, which is known in Tibetan as the jingdröl mag (bcings ’grol dmag), or in Chinese as the jiefangjun. The Tibetan term is often reproduced as jinzhumami in Chinese propaganda songs or dramas as a way of suggesting widespread Tibetan appreciation of the pla. jinten (byin rten) 琴典 qindian. Pills or other objects that have been blessed by a lama for distribution to devotees. Jokhang (jo khang) 大昭寺 Dazhaosi. A seventh-­century temple in Lhasa that is the most famous shrine in Tibet. Literally “the house of the Jowo,” it was built by Songtsen Gampo, regarded as the first “Dharma king” or protector of Buddhism in Tibet, to house a statue of the Buddha brought to Tibet by his Nepalese wife, Bhrikuti Devi, and it later housed the statue brought by his Chinese wife, Wencheng. The temple was constructed on a filled-­in lake which, according to legend, was the heart of a giant demoness lying across the country. Before 1959 the Jokhang housed some of the offices of the Ganden Podrang government. During the Cultural Revolution, Gyenlog used the Jokhang as a broadcasting station, leading to the military raid on the Jokhang in June 1968, while the ground floor was used to house pigs. The Lhasa government later used the temple as a municipal guest house. Partial restoration work began in 1972. See Ersuo and June 7 Jokhang Incident in the Glossary of Chinese and English Terms; see tsuglakhang below in this glossary. Jowo. See Jowo Shakyamuni. Jowo Rinpoche (jo bo rin po che) 觉仁波切 Jue renboqie. “The Precious Lord,” another name for the famous statue in the Jokhang (see below). Jowo Shakyamuni (jo bo shA kya mu ni) 觉沃释迦牟尼 Juewo shijiamoni. The statue of Buddha that is the main icon in the Jokhang. It is also known as the Jowo (“Lord”) or Jo Rinpoche (“Precious Lord”). It is said to show the historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, as he was at the age of twelve, and is believed by devotees to have been consecrated by Shakyamuni himself. It appears to have survived the Cultural Revolution largely unharmed. jowo’i udra (jo bo’i dbu skra) 觉吾扎 Juewuzha. “The Lord’s hair,” a willow tree that stands outside the main entrance of the Jokhang. The tree is associated with Wencheng, the Tang dynasty princess who married the Tibetan ruler Songtsen Gampo in 642. jowoshi (jo bo bzhi) 厥西 juexi. A local term in Lhasa for four protective deities who are said to protect the Potala Palace, the Jokhang Temple, Tengyeling Monastery, and one other place that Woeser’s informant could not recall. Jutingling (jus gting gling) 其迭林 Qidielin. A building in Lhasa demolished in the early 1980s to make way for the new Barkor Square. It formed part of the Doring (rdo ring) complex on the southwest corner of what is now the Barkor Square. Its name meant “place of strategic deliberations (jus),” a reference to its use as a meeting place by Kashag ministers in the eighteenth century. It was requisitioned by Gyenlog fighters during the Cultural Revolution. The site of the Jutingling is currently occupied by a fast-­food restaurant. kache (kha che) 卡其 kaqi. The Tibetan term for Muslims. kalon (bka’ blon) 噶伦 gelun. The term for a minister in the four-­person cabinet that ran the government of the Dalai Lamas from the eighteenth century until the 1950s. *Kalsang Drolma (skal bzang sgrol ma) 格桑卓玛 Gesang zhuoma. A female activist in Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution, who was a leading participant in at least one of the struggle sessions against Kashöpa (see below). Her parents used to be poor servants working for Samding Dorje Phagmo, and her mother was in charge of the “class enemies” who were under the supervision of the local Neighborhood Committee. *Kalsang Paljor (skal bzang dpal ’byor) 格桑班觉 Gesang banjue. An activist from the Wapaling neighborhood of Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution. He was also a Red Guard. Kardze (dkar mdzes) 甘孜 Ganzi. A town and a county in an area of Kham known as Trehor. Formerly part of Xikang Province, since 1955 Kardze has been administered by Sichuan Province. A large part of Kham was named Kardze tap in 1955, with its capital at Dartsedo (康定 Kangding). Kangyur (bka’ ’gyur) 甘珠尔 ganzhu’er. The Buddhist canon, translated from Sanskrit and other languages into Tibetan in early medieval times. There are various editions, but most consist of around 110 volumes containing approximately 1,100 texts. Karushag (dkar ru shag or gha ru shag) 葛如厦 Gerusha or Geruxia. A three-­story building in the old quarter of Lhasa on the south side of the Barkor. It had belonged to the Kashag but was rented out to merchants and city residents. Before he died in 1951, the famous scholar Gendun Chöphel had lived in a room in the building. *Kashö Chögyal Nyima (ka shod chos rgyal nyi ma) 噶雪•曲吉尼玛 Gexue quji nima. Kashö Chögyal Nyima, also known as Kashöpa (1902–86),­ first became an official in 1919. In 1927 he was appointed by the Tibetan government as its commissioner in Nagchu, where he dealt with the Roerich Expedition. In 1934 he was implicated in the Lungshar “conspiracy” and was briefly dismissed to discourage the impression that he had been given special treatment for exposing the plot. He was reappointed the next year and became a kalon in 1945. In 1949 he was punished, allegedly for suspected contacts with the Chinese nationalists, but actually for his implicit criticism of the then regent, Taktra Rinpoche. After 1951 he supported the ccp and the new government and was made a member of the Finance Committee of pcart and a member of the cppcc National Committee. *Kashö Dondrub (ka shod don grub) 噶雪•顿珠 Gexue dunzhu. Kashö Dondrub (c. 1922–­66) was the oldest of Kashöpa’s four sons (or nephews, according to some accounts). His full name was Kashö Tseten Dondrub. He was sent to study at St. Joseph’s College in Darjeeling, India, as a youth and became proficient in English. After his return to Tibet, he became a middle-ranking­ (fourth-­level) official in the former Tibetan government and was an English translator for the Dalai Lama and served as his liaison officer in India in 1956. After the arrival of the Chinese, he became the deputy director of the Association of Patriotic Tibetan Youth and in 1956 he was sent with a Chinese youth delegation to a World Youth Festival in Budapest. In 1956, when the Tibet Daily was first published, he became a deputy editor in chief, but was dismissed not long after the Lhasa revolt in 1959, though he had not participated in it. He died from suicide during the Cultural Revolution rather than submit to demands that he testify against the Dalai Lama. *Kashö Lhundrub Namgyal (ka shod lhun grub rnam rgyal) 噶雪•伦珠朗杰 Gexue lunzhu langjie. Born in Lhasa in 1945, Lhundrub Namgyal, also known as Zhu Jie, was one of the four sons or nephews of Kashö Chögyal Nyima. He studied with the scholar Horkhang Sonam Palbar and in 1965 began work as a translator and editor. From 1979 he worked on the Tibetan-­language literary journal Bod kyi rtsom rig sgyu rtsal (Tibetan literature and art) and later became the editor of Xizang wenxue (Tibet literature). He was a vice chair of the Tibet Writers Association, and a member of the cppcc in the tar. He published a collection of poems called Mifeng leyuan (Bee paradise) in 1995. He was the husband of Samding Dorje Phagmo during the Cultural Revolution. Kashöpa (ka shod pa) 噶雪巴 Gexueba. See Kashö. Kathogshag (ka thog shag) 嘎多厦 Gaduosha or Gaduoxia. The Lhasa residence of a wealthy family. *Kazur Sonam Drolma (ka zur bsod nams grol ma) 噶苏•索朗卓玛 Gesu Suolang Zhuoma. The third daughter of the famous merchant, military commander, and cabinet minister Tsarong Dazang Dramdul. She married Kashö Dondrub in 1945 and had three sons with him. The name Kazur indicates that she and her husband were formerly of the Kashö family but had been given their own estate, making them a branch of the Kashö family. khalkhasug (khal kha gzugs) 卡卡苏 kakasug. Literally “Khalka clothing,” this term refers to the ceremonial brocade robes in Mongolian style worn by certain officials in the traditional Tibetan government. Kham (khams) 康 Kang. The Tibetan area of Kham. It covers the southeastern part of the Tibetan Plateau and is often described as one of the “three provinces” of Tibet. khamtsen (khang/khams mtshan) 康村 kangcun. A dormitory or residence within a large monastery. Khamtsens were often arranged according to the place of origin of their members, so that all the monks from one area lived in the same building. khandroma (mkha’ ’gro ma) 堪卓玛 kanzhuoma. See dakini. Khanigoshi (kakni sgo bzhi) 嘎林古西 Galinguxi. The four-­sided white gateway stupa (kakni) next to Nangtseshag on the north side of the Barkor, beside the Mani Chapel. It is popularly believed to have been constructed in the fifteenth century with sponsorship from the legendary merchant Norbu Sangpo and to have included his consecrated remains, but it probably dates from the thirteenth century or earlier. khatag (kha btags) 哈达 hada. A scarf, usually white and traditionally made of silk, draped around a sacred object or handed to a person to show respect. khatsara (kha tsa ra) 藏尼混血 Zangni hunxue or 卡擦拉 kacala (phonetic). A Tibetan phoneticization of a Nepali term meaning “half breed,” used for Tibetans of mixed Nepalese descent. Khenpo (mkhan po) Council 堪布会议 Kanbu huiyi. The advisory council or cabinet of the Panchen Lama in the pre-1959­ era, usually based at his seat, Tashilhunpo Monastery, in Shigatse. The word khenpo means a scholar or abbot. konchog sum (dkon mchog gsum) 贡觉松 gunjue song. An invocation or oath that invokes the “Three Jewels” or Refuges in Buddhism—the­ teacher, the teachings, and the monastic community. In Sanskrit, these are referred to as the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. *Kungyur (kun ’gyur) 昆九 Kunjiu. The second son of the prominent Tibetan doctor Rigdzin Lhundrub Paljor (see below). His full name was Nyarongshag Kunga Gyurme. In the 1980s he went into exile in India, where he became one of the personal doctors of the Dalai Lama. kunyer (dkon gnyer) 规尼 guini. A monk who looks after a temple or shrine. *Kunyer Pen-­la (dkon gnyer dpon lags/spen lags) 规尼本拉 guini Benla. The name of the monk who took care of the main shrine—­that of the Jowo—­in the Jokhang shortly before the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution. His Tibetan name is unclear from the Chinese version. *Kyabje Trijang Rinpoche (skyabs rje khri byang rin po che) 赤江仁波切 Chijiang renboqie. Trijiang Rinpoche (1901–­81) was the junior tutor of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. In the 1950s he was appointed executive principal of Lhasa Middle School, but in 1959 fled with the Dalai Lama to India. Kyabje is an honorific form of address for certain high lamas. Kyibuk (skyid sbug) 吉普 Jipu. A minor aristocratic family in Lhasa that became politically significant as a result of dedicating major resources to support the Tibetan government’s fight against British invasion forces in 1903–­4. -­la (lags) 拉 la. This suffix—la­ —­is added by Tibetans to a name or title to indicate respect. Labrang Nyingpa (bla brang rnying pa) 拉章宁巴 Lazhang ningba. Literally “the old estate/residence (of a lama),” this was a building on the south side of the Barkor associated with Tsongkhapa in the fifteenth century and with the Fifth Dalai Lama in the seventeenth century. The Thonpa family, descendants of Thonmi Sambhota, later took the name of the building for their family, formerly known as Thonpa. Until 1995 the building was used as the office of the Barkor Neighborhood Committee and as residential accommodation for local people. Langdun (glang mdun) 朗顿 Langdun. An aristocratic family of Yabshi rank, since the Thirteenth Dalai Lama was a member of their family. langsho, langsho (langs shog, langs shog) 起来, 起来 qilai, qilai or 朗学， 朗学 langxue, langxue (phonetic). A phrase from both the “Internationale,” which is the effective anthem of theccp , and from the “March of the Volunteers,” China’s national anthem. The phrase means “arise, arise!” and refers to “slaves afflicted by hunger and cold” and “suffering people all over the world” in the “Internationale” and to those “who refuse to be slaves” in the “March of the Volunteers.” Larung gar (bla rung sgar) 喇荣五明佛学院 Larong Wuming foxueyuan. A gar is a monastic “encampment” or informal monastery, and Larung is a valley in what is now Serta County, Kardze tap, in northern Sichuan, in the area bordering Golok. It was established by Khenpo Jigme Phuntsog in 1980 and at times has included an estimated twenty thousand to thirty thousand monks and nuns. The formal name of the institute at the gar is the Five Sciences Buddhist Institute (lnga rig nang bstan slob gling, or Wuming foxueyuan in Chinese). lé (las) 业 ye. The Tibetan word for the Sanskrit term karma, also known as the law of cause and effect. *Lechepa Kalsang (las byed pa skal bzang) 干部格桑 ganbu Gesang or 勒几巴格桑 lejiba Gesang (phonetic). Literally “Cadre Kalsang,” this was the name used for a particular female activist in Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution. *Legchog (Legs mchog) 列确 Lieque. Legchog (b. 1944) was a primary-­school teacher in Gyantse from 1964 to 1971 who became the leader of Nyamdrel in the Shigatse area during the Cultural Revolution. He joined the ccp in 1972, was made the Party Secretary of the Communist Youth League in Gyantse the following year, and then became an official under thetar Revolutionary Committee in 1975. He was made deputy director of the tar Organization Department in 1980 and ccp Secretary of Lhasa Municipality in 1991. He was the chair (governor) of the tar from 1998 until 2003. lha (lha) 拉 la. A god. The term usually refers to a local spirit or deity, but in certain contexts is also used for the Buddha or an enlightened being. lha diqueliang, kunyer bayi-­la (la gos tis cho leng dang sku gnyer sba ye lags) 拉的确凉, 规尼北依拉 la diqueliang, guini beiyila. A saying in a mix of Chinese and Tibetan that means “the gods are made of mixed cloth; the monks are Chinese Muslims.” It implied that the restored temples were inauthentic and referred to the fact that those then overseeing them were not Buddhists. lhadre donge (lha ’dre gdon bgegs) 拉这顿格 lazhe dunge. The Tibetan translation of the Chinese phrase “ox-­demon-­snake-­spirit.” The Tibetan version means “gods (lha), ghosts (’dre), and evil spirits (bdon bgegs).” *Lhagpa (lhag pa) 拉巴 Laba. A female activist with the Barkor Neighborhood Committee who was said to have faked remorse on hearing of the death of Chairman Mao. *Lhagpa Phuntsog (lhag pa phun tshogs) 拉巴平措 Laba pingcuo. Born in 1942 in Gyantse and originally a teacher of Tibetan, he became chief editor of the Tibetan edition of Wind and Thunder Battle News, the paper issued by Nyamdrel during the early stages of the Cultural Revolution. He was the head of the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences from 1983 to 1991, vice chair (governor) of the tar from 1991 to 2000, and director of the China Tibetology Research Center in Beijing from 2000 to 2008. Lhalu (lha klu) 拉鲁 Lalu. An aristocratic family into which both the Eighth and the Twelfth Dalai Lamas were born, giving it Yabshi status. The name is an abbreviation of Lhalu katsel (see Lhalu Estate below). Lhalu Estate (lha klu dga’ tsal) 拉鲁嘎采 Lalugacai. Literally “the Lhalu gardens,” these were the lands just to the northwest of Lhasa owned by the Lhalu family. The name refers to a park for gods and nāgas (serpentlike spirits). *Lhalu Tsewang Dorje (lha klu tshe dbang rdo rje) 拉鲁 · 次旺多吉 Lalu ciwang duoji. Lhalu Tsewang Dorje (1914–2011),­ the son of Lungshar (see below), was a kalon in the Tibetan government from 1946 until 1949, when he was sent to Chamdo to be the commissioner or governor of Kham. He was later the commander of the Tibetan army. He was imprisoned by the Chinese authorities from 1959 to 1965. In 1983 he was made a vice chair of the tar branch of the cppcc. *Lhamo (lha mo) 拉姆 Lamu. A Tibetan woman who was a nurse at the pla hospital in Lhasa and later joined the pla in Tibet, working on medical teams that were sent to the countryside. *Lhamo (lha mo) 拉姆 Lamu. A female activist who lived in the area of Lhasa run by the Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee. *Lhamo Mo-­la (lha mo rmo bo lags) 拉姆嬷拉 Lamu mola. Literally “Grandmother Lhamo,” this was the name given to an elderly Tibetan lady who lived in the Barkor. Lhamön (lha smon) 拉敏 Lamin. A landowning family based in Lhatse, Shigatse. *Lhamön Sonam Lhundrub (lha smon bsod nams lhun grub) 拉敏•索朗伦珠 Lamin suolang lunzhu. The private financial secretary to the Tenth Panchen Lama before 1959. After 1959 Sonam Lhundrub (1934–­2013) became deputy Secretary-General­ of the Shigatse cppcc, a member of pcart, and a vice chair of the tar cppcc. He is said to have been among the most aggressive of those involved in attacking the Panchen Lama during the nine weeks of struggle sessions against him in 1964 (see Panbarwa). After the Cultural Revolution, he served on the national committee of the cppcc. He was the sixth younger brother of Lhamön Yeshe Tsultrim. *Lhamön Yeshe Tsultrim (lha smon ye shes tshul khrims) 拉敏•益西楚臣 Lamin yixi chuchen. Lhamön Yeshe Tsultrim (1912–­78) studied in Sera Monastery from the age of seventeen and obtained the Geshe degree in 1930. In 1934 he became the secretary to the Ninth Panchen Lama (1883–1937),­ who was then in exile in Nanjing. After 1937 he became a leading figure in the Nangmagang (Khenpo Council) of the Panchen Lama and in 1947 was a representative to the National Assembly run by the Guomindang in China. By 1952 he was the principal official of the Tenth Panchen Lama, and he was later given a leading position with pcart and made a national committee member of the cppcc. Despite participating in the 1964 denunciation of the Panchen Lama, he was “struggled against” and imprisoned. lhankhang (lhan khang) 委员会 weiyuanhui. A committee. Often combined in colloquial speech with the Chinese equivalent, weiyuan, to form the Tibetan-­Chinese compound term, uyonlhankhang, also meaning a committee but often referring to a Neighborhood Committee specifically. Lhasa River (skyid chu) 拉萨河 Lasahe. The Kyichu River, a tributary of the Tsangpo. It drains the mountainous region northeast of Lhasa, flowing southwest to join the Tsangpo at Chushul. *Lhatsun Rinpoche (lha btsun rin po che) 拉尊仁波切 Lazun renboqie. A high lama from Sera Monastery. He was beaten to death by a Red Guard or, according to some sources, by Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee officials, during the Cultural Revolution. Lhokha (lho kha) 山南 Shannan. A prefecture in southern Tibet. The administrative seat of the prefecture is Tsethang. Lingkor (gling skor) 林廓 Linkuo. The outer circuit, a circumambulation route that encircles the old city of Lhasa as well as Chagpori and the Potala. It is five and a half miles long. The southern part of the Lingkor runs alongside the Tibet Military Region compound and has been renamed Jiangsu Road. liu (le’u). A kind of blanket, rectangular in shape, and normally made with strips of cloth or wool sewn together. *Lobsang (blo bzang) 洛桑 Luosang. An activist who was the deputy head of the Barkor Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. He had worked as a tailor for the Yabshi Langdun family and continued to work as a tailor after the Cultural Revolution. *Lobsang Dondrub (blo bzang don grub) 洛桑顿珠 Luosang dunzhu. Born in 1943, Lobsang Dondrub studied at the Tibet Nationalities Institute from 1960 and joined the ccp in 1963. From 1965 he was a teacher in agricultural accounting at the Tibet Nationalities Institute. During the Cultural Revolution, he was the commander of the Serf Poleaxes. In 1971 he became an official in the Tibet Agriculture and Animal Husbandry College and in 1983 was made a deputy Party Secretary of the tar Party School. He was made a deputy Party Secretary of Lhokha in 1986 and in 1992 became mayor of Lhasa. In 1993, he was made a vice chair of the tar and two years later became Party Secretary of Lhasa. Lobsang Yeshe (blo bzang ye shes) 洛桑益西 Luosang yixi. An activist, originally from Amdo, who was a member of the security committee under the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. lobso chenpo sum (slob gso chen po gsum) 三大教育 san da jiaoyu. The “Three Great Educations,” a campaign that sent work teams throughout China from 1963 onward with the task of educating the masses about class, patriotism, and the socialist future. The campaign was an extension of the Socialist Education campaign. Some Three Educations Work Teams were still in operation in or around Lhasa at the start of the Cultural Revolution. lorogpa (lo rog pa) 马贩子 ma fanzi or 做马生意的人 zuoma shengyi de ren. A colloquial term for a horse trader. Lugu (klu sgug) 鲁固 Lugu. A vernacular variant of the written name for this area of Lhasa, Lubu (klu sbug), meaning “the cave of nāga spirits.” It was also the name used for the Neighborhood Committee that administered that area after 1959. *Lungshar (lung shar) 龙厦 Longsha. Lungshar was the family name of Dorje Tsegyal (1880–­ 1938), a close adviser to the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, who sent him to England in 1913 to accompany four Tibetan students studying there. On his return, Lungshar attempted to introduce some reforms to Tibet’s political and military institutions. He became a tsipön or finance minister and in 1929 was made commander in chief of the military. After the Thirteenth died in 1933 he started a secret movement that planned to petition for political reforms, but in 1934 he was arrested on charges of treason and blinded. His progeny were banned from future positions in the government, but his son, Tsewang Dorje, was affianced to the Lhalu family so as to circumvent the ban and became a leading politician and kalon in the 1940s. mandala (ma N+Da la, dkyil ’khor) 曼扎拉 manzhala or 金戈 jinge. The Sanskrit term for a figurative representation of the palace or abode of a deity or Buddha. In normal Tibetan Buddhist rituals, a practitioner creates a basic three-dimensional­ mandala that represents the universe by heaping rice on a plate to symbolize an infinitude of treasures that are offered to the Buddhas. The Chinese term jinge is a phonetic rendering of the Tibetan word for mandala, dkyil ’khor. Mandala (ma N+Da la) Hall 曼陀羅殿 mantuoluodian or 金戈 jinge. The main prayer hall within the Jokhang Temple complex, also called the Central Mandala. mani (ma Ni) 玛尼 mani. The six-­syllable mantra that is associated with the Bodhisattva Chenrezig and thus with the expression of compassion. The mantra consists of six Sanskrit syllables, oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ, which are sometimes translated as “Hail to the jewel in the lotus” (the word maṇi means a jewel). It is constantly recited by devotees. Tibetan prayer wheels usually contain scrolls with the mani mantra written on them, and the mantra is often carved onto slates, which are piled up into walls as “supports” (rten) or bases for devotion. manikhang (ma Ni khang) 玛尼殿 manidian. A shrine, often beside a road or at the entrance to a monastery or temple, that contains a large prayer wheel. Pilgrims, devotees, and passersby turn the prayer wheel, which contains scrolls with the mani mantra written or printed on them. Marpori (dmar po ri) 玛波日 Mabori. Literally “the Red Hill,” Marpori is one of the three hills in the Lhasa valley, lying slightly to the north and east of the other two (Parmari and Chagpori). The Potala Palace is situated on the peak of Marpori. Medrogongkar (mal gro gong dkar) 墨竹工卡 Mozhugongka. A county about forty miles to the east of Lhasa, including the valleys of Gyama, Medro, and Drigung. menku (sman khug) 门库 menku. A small pouch suspended from a cord around the neck and used to hold medicine. Menpa Dratshang (sman pa grwa tshang) 医药利众寺 Yiyao lizhongsi. A medical college that was constructed in the seventeenth century on the peak of Chagpori (see above), one of the three small hills around Lhasa. The college was destroyed by pla artillery shells during fighting in March 1959. Mentsikhang (sman rtsis khang) 门孜康 Menzikang. Literally “the Medicine and Astrology Institute,” the Mentsikhang was a medical institution established by the Thirteenth Dalai Lama in 1916. In 1959 it was replaced by the Lhasa Hospital of Tibetan Medicine, which was renamed the Working People’s Hospital in 1966. It became the tar Hospital of Tibetan Medicine in 1980. Meru (rme ru) 木如 Muru. The area surrounding the monastery of Merusarpa (“New Meru”) in the northeast of the old city of Lhasa. It is also known simply as Meru or Muru. After 1959 the Neighborhood Committee in charge of that area was named the Meru Neighborhood Committee. The monastery was used during the Cultural Revolution as a base and broadcasting station for the Peasants and Nomads Headquarters and as a dormitory for the tar Modern Drama Troupe and the Henan Opera Troupe. Merunyingpa (rme ru rnying pa) 木如宁巴 Muruningba. An ancient chapel, literally “Old Meru,” adjoining the east wall of the Jokhang complex, said to have been founded by the Tibetan king Tri Ralpachen (Khri Ral pa can, 806–38).­ It became the site of a Nechung branch monastery in Lhasa in the late nineteenth century. mipön (mi dpon) 米本 miben. The traditional title of the administrator of Lhasa, similar to the position of a mayor. It was a position with fourth-­ or fifth-­level ranking in the Ganden Podrang system. See Tsadi. Monlam Chenmo (smon lam chen mo) 默朗钦莫 Molang qinmo. The “Great Prayer” festival, an annual ceremony in Lhasa dating from the fifteenth century at which monks and laypeople gather for fifteen days during the first month of the year, according to the Tibetan calendar. It was banned by the Chinese authorities in Tibet from 1964 to 1986 and has again been banned since 1989. Nagchu (nag chu) 黑河 Heihe or 那曲 Naqu (phonetic). The grassland area and town to the far north of Lhasa that was formerly the seat of the Tibetan government’s Northern Commissioner. The name means “black river,” a reference to the headwaters of the Salween River, which rises there. Under Chinese rule it was made the capital of a prefecture of the tar, covering a vast expanse within the central Changthang Plateau. In 2018 it was upgraded by the Chinese authorities to the level of a municipality. namchu wangden (rnam bcu dbang ldan) 朗居旺丹 langjü wangdan. A traditional calligraphic stack or monogram composed of letters and symbols that together are believed to clear away obstacles faced by the user. It is seen frequently on walls, hangings, religious objects, and amulets in Tibetan Buddhist cultures. Literally “one with ten powers,” it consists of ten letters or mantric syllables derived from Kalacakra teachings that are said to represent ten sounds that invoke the moon, the sun, the five elements, and other essential components of life. *Namgyal (rnam rgyal) 朗杰 Langjie. One of the four main tutors of the Dalai Lama in the 1950s (his full name is not known). He was a supporter of the ccp and remained in Tibet after the Dalai Lama fled in 1959. He was made a member of the localcppcc and a leader of the local branch of the Chinese Buddhist Association. Nangkor (nang skor) 囊廓 Nangkuo. The Nangkor or “inner circuit” is the circumambulation route within the Jokhang complex that runs around the exterior walls of the main temple. nangma (nang ma) 朗玛 langma. One of the main forms of traditional song and music in Lhasa, popular in upper-class­ circles in the 1940s and supposedly derived from seventeenth-century­ court music. Since the 1990s the term has become popular in Lhasa for an innovative style of bar or hostelry offering Tibetan popular music in Tibetan surroundings. Nangmagang (nang ma sgang) 朗玛岗 Langmagang. The Panchen Lama’s council of advisers who administered his properties and affairs. It was usually based at Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse. Also known as the Khenpo Council. nangsen (nang zan) 朗生 langsheng. A servant working within the household of his or her lord or master, said by some authorities to have been a hereditary position that could not be freely altered. Some nangsen were of relatively high status within a household, but others had very low positions. Nangtseshag (snang rtse shag) 朗孜厦 Langzisha or Langzixia. A three-­story building on the north side of the Barkor in Lhasa that served in the early twentieth century as the office of the mipön (see above), who was in charge of administering social order, tax collection, sanitation, flood control, and market management in the city. It was also the city’s main courthouse. From the 1920s it was adapted for use as a prison. Since 1995 it has been used by the Chinese authorities as a political reeducation site to educate Tibetans about the evils of the previous Tibetan society and government. nga-­dag (mnga’ bdag) 领主 lingzhu. The term, which means landowners or landlords, was used as a short form of the ccp slogan “Three Great Masters” (mnga’ bdag chen po gsum, 三大领主 san da lingzhu). This referred to the traditional Tibetan government, the aristocracy, and the monasteries, whose members were targeted by the Democratic Reforms and later movements. It was equivalent to the mainland Chinese term “Five Black Categories.” Ngachen Power Plant (rnga chen glog khang) 纳金电厂 Najin dianchang. A village on the eastern outskirts of Lhasa situated below the Ngachen defile. Construction of a large hydroelectric station began there in 1959, mainly using prison labor. It became the site of one of the first communes in the tar. Ngachen Road (rnga chen lu) 纳金路 Najin lu. The road leading east from Lhasa to what was formerly the village of Ngachen but is now Ngachen township, within the built-up­ area of Lhasa. Ngamring (ngam ring) 昂仁 Angren. A county in Shigatse Prefecture (since 2014, a municipality) centered on the capital of the former principality of Lato Chang. *Ngapö Ngawang Jigme (nga phod ngag dbang ’jigs med) 阿沛•阿旺晋美 Apei awang jinmei or Ngapoi Awang Jinmei. Born in 1910 in Lhasa to the Horkhang family, in 1935 Ngawang Jigme married the widow of the Ngapö family, Tseten Drolma, and, as was the custom, took her family name to preserve that line. He worked for the Tibetan government from 1936 as an official in Chamdo and was appointed governor of Chamdo in 1950. He led the Tibetan troops that were defeated by the pla that October. By then appointed as a kalon, he negotiated the surrender agreement with the Chinese authorities in Beijing in May 1951. In 1952 he was appointed as the first deputy commander of the Tibet Military Region, a position he held till 1987, and was made a lieutenant general in the pla in 1955. From 1968 he was a deputy leader of the tar Revolutionary Committee. He was governor of the tar from 1981 to 1983, a vice chair of the national People’s Congress (npc) from 1965 to 1993, and a vice chair of the national cppcc from 1959 to 1964 and from 1993 to 2009. He died in 2009. *Ngawang Geleg (ngag dbang dge legs) 阿旺格列 Awang gelie. A Tibetan boy believed to be shown in a photograph shouting slogans and pumping the air with his fist during a struggle session in Lhasa. Rumored to have become a leader in the local militia. See figure 107. *Ngawang Gyatso (ngag dbang rgya mtsho) 阿旺嘉措 Awang Jiacuo. See Ribur Rinpoche. *Ngawang Lhamo (ngag dbang lha mo) 阿旺拉姆 Awang lamu. A female member of the elite Phala family. She was married to one of the sons of the Kyibuk family and was a delegate to the first session of the tar branch of the National People’s Congress in September 1965. *Ngawang Tsering (ngag dbang tshe ring) 阿旺次仁 Awang ciren. A Tibetan student from Lhasa at Qinghua University in Beijing in 1966. He became a Red Guard and joined the group known as Red Guards from the Capital, traveling twice to Lhasa to foment revolution. After the Cultural Revolution, he became the director of the Institute of Contemporary Tibetan Studies at the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences in Lhasa. *Ngodrup (dngos grub) 欧珠 Ouzhu. A former attendant to a lama who became a leader with the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. Possibly the same person as Humpback Ngodrup, who was a leader in the same Neighborhood Committee and a Nyamdrel leader. norbu (nor bu) 诺布 nuobu. The Tibetan word for a jewel or treasure, also used for cattle and other possessions. norbu gakyi (nor bu dga’ ’khyil) 洛布格几 luobugeji. A symbol frequently found in Tibetan Buddhist art, including on banners hung from buildings or in temples. Literally “jewel joy spiral,” it consists of a circle with three, or sometimes four, curling swathes of different colors that swell in size from the edges of the circle until they meet in the center. Said to represent the nondual, the Three Jewels, the wish-­granting jewel, or other motifs. *Norbu Sangpo (nor bu bzang po) 诺布桑波 Nuobu sangbo. A legendary monk-merchant,­ also known as Tshong dpon (“trader”) Norbu Sangpo, who is said to have lived in the fifteenth century and to have funded the construction of the Khanigoshi Stupa in the Lhasa Barkor. A folk hero associated with Kathmandu-­Tibet trade and the cult of Chenrezig, his relics were said to be interred in the Khanigoshi as well as at other locations such as, for example, the Gontang Bumpa in the Yarlung valley. Norbulingka (nor bu gling ka/kha) 罗布林卡 Luobulinka. Literally “Jewel Park,” this was a palace and its gardens to the west of Lhasa. It was founded during the reign of the Seventh Dalai Lama in the mid-­eighteenth century and used as his summer residence. It was renamed the People’s Park during the Cultural Revolution. nordo (nor rdo) 诺多 nuodou. Literally “treasure stones,” used as a satirical term to describe stones that were thrown at Sampo Tsewang Rigdzin during street protests in March 1959, but which led to his promotion by the Chinese authorities. *Nornor-­la (nor lags) 罗罗拉 Luoluo-­la. A leader of the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee who was involved in the demolition of the Khanigoshi Stupa. Nyamdrel (mnyam sbrel) 大联指 Dalianzhi or 良则 Langze (phonetic). The “Alliance,” one of the two main factions in Tibet during the Cultural Revolution. The Chinese name for Nyamdrel, Dalianzhi (the Great Alliance), was an abbreviation of “the Proletarian Great Alliance Revolutionary Headquarters.” Nyamdrel was seen as closer to the established ccp leaders and the pla, as opposed to its even more radical opponents in Gyenlog. Many of the Nyamdrel leaders were given major positions in the Tibetan administration after the Cultural Revolution. Nyarongshag (nang rong shag) 娘绒厦 Niangrongsha or Nianggongxia. The name of a Lhasa family that became famous for its lineage of traditional Tibetan doctors. The name of their house, which was on the east side of the Barkor, is also sometimes spelled in Tibetan as nya rong shag, nang rong shar, or nya rong shar, but usually pronounced “Nyarongsha.” See Rigdzin Lhundrub Paljor; Kungyur. Nyemo Incident (snye mo don rkyen) 尼木事件 Nimu shijian. One of the “renewed rebellions” of 1969, this uprising or revolt took place in Nyemo, a county to the west of Lhasa. It was led by the nun Trinley Chödron, with support or encouragement from Gyenlog activists, and involved numerous brutalities and massacres of pla soldiers and suspected Chinese sympathizers, She was executed along with seventeen others the following year. A detailed account is given in Melvyn C. Goldstein, Ben Jiao, and Tanzen Lhundrup, On the Cultural Revolution in Tibet: The Nyemo Incident of 1969 (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 2010). *Nyima (nyi ma) 尼玛 Nima. The Tibetan word for the sun or Sunday. Used as a pseudonym in Forbidden Memory for a Tibetan resident of the area administered by the Jebumgang Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. nyingje (snying rje) 宁杰 ningjie. Literally “ruled by the heart,” nyingje is the Tibetan word for compassion. It is also used as an exclamation indicating pity or sympathy. Palbar (dpal ’bar) County 边坝县 Bainba xian. A county west of Chamdo, in the region traditionally known as Sho-­tar-­lho-­sum. Palbar was a center of resistance in 1959 and was the site one of the most serious uprisings among the “renewed rebellions” of 1969. Palden Lhamo (dpal ldan lha mo) 班旦拉姆 Bandan lamu. A female deity or spirit who is considered the primary protector of Tibet, particularly in Lhasa. She is regarded by believers as one of the few protector deities who is enlightened and so is believed to be capable of prophetic foresight, making her an important source of advice for the Dalai Lama. *Paldor-­la (dpal rdor lags) 巴多拉 Baduo la. A former horse trader who became a leader of Gyenlog during the Cultural Revolution. *Paljor (dpal ’byor) 边久 Bianjiu. An activist with the Barkor Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution, rumored to have been a thief. *Paljor Gawa (dpal ’byor dga’ ba) 班觉格伍 Banjue gewu. A minor leader in the Barkor Neighborhood Committee and a Red Guard. Paljor Rabten (dpal ’byor rab brtan) 班觉绕丹 Banjue raodan. A family residence in Lhasa facing the western entrance of the Jokhang. It had been used in the 1950s as the Lhasa residence for officials from the Panchen Lama’s Nangmagang (see above). Panbarwa (paN ’bar ba) 班巴尔 Ban ba’er. Literally “Panchen flamers,” this term was used among the populace to deride the aristocrats and lamas who acted as critics of the Tenth Panchen Lama during the internal ccp campaign against him in 1964. The campaign, which was not publicized until years later, involved nine weeks of daily struggle sessions against him. Among those said to have been the most aggressive denouncers in the struggle sessions were Lhamön Sonam Lhundrub, Sengchen Rinpoche, and Gyatsoling Rinpoche. Panchen Erdeni (paN chen Er ti ni) 班禅额尔德尼 Banchan e’erdeni. An honorific title for the Panchen Lamas. Erdene is a Mongolian term meaning “jewel” that is used constantly by the Chinese media and officials to refer to the Panchen Lama since the Tenth was rehabilitated after the Cultural Revolution. Panchen Lama (paN chen bla ma) 班禅喇嘛 Banchan lama. The Panchen Lamas are the second most prominent incarnation lineage in the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, with their seat at Tashilhunpo Monastery. The Ninth Panchen Lama (1883–1937)­ went into exile in China in 1923 as the result of a dispute with the Lhasa government over taxes. The Tenth Panchen Lama was born in Amdo in 1938 but was only able to go to Tibet in 1952. He was the most important lama to have remained in Tibet and to have accepted high positions in the Chinese system after 1959. He was made a standing committee member of the National People’s Congress, a vice chair of the national cppcc in 1954, and the chair of pcart in 1959. However, in 1962 he wrote an internal petition criticizing ccp policy in Tibetan areas and spent most of the following twenty years under house arrest or in prison (see seventy-thousand-­ character­ petition in the Glossary of Chinese and English Terms). He was only formally rehabilitated in 1982. After 1980 he strongly defended Tibetan culture and publicly criticized remnant leftists among leaders in Tibet. He died in Shigatse in 1989. Pangda (spang mda’) 邦达 Bangda. See Pomda. pangden (pang gdan) 邦典 bangdian. The traditional striped apron worn by married Tibetan women. Pangdö (spang stod) 邦堆镇 Bangdui zhen. A township in Taktse County, to the east of Lhasa, where the second commune in the tar was started in 1965 or shortly after. Parmari (spar ma ri) 帕玛日 Pamari. One of the three small hills within the Lhasa valley. Parmari is situated just to the west of Chagpori (see above), between Marpori and the Norbulingka. *Pasang (pa sangs) 巴桑 Basang. A Tibetan woman (b. 1937) who joined the ccp in 1959 and became a cadre in Nang County, Lhokha. She was the head of Nyamdrel in Lhokha. She was made a deputy head of the tar Revolutionary Committee in 1968, a deputy Party Secretary of the tar from 1971 until 2003, and a member of the ccp Central Committee from 1973 to 1987. *Pasang (pa sangs) 巴 桑 Basang. The Tibetan word for Friday, used as a pseudonym in Forbidden Memory for a Tibetan man who worked as a correspondent for the Xinhua News Agency in Tibet and reported on the suppression of the Nyemo Incident in 1969. *Pasang Dondrub (pa sangs don grub) 巴桑顿珠 Basang dunzhu. Born in Gyantse in 1949, Pasang Dondrub attended the Tibet Nationalities Institute and then served as a translator with the pla during the operations to suppress the “renewed rebellions” from 1969 to 1970. He became head of the tar Organization Department in 1989, a standing committee member of the tar Party Committee from 2003 to 2011, and head of the United Front in the tar from 2002. In 2008 he was made a committee member of the national cppcc. patrug (spa phrug) 巴珠 bazhu. A traditional headdress worn by Tibetan women. *Pedron (pad sgron) 白珍 Baizhen. A former servant who worked for Demo Rinpoche and became an activist with the Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. Pela’i Tsomkhor (dpal lha’i mtsho ’khor) 白勒冲果 Bailechongguo. A park in the southeast of Lhasa. The meaning of the name is unclear but could be “the lake-retinue­ of Palden Lhamo,” “the circle of glorious lake-­goddesses,” or a similar expression. *Pelshi Po-la­ (spel bzhi spo bo lags) 比西波拉 Bixi bola. The father-­in-­law of Horkhang Sonam Palbar. He was an ordinary landlord from Shigatse who lost his land during the Democratic Reforms of 1959. *Penchung (spen chung) 朋炯 Pengjiong. A female activist from the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. *Penpa Tsering (spen pa tshe ring) 边巴次仁 Bianba ciren. A male activist who was the head of security for the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. *Phagpalha Geleg Namgyal (’phags pa lha dge legs rnam rgyal) 帕巴拉•格列朗杰 Pabala gelie langjie. Phagpalha (b. 1940), the eleventh reincarnation in the Phagpalha lineage. In 1950 he was appointed vice chair of the Chamdo Liberation Committee, although he was ten years old at the time. He was made a member of pcart in 1956, a vice chair of pcart in 1960, and a vice chair of the national cppcc in 1959, when he was nineteen. He has been a vice chair of the tar, a vice chair of the national cppcc, and a vice chair of the National People’s Congress. He has been honorary president of the Chinese Buddhist Association of China since 2002. Since the Panchen Lama died in 1989 he has been the highest-­ranking lama in the Chinese political system. Phala (pha lha) 帕拉乡 Pala. A township in Ngamring County, Shigatse Prefecture (upgraded to a municipality in 2014). Phari (phag ri) 帕里 Pali. A town in Yadong (Dromo) County in Shigatse Prefecture (a municipality since 2014), near the border with Bhutan. phu-­chu (phul bcu) 普居 puju. A wooden box used traditionally to measure grain. Literally “ten phu,” a unit of measure. 120 phu equaled 1 khe, equivalent to about 30 kilograms. *Phunkhang Tsering Dondrub (phun khang tshe ring don grub) 平康•次仁顿珠 Pingkang ciren dunzhu. The Phunkhang family were of Yabshi rank, as the Eleventh Dalai Lama had come from their family. Phunkhang Tsering Dondrub’s father was a kalon in the 1940s. The family residence in Lhasa was on Shasazur Street, north of the Barkhor. In the 1980s he was made a deputy head of the Standing Committee of the Lhasa Municipal People’s Congress, a vice chair of the Lhasa cppcc, and a committee member of the national cppcc. Phunrab (phun rab) 平饶 Pingrao. An aristocratic family that came originally from Shigatse. Their Lhasa residence was on the south side of the old city, facing the Lingkor. See Rinchen. *Phurbu Tsering (phur bu tshe ring) 普布次仁 Pubu Ciren. An activist with the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee. piwang (pi wang) 毕旺 biwang. A two-­string lute played with a bow. *Po Tsering (spo bo tshe ring) 波次仁 Bo ciren. An activist with the Rabsel Neighborhood Committee. podrang (pho brang). A palace. Podrangshabkor (pho brang zhabs skor) 颇章厦廓 Pozhangshakuo. The circumambulation path around the Potala Palace. Polingka (spo bo gling kha) 波林卡 Bolinka. The “People’s Stadium” on the south side of the Lhasa Barkor. It had formerly been a popular picnic area, but after the 1950s was used for political rallies, public sentencing of criminals, sports meetings, and other public events. From 2008 to 2016 it was used to house reserve troops. Pomda (spo/spom mda’) 帮达 Bangda. Short form of the family Pomdatshang (帮达仓 Bangdacang). The family had changed its name to Pangdatshang (spang mda’ tshang), but both names are still used widely by others. The family was from the Tsawagang area in western Kham but moved to Lhasa in the early twentieth century. They then became one of the wealthiest trading families in Tibet and were given aristocratic status by the Thirteenth Dalai Lama. *Pomda Jigme (spo/spom mda’ ’jigs med) 帮达晋美 Bangda Jinmei. Son of Pomda (or Pangda) Topgyal. He was married to a daughter of Ngapö Ngawang Jigme. *Pomda Rabga (spo/spom mda’ rab dga’) 帮达绕嘎 Bangda Raoga. Pomda (or Pangda) Rabga (1902–­76) was involved with a small rebellion against the Lhasa government in 1934, met with Chiang Kai-­shek in 1935, and worked closely with Guomindang officials over plans for the future of Tibet. From the later 1930s onward he was active in Kalimpong in India, where he founded a political party together with other progressive Tibetans dedicated to the modernization of Tibet. He was expelled by the British from India to China, where he lived during the late 1940s. He briefly worked with the new Chinese regime but in the early 1950s returned to Kalimpong to support resistance efforts there. *Pomda Topgyal (spo/spom mda’ stobs rgyal) 帮达多吉 Bangda Duoji. Pomda (or Pangda) Topgyal (1902–­74) was a member of the Pangdatshang trading family and a chieftain in an area of Kham in the 1930s. He led a brief revolt against the Lhasa government in 1934 and held various positions under the Guomindang government in Xikang Province (eastern Kham). After the prc was established in 1949, he wrote a letter of support to Mao and Zhu De and in 1951 was made deputy head of the Chamdo Liberation Committee. In 1955 he was appointed a deputy head of pcart, though some reports say he was secretly in touch with resistance fighters during this period. From 1959 he was a vice chair in the tar Political Consultative Conference. *Pomda Yarphel (spo/spom mda’ yar ’phel) 帮达杨培 Bangda Yangpei. Yarphel (c. 1900 to c. 1976) was the oldest of the three most prominent Pomda (or Pangda) brothers and ran the family business from the family’s house in Lhasa. In 1940 the Tibetan government appointed him to the post of Tibetan Trade Agent in Yadong on the Indian border. He was a member of the Tibetan Trade Mission that was sent to the United States and Britain in 1948 and was involved in negotiations with the United States over the future of the Dalai Lama. He left Tibet secretly for India in 1958 but was forced out of India by suspicious Tibetan exiles. He returned eventually to China and took up residence in Lhasa. During the Cultural Revolution he is said to have been protected from abuse at the orders of Zhou Enlai. Potala (rtse po ta la) Palace 布达拉宫 Budala gong. The palace of the Dalai Lamas on the peak of Marpori, overlooking the city of Lhasa, which lay to the southeast of the palace. It was built in its present form by the Fifth Dalai Lama from the 1640s to the 1680s, but the earliest parts are said to date from the seventh century. The name Potala refers to the Sanskrit name of the celestial abode of the Bodhisattva Chenrezig. Potala Palace Square (po ta la pho brang thang chen) 布达拉宫广场 Budalagong guangchang. A large parade square built by the Chinese authorities in 1995 to the south of the Potala Palace. It replaced a park known as Shugtri Lingka and is used for mass rallies and political parades. Rabsel (rab gsal) 绕赛 Raosai. An area of Lhasa and, after 1959, the name of the Neighborhood Committee for that area. *Ragti (rag sdi) 热地 Redi or Raidi. Born in Driru in Nagchu in 1938, Ragti joined the ccp in 1961. He became the head of Nyamdrel in the Nagchu area during the Cultural Revolution and was a deputy head of the tar Revolutionary Committee in 1968 to 1972. He was appointed a deputy Party Secretary of the tar from 1975 to 2002, chair of the National People’s Congress in the tar from 1993 to 2003, a vice chair of the npc from 2003 to 2008, and a member or alternate member of the ccp Central Committee from 1977 to 2007. Ragyalingka (rwa rgya gling ka) 绕交林卡 Raojiaolinka. An area in the southeast of Lhasa formerly used for the disposing of yak horns after slaughter. It was later used to grow vegetables. Ramoche (ra mo che) 小昭寺 Xiaozhaosi. A temple in Lhasa built in the seventh century by Songtsen Gampo, originally in order to house a statue of the Buddha brought to Tibet by Princess Wencheng. It is the second most famous shrine in Lhasa. It was used by Nyamdrel as a broadcasting station during the Cultural Revolution. Reting (rwa sgreng) 热振 Rezhen. The Reting incarnation lineage is based at Reting Monastery, founded in the eleventh century, about fifty miles northeast of Lhasa. The Fifth Reting, Thubten Jampel Yeshe Tenpa’i Gyaltsen (thub bstan ’jam dpal ye shes bstan pa’i rgyal mtshan, c. 1912–47),­ was appointed as regent of Tibet after the death of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama in 1933 but resigned in 1941, apparently expecting to be reinstated after three years. The refusal of his successor, Taktra Rinpoche, to allow him to resume his position led to a series of failed attempts by members of Reting’s entourage to assassinate Taktra in 1947. Reting was arrested, leading to a brief civil war in Lhasa. He died in prison the same year, probably from poisoning. *Ribur Rinpoche (ri ’bur rin po che) 仁布仁波切 Renbu renboqie. Ribur Rinpoche (1923–­2006), also written as Rimbur Rinpoche, was a trulku from Sera Monastery. His name was Ngawang Gyatso. He received his Geshe degree at Sera Monastery in 1948. He was given a position with the Religious Affairs Bureau but was struggled against and “hatted” during the Cultural Revolution alongside his colleague and neighbor Demo Rinpoche. After his reinstatement in 1983, he was allowed by the Religious Affairs Bureau to lead a team to Beijing to collect the remains of artifacts looted from Tibet, which had been deposited in a storeroom in the Forbidden City. Among them, he found the Jowo statue from the Ramoche Temple. He went into exile in India in 1987 (some sources say 1985) and spent some years in the United States, where he became a prominent Buddhist teacher. *Rigdzin Gyalpo (rig ’dzin rgyal po) 仁增加布 Renzeng jiabu. The father of Samding Dorje Phagmo. Before his daughter was recognized as a trulku, he had served as a steward or estate manager to a noble family. *Rigdzin Lhundrub Paljor (rig ’dzin lhun grub dpal ’byor) 仁增•伦珠班觉 Renzeng lunzhu banjue. Also known as “Dr Nyarongshag,” Rigdzin Lhundrub Paljor (1898–1979)­ was a doctor from a family with a long history of expertise in traditional medicine, as well as the founder of a large private school in Lhasa. See also Kungyur; tsojé. *Rigdzin Wanggyal (rig ’dzin dbang rgyal) 仁增旺杰 Renzeng wangjie. The Party Secretary of a commune in Lhuntse County, Lhokha Prefecture, during the mid-1970s.­ He was praised in the official media for his efforts to “learn from Dazhai,” a commune in eastern Shanxi Province that had produced exceptionally high agricultural yields. Rigdzin Wanggyal met with Chen Yonggui, the former leader of Dazhai, in 1974. *Rinchen (rin chen) 仁青 Renqing. A member of the Phunrab family (see above). rinpoche (rin po che) 仁波切 renboqie. A Tibetan term meaning “precious” or “of great worth,” used when addressing highly regarded lamas. Sakya (sa skya) 萨迦寺 Sajiasi. A famous temple in southern Tibet that was founded in the eleventh century. One of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism is named after the temple and its leaders became the effective rulers of Tibet under Mongol tutelage in the thirteenth century. Sakya Bamo (sa skya ’bag mo) 萨迦巴姆 Sajia bamu. Literally “masked female of Sakya,” a demoness associated with Sakya, sometimes translated as the “witch of Sakya.” *Sama (za mA) 萨玛 Sama. A Muslim housewife in Lhasa. *Samding Dorje Phagmo Dechen Chödron (bsam sding rdo rje phag mo bde chen chos sgron) 桑顶·多吉帕姆·德钦曲珍 Sangding duoji pamu deqin quzheng. The Dorje Phagmos are the leading female incarnation lineage in Tibet. Their seat is at Samding Monastery, seventy miles southwest of Lhasa. The current incarnation, Dechen Chödron, the twelfth in the lineage, was born in 1942 and was recognized as a reincarnation in 1947. She was taken on an official tour of China in 1955–56­ and given positions as a member of pcart and as a director of the Chinese Buddhist Association in Tibet. After the uprising of 1959 she fled into exile to India—Chinese­ sources say she was “kidnapped” by rebels—­but after six months returned to China via Pakistan and Moscow, in time to be received by Mao in Tiananmen Square in October 1959 during the celebrations held to mark the tenth anniversary of the founding of the prc. She was given positions from September 1959 to April 1962 as the vice chair of the cppcc in Tibet and in 1962 she was made an executive director of the Chinese Buddhist Association in Tibet. She was again a vice chair of the cppcc in the tar from 1977 to 1984 and then was made a deputy head of the National People’s Congress in the tar, as well as a committee member of the national cppcc. *Sampo Tenzin Dondrub (bsam pho bstan ’dzin don grub) 桑颇•登增顿珠 Sangpo dengzeng dunzhu. The eldest son of Sampo Tsewang Rigdzin, Tenzin Dondrub (1924–­87) began government service in 1941 and became a fourth-­rank official (rimshi). He studied with Gendun Chöphel in 1950–­51 while working for the Tibetan Foreign office and then became a senior military officer in the Tibetan army. In 1951 the Tibetan government instructed him to go to Chamdo to join Ngapö in the negotiations with China that led to the signing of the Seventeen-­Point Agreement in Beijing that May. In 1959 he was the joint commander of the Drapchi Regiment of the Tibetan army in Lhasa. He was imprisoned after the 1959 uprising in Lhasa and released in or around 1980. He left Tibet for India in 1981. *Sampo Tsewang Rigdzin (bsam pho tshe dbang rig ’dzin) 桑颇•才旺仁增 Sangpo caiwang renzeng. The Sampo family were of Yabshi rank and Tsewang Rigdzin (1904–­73), as an official in the traditional Tibetan government, rose to become the head of the mint, commander in chief of the Tibetan army, and, by the late 1950s, a kalon. In 1956–­59, he also had corresponding positions in the Chinese system: he was a standing committee member of pcart, a deputy commander of the Tibet Military Region, and a major general in the pla. In 1965, he became a committee member of the national cppcc. He was rehabilitated by the state in 1979, six years after his death during the Cultural Revolution. Sangye (sangs rgyas) 桑杰 Sangjie. “The Enlightened One,” the Tibetan term for the Buddha. Also used as a personal name. *Sangye Gyatso (sangs rgyas rgya mtsho) 桑結嘉錯 Sangjie jiacuo. Sangye Gyatso (1653–­1705) was the most famous desi (regent or principal minister) to have served under the Fifth Dalai Lama. When the Fifth died in 1682, he kept the death secret for fifteen years by claiming that the Dalai Lama was on retreat so that the building of the Potala Palace could be completed and a successor identified. He is also renowned as a scholar, historian, and writer. See desi. Sarchung (gsar ’byung) 色迥 Sejiong. An aristocratic family in Central Tibet. Over time, four members of the family became a kalon or cabinet minister, including Sarchung Tseten Wangchug Dorje, who accompanied the Thirteenth Dalai Lama into temporary exile in Mongolia and China in 1904. *Sarchung Wangdu Rinchen (gsar ’byung dbang ’dus rin chen) 色迥•旺堆仁青 Sejiong wangdui renqing. Sarchung Wangdu Rinchen (d. 1970?) was a shölpa (see below), a position at third-rank­ level in the Tibetan government. Sardzug Lamchen (gsar ’dzugs lam chen) 萨珠朗钦 Sazhu langqin. Establish-­the-­New Avenue. This was the Tibetan translation of Lixin dajie (立新大街), the revolutionary name given to the Barkor in 1966. sarjé (gsar brje) 杀劫 shajie. The Tibetan term for revolution. The term was invented in the 1950s by combining the word sarpa (gsar pa), meaning “new,” with the word jéwa (brje ba), meaning “to change” or “to replace.” sarpa (gsar pa). The Tibetan word for new. *Sengchen Lobsang Gyaltsen (seng chen blo bzang rgyal mtshan) 生钦•洛桑坚赞 Shengqin luosang jianzan. A senior trulku (1936–­98) from Tashilhunpo Monastery. He obtained the Geshe degree in 1956 and in the same year was made director of the Religious Affairs Committee for the Shigatse Region. In 1962 he became an executive director of the Chinese Buddhist Association and in 1964 was made a member of pcart. From 1965 he was a vice chair of the People’s Committee of the tar, and from 1971 he was in the working group of the tar Revolutionary Committee. From 1977 he chaired the cppcc of the tar, and from 1979 was deputy head of the National People’s Congress of the tar. He was a standing committee member of the national-­level npc from 1993 to 1998 and became a standing committee member of the national cppcc in 1998, just before he died. He is said to have been among the most aggressive attackers in the struggle sessions against the Tenth Panchen Lama in 1964 (see Panbarwa). In 1995 he was the most outspoken of any Tibetan lama in attacking the Dalai Lama for recognizing the Eleventh Panchen Lama without following the instructions and policies of the Chinese government. Sera (se ra) Monastery 色拉寺 Selasi. A Gelugpa monastery about three miles to the north of Lhasa. It was founded in 1419 and had about six thousand monks in the early twentieth century. It is known, together with Ganden and Drepung Monasteries, as one of the “Three Seats” (gdan sa gsum). *Shakabpa Wangchug Deden (zhwa sgab pa dbang phyug bde ldan) 夏格巴•旺秋德丹 Xiageba wangqiu dedan. Shakabpa Wangchug Deden (1907–­89) was a tsipön or minister of finance in the Tibetan government under the Dalai Lama from 1939 until he moved to India in 1950. He was head of the Tibetan Trade Delegation that traveled to the U.S. and other countries from 1947 to 1949 and was the Dalai Lama’s principal representative in New Delhi from 1959 to 1966. While in exile, he published a major history of Tibet as viewed from a Tibetan perspective. *Shakyamuni. The Sanskrit name of the historical Buddha, who lived in around the fifth centurybce . See Jowo Shakyamuni. Shalu Monastery (zha lu) 夏鲁 Xialu. A monastery fourteen miles south of Shigatse. Affiliated with the Sakya school, it was founded in the eleventh century and in the fourteenth century became the seat of one of Tibet’s greatest Buddhist scholars, Buton Rinchen Drup, whose teachings were continued there. Shangpa Kagyu (shangs pa bka’ brgyud) 香巴噶举 Xiangba geju. A branch of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. It was founded in the mid-­twelfth century by Khedrup Khyungpo Naljor. Sharchog (shar phyogs) 下觉 Xiajue. A district of Lhasa after 1959, meaning literally “eastern direction” or “eastern quarter.” See East City District and The-East-­ ­Is-­Red Administration Office. shargo (zhar gog) 夏过 xiaguo. A colloquial Tibetan term meaning “blind,” derived from the word zhar ra. Shatra (bshad sgra) 夏扎 Xiazha. An aristocratic family historically connected to Ganden Monastery. It included Kunga Paljor, a kalon in 1791; Wangchug Gyalpo, who became the regent of Tibet in 1862; and Paljor Dorje, who joined the family by marriage and became a kalon in 1891 and leader of the Tibetan delegation to the Simla Convention talks in 1913. *Shatraba Dechö (bshad sgra ba bde spyod) 傑達巴德確 Jiedaba deque. Dechö was a member of the Shatra family (hence “Shatraba”) by marriage. She was originally from the Thonpa family and was known as Thonpa Dechö, while her sister was known as Thonpa Dekyi. Shedab Power Plant (gzhas ’dabs glog khang) 献多电厂 Xianduo dianchang. A power plant near Tsalgungthang, just to the west of Lhasa. Shigatse (gzhis ka rtse) 日喀则 Rikaze. The second most prominent town in Tibet. It was the main town in the traditional central-­western province of Tsang and included Tashilhunpo Monastery, the seat of the Panchen Lamas. After 1959 it became the name for the surrounding prefecture, which was upgraded to a municipality in 2014, with its administrative seat renamed as Samdruptse (bsam ’grub rtse, 桑珠孜区 Sangzhuzi). shokha (shog kha) 派性 paixing. The Tibetan word for a group, clique, or faction. Shöl (zhol) village 雪村 Xue cun. A village on the south side of the Potala Palace. shölpa (zhol pa) 雪巴 Xueba. A third-­rank official in the Tibetan government in charge of the areas of Wabaling and Lugu in Lhasa and of Shöl, the area to the south of the Potala Palace. A shölpa was also in charge of tax collection from certain surrounding areas. Shotön (zho ston) 雪顿节 Xuedunjie. An annual festival commemorating the traditional summer retreat by monks, when lay Buddhists would customarily offer yoghurt (zho in Tibetan) to the monks. The festival was famous for open-­air performances by traditional Tibetan opera troupes, most notably in the Norbulingka. sogchil (sog byil) 索金 suojin. A single long earring with a turquoise stone, worn in the left ear by male aristocrat-­officials to indicate high status. *Sonam (bsod nams) 索朗 Suolang. A young Tibetan who was ordered by Gangtsug to help demolish the Khanigoshi Stupa, according to Jampa Rinchen. *Sonam (bsod nams) 索娜 Suona. A leading actress in the Tibet Military Region’s Cultural Work Troupe during the Cultural Revolution. By the 1990s she had become a deputy director of the tar Cultural Bureau. *Sonam Gyaltsen (bsod nams rgyal mtshan) 索朗坚赞 Suolang Jianzan. The Tibetan name of Long Guotai (see in the Glossary of Chinese and English Terms), the Tibetan literature teacher and researcher at Lhasa Middle School at the start of the Cultural Revolution. *Songtsen Gampo (Srong btsan sgam po) 松赞干布 Songzanganbu. The most famous of the emperors or kings of Tibet during the imperial period. His birth date is uncertain, but he died in about 649. He is depicted in Tibetan histories as the founder of the Tibetan empire, as the person who first introduced Buddhism into Tibet, and as an emanation of the Bodhisattva Chenrezig. He married, among others, the Nepalese princess Bhrikuti and the Chinese princess Wencheng, for whom he built the Ramoche and Jokhang Temples in Lhasa. sungbum (gsung ’bum) 松崩 songbeng. Literally “a hundred thousand teachings,” sungbum is the Tibetan term for the collected works of a lama or scholar. Sungchöra (gsung chos rwa) 松却绕哇 Sonequeraowa. Literally “the courtyard for teaching religion,” the Sungchöra is a large open area, with buildings on three sides, on the southern side of Jokhang. At the top (northernmost) end of the square is a stone dais or platform on which a lama would sit while giving teachings. During the Cultural Revolution, the name of the Sungchöra was changed to the Establish-­the-­New Square. Surkhang (zur khang) 索康 Suokang or 赛康 Saikang. An important aristocratic family in Lhasa which was among the fifteen to eighteen families with the higher ranking of “midrak” (mi drag), indicating that a former member of the family had been a kalon. The family originally came to Lhasa from Ladakh and settled in Lhasa during the eighteenth century. The family house was on the southeast corner of the Barkor. It was demolished in 1993 and rebuilt as a shopping center known as Saikang Shopping Plaza. *Surkhang Wangchen Geleg (zur khang dbang chen dge legs) 赛康•旺钦格勒 Suokang wangqin gele. Surkhang Wangchen Geleg (1910–­77) was a Lhasa nobleman who was sent as an assistant to the Tibetan government’s commissioner in Kham from 1929 to 1934. He became a military officer in charge of 1,500 troops in 1938 and was appointed as a kalon in 1943 at the age of thirty-three.­ In 1954 he quietly gave support to a popular movement in Lhasa that opposed China’s presence in Tibet, and, although he was made a member of pcart in 1956, he was viewed by the Chinese with intense suspicion. After the Lhasa uprising, he fled with the Dalai Lama to India in 1959. He lost power in the exile government in 1961 and moved to Britain in 1963 and to the United States in 1964, where he worked with scholars until he moved to Taiwan in 1972. Taktse (stag rtse) 达孜 Dazi. A county just to the east of Lhasa, on the south side of the Kyichu (the Lhasa River), on the route from Lhasa to Ganden Monastery. *Tashi (bkra shis) 扎西 Zhaxi. A former wagon driver who was an activist during the Cultural Revolution. He became the deputy head of Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee. * Tashi Drolma (bkra shis sgrol ma) 扎西卓玛 Zhaxi zhuoma. A woman known as Aja Tashi Drolma (a lcag bkra shis sgrol ma; 阿佳扎西卓玛 ajia Zhaxi zhuoma) who helped Jampa Rinchen hide precious items from the Sungchöra throne. *Tashi Tsering (bkra shis tshe ring) 扎西次仁 Zhaxi ciren. A shoemaker who became a prominent activist in Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution and was made the head of the Rabsel Neighborhood Committee. Tashilhunpo Monastery (bkra shis lhun po) 扎西伦布寺 Zhaxilunbusi. One of the major monasteries of the Gelugpa school, with some four thousand monks at its peak. Situated in Shigatse, it was founded in 1447 and is the seat of the Panchen Lamas. Tengchen (steng chen) 丁青县 Dingqing xian. A county in the Khyungpo region of western Kham. It is now part of Chamdo Municipality (formerly a prefecture) within the tar. Tengyeling Monastery (bstan rgyas gling) 丹杰林寺 Danjielinsi. An eighteenth-­century monastery on the western side of the old city of Lhasa, near the Yutog bridge. It was the Lhasa seat of the Demo incarnation lineage. After 1959 the surrounding area was named the Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee, renamed the Bright Neighborhood Committee, but also known as “Neighborhood Committee No. 3,” during the Cultural Revolution. *Tenpa (bstan pa) 旦巴 Danba. A former knifemaker (and therefore a social outcaste) who became an activist with the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee and an assistant to the prominent activist Gangtsug. *Tenzin (bstan ’dzin) 丹增 Danzeng. A leading activist in the Tengyeling area of Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution. *Tenzin (bstan ’dzin) 单珍 Danzhen. A female activist with Gyenlog who was severely wounded in the military attack on the Gyenlog headquarters in the Jokhang in June 1968. See June 7 Jokhang Incident in the Glossary of Chinese and English Terms. thamzing (’thab ’dzing) 批斗 pidou. Literally a “struggle” or “fight,” this was the Tibetan translation of the Chinese term for a struggle session. *Thonmi Sambhota (thon mi sam+b+ho Ta) 吞米•桑布扎 Tunmi sangbuzha. A famous Tibetan scholar translator who traveled to India in the seventh century and returned with an alphabet adapted from Indian writing systems for transcribing the Tibetan language. *Thonpa Dechö (thon pa bde spyod) 吞米•德确 Tunmi deque. See Shatraba Dechö. *Thrinley Chödron (’phrin las chos sgron) 赤列曲珍 Chilie quzhen. A nun from a remote rural area of Nyemo County who became the leader of the Nyemo Incident, the most famous and most brutal of the “renewed rebellions” of 1969. Executed near Lhasa in or around February 1970. *Thrinley Chökyi (’phrin las chos skyid) 赤列曲吉 Chilie quji. A female activist with Gyenlog who was an announcer with their broadcasting station, based in the Jokhang Temple. She was severely wounded during the military attack on the Gyenlog base known as the June 7 Jokhang Incident. *Thubten (thub brtan) 土登 Tudeng. An activist with the Barkor Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. He became the committee’s security director after 1987. He is sometimes referred to as Thubten shargo (土登夏过 Tudeng xiaguo) because he was blind (sharba, 瞎子 xiazi) in one eye. *Thubten Jigme (thub brtan ’jigs med) 图登晋美 Tudeng jinmei. A student at Lhasa Middle School in 1966 who tried to escape from Tibet by secretly crossing the border into India or Nepal. He was caught near the border along with his girlfriend, Hua Xiaoqing, and executed. She committed suicide in jail. thugke che (thugs rje che) 突几切 tujiqie. Literally “great heart,” the Tibetan expression for “thank you.” Thukje chenpo (thugs rje chen po) 土几钦波 Tujiqinbo. Literally “Great Compassion,” a phrase used as a name for the statue of the Eleven-­Faced, Thousand-­Armed Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara) with One Thousand Eyes that stood in a side chapel in the Jokhang Temple. Thukje Lhakhang (thugs rje lha khang) 土几拉康 Tuji lakang. The lhakhang or chapel at the center of the left (northern) side of the ground floor of the Jokhang. The chapel housed the Thukje Chenpo, a famous statue of Chenrezig. Used as a pigsty during the Cultural Revolution. Thukmön Lhakhang (thugs smon lha khang) 突莫拉康 Tumolakang. A chapel on the righthand (southern) side of the entrance into the main assembly hall in the Jokhang. Its name means literally “chapel of aspiration,” but is more often known as the Chapel of the Dharma Kings after the main statues within the chapel. Tölung Dechen (stod lung bde chen) 堆龙德庆 Duilongdeqing. A county immediately to the west of Lhasa, now a suburb. *Togden Dawa (rtogs ldan zla ba) 登道达瓦 Dengdao dawa. An itinerant lama from Golok in eastern Tibet who traveled to Lhasa traveled in the 1990s or shortly after and began a project of carving the entire text of the Kangyur (the Buddhist canon) onto pieces of slate. These were then assembled in the form of a stupa or reliquary placed on the Lingkor at the foot of Chagpori. tralpa (khral pa) 差巴 chaba. Literally a taxpayer, this was the term used for farmers in the traditional Tibetan social system who had some land but owed taxes to a landlord. Tramo (kra mog or spra mo) 扎木 Zhamu. The main town and administrative seat in Pomé (spo smad, 波密县 Bomo xian), a county in present-­day Nyingtri Municipality (Chinese: Linzhi, sometimes written as Nyingchi) in the southeast of the tar. It is about 370 miles east of Lhasa. Pomé was part of the former quasi-­independent kingdom of Powo (spo bo), also called Poyul (spo yul). It was placed under Chamdo prefecture in the 1950s but has been under Nyingtri Prefecture (now a municipality) since 1983. The armory in Tramo was looted by over a thousand Gyenlog rebels in summer 1968. Tramo is the site of tar Prison No. 2, where many Tibetans spent the 1960s and 1970s as political prisoners and laborers. Trandruk Temple (khra’ ’brug) 昌珠 Changzhu. A temple in Nedong (sne gdong, 乃東區 Naidong qu) in Lhokha Prefecture (now a municipality) to the south of Lhasa. It is believed to have been built in the seventh century by Songtsen Gampo. *Trijiang Rinpoche. See Kyabje Trijiang Rinpoche. Tromzikhang (Khrom gzigs khang) 冲赛康 Chongsaikang. The name of a former eighteenth-­century mansion on the north side of the Barkor in Lhasa. The name means “house for looking at the market.” After 1959 the surrounding area was put under the administration of the Tromzikhang Neighborhood Committee. trulku (sprul sku) 转世活佛 zhuanshi huofo. Literally “manifest body,” trulku is the Tibetan term for the reincarnation of a high accomplished lama who has the ability to retain spiritual accomplishments during the rebirth process. In Chinese, it is usually rendered incorrectly by the term 活佛 huofo, meaning “living Buddha,” which has no equivalent in Tibetan. Trunglha (’khrungs lha) 冲拉 Chongla. A location beside the Kyichu River on the eastern outskirts of Lhasa that is believed to be the abode of the trunglha or “birth deity”—the­ protective deity or spirit associated with one’s birth—­of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. *Tsadi Tseten Dorje (tsha rdi tshe brtan rdo rje) 察第•次旦多吉 Chadi cidan duojie. Tsadi was an aristocratic family of the gerpa (sger pa) or lowest rank, which included about 120 families in Lhasa. He served as a mipön or mayor of Lhasa and was in charge of the jail and court at the Nangtseshag in the Barkor in the 1940s. He died during the later years of the Cultural Revolution. Tsalgungthang (tshal gung thang) 蔡公塘 Caigongtang. A village area just to the southeast of Lhasa, seat of the Tselpa, a dynasty that ruled Lhasa and the surrounding area from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. *Tsamchö (mtshams gcod) 仓决 Cangjue. A woman who became well known as an activist with the Lugu Neighborhood Committee in Lhasa. Said to have been a beggar in the past, she was referred to as “Lugu aja” (“Elder Sister from Lugu”) or “Lugu banggo” (“Beggar from Lugu”). tsampa (rtsam pa) 糌粑 zanba. The staple food of Tibetans, made from dry-­roasted barley flour, which is usually kneaded with butter, tea, and salt to make a soft dough. *Tsarong Dazang Dramdul (rtsha rong zla bzang dgra ’dul) 擦绒•达桑占堆 Carong dasan zhandui. Tsarong Dazang Dramdul (c. 1888–­1959) was born into a peasant family in Phenpo, near Lhasa. By 1903 he had become a close servant of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama and soon became a principal adviser. He was made commander in chief of the army in 1911 and led the defeat of the Qing garrison in Lhasa the following year. He was a kalon from 1914 to 1929 and is associated with largely unsuccessful efforts to modernize the state and the military, which were opposed by much of the elite. He was arrested after the Lhasa uprising and died in a Chinese military prison two months later. tsatsa (tsa tsa) 嚓嚓 caca. Embossed figurines of deities or Buddhas pressed out of clay. tsatsakhang (tsa khang) 嚓嚓康 cacakang. A roadside shrine containing tsatsa. *Tse Drolma (tshe sgrol ma) 次卓玛 Cizhuoma. A female shoemaker who was an activist with the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee. Tse gutor garcham (rtse dgu gtor gyi gar ’cham) 孜古多羌姆 Ziguduo qiangmu. A series of ritual dances performed by monks in temples and monasteries on the twenty-ninth­ (tsegu, rtse dgu) day of the twelfth Tibetan month to extirpate negative forces before the start of the new year. *Tse Lhamo (tshe lha mo) 次拉姆 Cilamu. A female resident in the Wapaling area of Lhasa during the Cultural Revolution. Tsechogling Monastery (tshe chog gling) 尺觉林寺 Chijuelinsi. A monastery in Drip, a village on the south side of the Kyichu River, on the opposite bank from Lhasa. Founded in 1789 at the request of the Eighth Dalai Lama as a Lhasa residence for his tutor, Yongdzin Yeshe Gyaltsen. *Tsedor (tshe rdor) 次多 Ciduo. A Tibetan youth from a merchant family in Lhasa who was a junior middle-­school student in 1964. Tselpa (tshal pa) 采巴 Caiba. A dynasty of rulers who had power over Lhasa and the surrounding areas from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries. The Tselpa rulers were based at Tsalgungthang, just to the southeast of Lhasa, and their domains were classified as one of the thirteen (some sources say seventeen) myriarchies (administrative districts with approximately ten thousand households) in the Mongol-­Sakya system. The tenth and last Tselpa ruler, Tselpa Kunga Dorje (1309–­64), abdicated in 1352 after supporting the unsuccessful efforts of the Sakya to oppose the rise of the Phagmodrupa rulers. Tsemonling Monastery (tshe smon gling or mtsho smon gling) 策墨林 Cemolin. A monastery in Lhasa, just to the south of the Ramoche, founded by the second Tsemonling regent, Jampel Tsultrim, as the Lhasa seat of the lineage shortly after his appointment as regent in 1819. The building was badly damaged in 1844, when Jampel Tsultrim’s political opponents forced him from power, and was not restored until the reign of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama. The monastery was used as a broadcasting station by Nyamdrel during the Cultural Revolution. Tsepak Lhakhang (tshe dpag lha khang) 赤巴拉康 Chibalakang. A temple in Lhasa next to the Ramoche Temple, probably built in the fourteenth century. *Tsephel (tshe dpal) 赤白 Chibai. The third daughter of Rigdzin Lhundrub Paljor (see above) from the Nyarongshag family. Like her father and her brother Kungyur, she was a doctor in the traditional Tibetan medical tradition. *Tsering (tshe ring) 泽仁 Zeren. A Tibetan who worked in Lhasa as a cameraman for the Tibet office of the Central Newsreel Production Studio during the Cultural Revolution. *Tsering Phuntsog (tshe ring phun tshogs) 次仁平措 Ciren pingcuo. Tsering Phuntsog was a resident in the area administered by the Barkor Neighborhood Committee. Also known as Sharpa-­lepa (夏尔巴列巴 Xiaerba lieba), “the worker from the East,” he had previously worked as a steward for a local merchant. *Tsering Wangmo (tshe ring dbang mo) 次仁旺姆 Ciren wangmu. A female shoemaker who became an activist with the Wabaling Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. She was a Gyenlog supporter. She later became the Party Secretary of the Wabaling Neighborhood Committee and was still deputy leader of the committee in 2003. *Tsering Yangdzom (tshe ring g.yang ’dzoms) 次仁央宗 Ciren yangzong. A female child of about five or six years old at the start of the Cultural Revolution. Tseringma (tshe ring ma) 孜热玛 Zirema. One of the five female deities known as “auspicious long life females” (bkra shis tshe ring ma). They are said to have taken oaths with early Buddhist masters to act as protectors of the religion and are associated with five mountains of the same name in the Himalayas. Tsesumshag (Tshes gsum shag/chos gsum shar) 车松厦 Chesongsha or Chesongxia. A mansion in Lhasa. *Tseten (tshe brtan) 次旦 Cidan. A former policeman at the Barkor Police Station who was also a Red Guard. *Tseten Drolma (tshe brtan sgrol ma) 才旦卓玛 Caidan zhuoma. The most prominent of Tibetan popular singers in the socialist period, Tseten Drolma (b. 1937) was born into a peasant family. She joined an official arts troupe in Shigatse in 1956 and was sent two years later to the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. She performed “The Song of the Emancipated Serfs” (翻身农奴把歌唱 Fanshen nongnu ba gechang) at the tenth anniversary celebrations of the prc in Beijing in 1959 and appeared in the 1965 musical film, The East Is Red, a glorified history of theccp . She was a standing committee member of the npc from 1978 to 1988, a member of the national committee of the cppcc in 1964 and again from 1988 to 2003, and a vice chair of the cppcc National Committee from 1993 to 1998. Among her most famous songs are “On the Golden Mountain of Beijing” (在北京 的金山上 Zai beijing de jinshan shang), which is yet another paeon to Chairman Mao, and “Singing a Song to the Party” (唱支山歌给党听 Chang zhi shange gei dang ting). *Tshogo (mtsho sgo) 崔科 Cuike. A lesser-­known aristocratic family from the Shigatse with a house in the southern part of the old city of Lhasa. The name is also written as Tsoko, Tsogo, or Tshögaw. *Tshogo Dondrub Tsering (mtsho sgo don grub tshe ring) 崔科•顿珠次仁 Cuike Dunzhu ciren. Tshogo Dondrub Tsering (1915 to c. 1982) was made a deputy director of the General Office of pcart in 1956. He was a military officer in Chamdo at the time of the 1950 battle with the pla and was captured along with Ngapö Ngawang Jigme. He was seen as cooperative with the Chinese administration and was made a member of pcart. After 1959 he was appointed as the mayor of Lhasa. In 1965 he was a vice chair of the firsttar government and a standing committee member of the National People’s Congress (npc) in Tibet, a position he was given again after he was officially rehabilitated in 1979. He was sent at various times as a delegate to the npc and to the cppcc. tsojé (’tsho byed) 措结 cuojie. An honorific title for a doctor. *Tsongkhapa (tsong kha pa) 宗喀巴 Zongkaba. Je Tsongkhapa Lobsang Drakpa (1357–­1419) was a famous monastic reformer and religious teacher from the Tsongkha region of Amdo. He spent most of his life teaching, writing, and meditating in central Tibet, including Lhasa, and in 1409 established the Monlam Festival in Lhasa and founded Ganden Monastery. He is seen as the founder of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism. tsothal (gtso thal) 佐台 zuotai. A precious substance used in Tibetan medicine that is taken from a black residue found inside the statue of the Jowo. tsuglakhang (gtsug lag khang) 祖拉康 zulakang. A term used for the main temple building in a large monastery and as the proper name for the Jokhang Temple complex in Lhasa. urdo (’ur rdo) 乌多 wuduo. A sling used by Tibetan nomads, usually woven from yak wool. uyon (u yon) 委员 weiyuan. The phonetic rendering in Tibetan of the Chinese word weiyuan, meaning a committee. uyonlhankhang (u yon lhan khang) 委员 weiyuan or 乌均能康 wujunnengkang (phonetic). A hybrid of the Chinese and Tibetan words for a committee, generally used after 1959 as a short form of the term for a Neighborhood Committee, sa-­ngé uyonlhankhang (sa gnas u yon lhan khang). *Wangchug (dbang phyug) 旺久 Wangjiu. The chief editor of the Tibetan version of Red Rebels News, the paper produced by Gyenlog at the printing house of the Tibet Daily during the early years of the Cultural Revolution. *Wangdu (dbang ’dus) 旺堆 Wangdui. A resident of the Barkor who worked in the cooperative run by the Barkor Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. *Wangdu Dorje (dbang ’dus rdo rje) 旺堆多吉 Wangdui duoji. A cadre with the Barkor Neighborhood Committee who was responsible for security. He is said to have died shortly after damaging a shrine dedicated to the trunglha or birth deity of the Dalai Lama. wangse (dbang bsad) 昂色 angse. The Tibetan term meaning “turn off the power,” used when turning off a light switch. It sounds similar to the Chinese phrase wansui, which is used in many political slogans, meaning “ten thousand years” or “long life.” Wapaling (wa pa gling) 河坝林 Hebalin. An area on the eastern side of Lhasa, pronounced “Wöpaling.” The surrounding area was placed under the administration of the Wapaling Neighborhood Committee after 1959. It was renamed The-East-­ ­Is-­Red Neighborhood Committee during the Cultural Revolution. *Wapaling Lhadrön (wa pa gling lhag sgron) 河坝林拉珍 Hebalin Lazhen. Also known as Ani (ani, or “nun”) Lhadrön, she was originally from Drayab in Kham and lived in the Wabaling area of Lhasa. She worked as a servant in Muslim households and as a beggar or as a worker in a vegetable farm and slaughterhouse. She became an activist, joined the ccp, and became a leading figure in the “Rebel Commune” under Gyenlog. *Wolo (wo lo) 沃洛 Woluo. Wolo, believed to have been formerly a farmer or driver, was a cadre or leader in the Jebumgang Neighborhood Committee. He was later appointed to manage the Neighborhood Committee’s cooperative and its horse carts. He worked for a while as a manager in the Kyire Hotel, one of the main locations for foreign tourists in Lhasa in the 1980s. Yabshi (yab gzhis) 尧西 Yaoxi. In Tibetan tradition, the title given to each family into which a Dalai Lama is born. The title indicated that the family was ennobled and was of the highest rank amongst all aristocratic families. Yabshi Taktser (yab gzhis stag ’tsher) 尧西达孜 Yaoxi dazi. The formal name, often anglicized as Taktse, given to the family of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama after he was recognized and enthroned in 1940. Taktser is the name of the village in Amdo where the family lived before the recognition. The same name is used for the residence of the family in Lhasa, in the area just to the east of the Potala Palace known as Changseb Shar. During the Cultural Revolution, the mansion was commandeered by Gyenlog as its headquarters. It later was used as the No. 2 Guest House (Chinese: Ersuo) for the tar and in the 2000s was used as a dormitory for staff working in a nearby government-­owned hotel. Yamdrok Tso (yar ’brog mtsho) 羊卓雍湖 Yangzhuoyong hu. A lake 130 miles by road southwest of Lhasa, considered sacred by Tibetans. Yarlung Tsangpo River (yar lung gtsang po) 雅鲁藏布江 Yaluzangbu jiang. The main river in Tibet, flowing west to east, parallel to the Himalayas. The source is near Mount Kailash in western Tibet. When the river reaches Kongpo Nyingtri in the southeast, it turns sharply to the south and cuts through the Himalayas to India and Bangladesh. It was traditionally known in Tibet simply as the “Tsangpo,” or more poetically as the “Tamchok Khabab.” In the twentieth century it started to be identified on maps by non-­Tibetans as the “Yarlung Tsangpo,” a name that is now widely used. In the Adi hills south of the gorge it is known as the Siang, and, when it reaches the plains of Assam, it is known as the Brahmaputra. *Yeshe (ye shes) 益希 Yixi. An activist who was involved in security for the Tengyeling Neighborhood Committee and later became a deputy commander of the Peasants and Nomads Headquarters, which was affiliated with Nyamdrel. After the Cultural Revolution, he operated a small tea house in Lhasa. *Yeshe Tenzin (ye shes bstan ’dzin) 益希单增 Yixi danzeng. A former Gyenlog supporter who changed to supporting Nyamdrel during the Cultural Revolution. He became one of the vice chairs of the tar cppcc in about 2003. Yutog (g.yu thog) 宇妥 Yutuo. An aristocratic family which gained Yabshi rank with the birth of the Tenth Dalai Lama in their family in 1816. In the twentieth century, the most prominent member of the family was Yutog Tashi Dondrub, who became a general in the Tibetan army in 1935, commissioner for Eastern Tibet in 1942, and a kalon in 1955. He did not return to Tibet after traveling with the Dalai Lama to India in 1956. The family name is taken from the turquoise-tiled­ bridge near their residence in Lhasa (see Yutog Lam). Yutog Lam (g.yu thog lam) 宇妥路 Yutuo lu. A street in Lhasa. The name means “Turquoise Roof” and refers to a nearby bridge with a Chinese-­style roof (tog 妥 tuǒ) made with glazed turquoise (yu 宇 yǔ) tiles. Yutog Lam was renamed Renmin (People’s) Road during the Cultural Revolution and is still known by that name. Zhide Dratshang (bzhi sde grwa tshang) 希德寺 Xidesi. Originally a monastic community established in Lhasa on the north side of the city in the ninth century, from the thirteenth century onward it served as the residence of monks who looked after the Ramoche. The current dratshang or monastic college, which is also known in English as Shide or Shideling, was built in the mid-­ eighteenth century and became the Lhasa residence of the Third Reting Rinpoche when he became the regent of Tibet in 1845. It was associated with the Reting lineage until the 1950s, when it was closed and used as offices for the Tibet Daily. It was badly damaged in the 1959 uprising and vandalized during the Cultural Revolution. It was taken over by Gyenlog as a broadcasting station during the Cultural Revolution and, when the factional fighting was over, the remains of the buildings were used as a dormitory for the Henan and Huangmei opera troupes and later as a pla camp. It was left without any attempts at repair until 2003, when some restoration work took place. Zhideling (bzhi sde gling) 喜德林 Xidelin. See Zhide Dratshang. Zhitro Lhakhang (zhi khro lha khang) 希珠拉康 Xizhulakang. The temple of the hundred Peaceful and Wrathful deities, also known as Yidam Lhakhang. It was situated near Jebumgang on the north side of the old city of Lhasa and was affiliated with the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism. The current building dates from 1913. zi (gzi) 天珠 tianzhu. A highly valued, dark-­colored stone with white markings that are termed “eyes.” The stones are said originally to have been made from agate, but their composition and origin remain obscure. zungzhug (gzungs gzhug) 耸秀 songxiu. Precious materials, printed mantras, and other substances such as jewels, medicinal herbs, nectar, spices, or grain placed inside a Buddhist statue or stupa. zurshi (zur bzhi) 蘇西 suxi. The “four corners” of the Barkor street in Lhasa, each of which is marked with a pole bearing prayer flags. See Ganden Darchen.