The Dynamics of Change in Jewish Oriental Ethnic Music in Israel Author(S): Amnon Shiloah and Erik Cohen Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol

The Dynamics of Change in Jewish Oriental Ethnic Music in Israel Author(s): Amnon Shiloah and Erik Cohen Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 27, No. 2 (May, 1983), pp. 227-252 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/851076 Accessed: 19/04/2010 03:04

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http://www.jstor.org THE DYNAMICS OF CHANGE IN JEWISH ORIENTAL ETHNIC MUSIC IN ISRAEL

Amnon Shiloah and Erik Cohen

In this paper we shall describeand illustrate the principal directionsof change in the music of OrientalJewish groups in Israel. It is the first systematicattempt to undertakethis formidabletask and is, therefore,of necessitya preliminaryone. Anthropologistsand ethnographerswere until very recentlyalmost ex- clusivelyinterested in the "authentic"or "traditional"cultural products of the "FourthWorld" people - the tribaland ethnicminorities of the newly emergentnations.1 In their endeavorto discover,describe and preservethe culture of the precontactperiod or the period precedingmodernization, they discardedrecent creations as unwelcomedisturbances and alterations of the "original" tradition. The false impressionwas often unwittingly createdthat this traditionexisted, staticand unchanging,until contactwith the Westernworld and the onset of modernizationbegan to destroyit. A similarorientation characterized the approachof art historiansand ethnomusicologists;for them, the valuableartistic productions were those precedingmodern influences on ethnic art. They regardedrecent artistic productionsas mere degeneratereflections of past glory or as bastardized concoctionsdevoid of "authenticity." Recently,however, as detailedinvestigations into the processof social and cultural transformation of tribal and ethnic peoples multiplied, students of arts and crafts graduallyrealized that their earlierjudgments were often based on prejudicesand oversimplifications.It turnedout that tribal and ethnic peoples reactedartistically in a wide variety of ways to their emergenceinto and confrontationwith the modernworld. Their art underwentmanifold permutations,which confront the student with new problemsof theory and research.While the term "arts of acculturation" (Graburn1969:457) has sometimesbeen appliedto the newly emergentart forms, it does not do justice to the wide variety of stylistic and other changesemerging under the impactof new conditions.The richnessof these new productionshas been excellentlyillustrated in a volume on Ethnic and TouristArts (Graburn1976a). In the field of music, too, some important

Final version rec'd: 12/7/82 0014-1836/83/2702-227 $1.30 1983 Society for Ethnomusicology 227 ? 228 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983 studiesof musicalchange have recentlyappeared (Kartomi 1981; Katz 1968; Merriam1955; Nettl 1978a;Nettl and Shiloah 1978;Neuman 1976;Lomax 1968; Slobin 1976). This diversityof new forms gives rise to the importantproblem of the different directions or types of dynamics of change in the "arts of acculturation."The problem has been dealt with on a theoreticallevel by Graburn(1976b) for crafts and by Nettl (1978b)for music. Our approach takes off from these beginnings,but attemptsto extend their conceptual frame of reference,in order to accommodatea wider scope of empirical variation. Traditionalart and more particularlymusic reflectthe life of a society and its culture. Therefore, creativearts should be explorednot only for their own sake, but also for a better understandingof other aspects of culture. It is regrettablethat Israelianthropologists have, in studyingthe processes of change and integration of Jewish Oriental communities, neglected the role of the creative arts in their life. One can find some specific, descriptivestudies of thesetraditional arts, but none has attempted to addressthe generalproblem - the processesof change in the arts of Jewish Orientalcommunities, whether prior to their immigrationto the State of Israelor subsequentto it. We deal here only with music and not with the whole spectrumof ethnic arts. By narrowingthe scope of our study, however,deeper insight into the mattercan be achievedthan would be the case had we coveredthe whole range of ethnic arts. But beyond this, the dynamicsof music are of interestin themselves.As Merriam(1964:296) has pointed out, music is a language of feeling deeply rooted in the subconsciousof an individual steeped in a given cultural tradition. Music not only accompaniesand enhancesmajor events in man's life, but also plays an importantrole in all social happenings.Being so tightly relatedto the differentaspects of life, music becomesa vital and indispensableelement of the cultureas a whole. The sharingof similarexperiences and satisfactionsfrom the same tunes provides,as Lomax argued,a sense of securityand identificationwith the group. This observationled him to conclude:"An art so deeplyrooted in the securitypatterns of the communityshould not, in theory, be subjectto rapidchange, and in fact this seemsto be the case. Musicalstyle appearsto be one of the most conservativeof culturetraits" (Lomax 1959:930).Mer- riam reacheda similarconclusion: "Music structureis carriedsubliminally and, since it is not objectified in most individualcases, it is resistantto change" (Merriam1964:297). These statementsdo not imply that music does not change at all, but ratherthat it possessesa high degreeof stabilityat least in some of its major manifestations.If this much is granted,we can assumethat in the case of SHILOAHAND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 229 the Jewish Orientalcommunities in Israel, attachmentto pre-immigration music will, on the whole, be strongerthan attachmentto other facets of culture, includingother art forms. Music does change, however, though perhapsat a slower rate than do other aspects of culture. Moreover,the change, as we shall see, is not complete:it is continuity-in-change,and even a returnto tradition,albeit in a novel context. The degreeof stabilityof music is closely relatedto its function. Less change can be expectedin religiousmusic than in social and recreational music: "Religiousmusic is so much a part of religiouspractice that it cannot be altered without altering other aspects of ritual, while recreational music fulfills other needs whichare not rigidified"(Merriam 1964:308). An examinationof Near Easternmusic in generalreveals that changehas most- ly affected the categoryof recreationalmusic. This has, on the whole, also been the case with Jewish Orientalmusic in Israel.

A HISTORICALREVIEW

JewishOriental music has historicallybeen associatedwith the "great tradition"2 of Middle Eastern music (photo 1). This tradition was characterizedby severalmajor traits, commonto all nationalmusics in the region:3 the vocal component predominatedover the instrumental;the musicianis both a composerand a performer;there are no time limits and no fixed programin the performance;rather the performanceis a displayof soloist virtuosityand the performeris permitted,and indeedencouraged, to improvisespontaneously; in this he is helped by the continuousinterplay between himself and a limited, often intimate audience, which confronts him directly, without any formal barriers;the music is orally transmitted and was generallybanned, for religiousreasons, from institutionsof formal education. Throughoutits history,the "greattradition" has been in a state of per- manent, albeit slow, flux. Under the impact of the West and its music in moderntimes, the pace of changequickened, while the changeswent deeper and became more pervasivethan they had been in the past. The changes, whichalso affected JewishMiddle Eastern music even priorto the immigration of the Jews to Israel, can be briefly summarizedas follows: (1) loss of intimacy;(2) the emergenceof a barrierbetween the artistsand the listeners through the introduction of the stage; (3) the introduction of new instruments and new playing techniques, which led to alterations in the originalinteraction between the singerand the traditionalinstruments, such as the 'ud (a short-neckedlute), and eventuallyeven to changesin the struc- ture or size of the instruments themselves; (4) the necessity of playing 230 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, MAY 1983

Photo 1. "Chalghi Baghdadi"- an instrumentalensemble, which performedtradi- tional Iraqi-Arabmusic in Baghdad;it was composedof a singerand threeinstrumentalists, playingthe santur, kamanand drum. All the musiciansin the ensemblewere Jews, who performed for both non-Jewishand Jewish audiences(Photo from 1929; courtesyMr. Na'im Twena). togetherin largeensembles shifted the accentfrom the displayof individual virtuosityand personalcreativity to collectivediscipline, and led to a growing emphasison rhythmicand metricpieces insteadof improvisationaland nonmetricones; (5) the emergenceof an independentinstrumental music; (6) recourse to electronic means of amplification, which led to the ap- pearanceof a new type of singerwho does not rely any more on the volume of his voice and its multiplenuances; (7) the introductionof a time limit on programsin concerts on radio and television and on records;and (8) the emergenceof educationalinstitutions in which traditionalmusic is taught by Westernmethods; the studiesare based on notated music, that is, fixed models, and not on oral transmissionbased on a varietyof personalmodels. This new type of educationnecessarily leads to standardization. As a consequenceof these changes and of the impact of some addi- tional factors, such as the growing attention paid by musicians to folk music, the Middle Eastern"great tradition"evolved in moderntimes into the currentlydominant "mainstream"style. This style is a confluence of divergentstylistic elements deriving from the inheritedgreat tradition,the diverse little traditions of various regional, ethnic and linguistic Middle Eastern groups and light and classical Westernmusic. Nettl (1978a: 149, SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 231

Now~

Photo 2. The first orchestraof the Iraqibroadcasting station, which was openedin 1936. The orchestraplayed in the "mainstreamstyle" of Arab music. All the musicians,except the drummer,were Jews, who immigratedduring the periodof massimmigration in 1950-51.They participatedin the introductionof this musicalstyle in Israel,as musiciansin the IsraelRadio Orchestra(photo by courtesyof Mr. N. Twena). diagram),for example,represents what he calls the "mainstream-popular" style in the city of Teheranas the point of mergerof variousmusical styles; Racy (1980: 85), in a study of the musicallife of Cairo, attributesthe same role to what he terms the "mainstream,multi-color" style (photo 2). Althoughbelonging to a minoritygroup, Jewishmusicians were active participantsin the musical life of their countries of origin, were much sought after in the large Muslimurban centers, and have participatedin the modernizationof the tradition. Muslims of the ruling class used to have recourse to non-Muslimmusicians (mainly instrumentalists)to overcome religiousprohibitions of the practiceof music. Being of low social statusin the widersociety, Jewishmusicians were also deprecatedin their own community; behind this attitude stood theological and puritan arguments similarto those in the Muslimcommunity. Nevertheless, the musicianswere not banished,and the communitiesemployed them to enhancethe rejoicing at festive occasions and even for the performance of rituals in the synagogue.It seems that both the musiciansand the listenerswere awareof the distinctionbetween music performedfor the internalJewish public and music performedfor the externalnon-Jewish public. 232 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983

The musicalstyle of the surroundingsociety influencedJewish music. Borrowings,however, were not mechanicallyadopted, but rearrangedand adapted. This is even true of a genre that at first sight appears entirely assimilatedto the secularNear Easterngreat musicaltradition - the singing of Hebrew hymns with or without instrumentalaccompaniment. A thoroughexamination of that music, however,reveals some distinguishing traits:even when the melodicelements are wholly borrowed,the use of the Hebrewlanguage necessarily introduces a new relationshipbetween text and melodythrough word intonationand accents.Moreover, the contentof the text and the solemnityof the occasionbear directly on the qualityof the performance,whose functionis to expressand elevatethe spiritof the religious occasion. This is also true when hymnsand songs are in one of the Jewish dialectsand not in the Hebrewlanguage. In synagogalmusic, the borrowing of externalelements was also selective. The Jewish repertory,like that of othermarginal cultures that have been influencedby the Near Easterngreat tradition,has thus preservedsome featuresof the older, indigenousstyle. In the importanturban centers Jewish repertory became part of the greattradition, but preservedsome distinguishingtraits of the little traditionsfrom which it originated.Urban Jewish musiciansin Iraq, Iran, Bokhara, and Morocco,active both in theirown communityand in the widersociety, had a good commandof both styles and participatedin both traditions(photo 3). Some even contributedto musicalmodernization and the emergenceof the mainstreamstyle. The little traditionshave been paramountin the smallerJewish com- munitieswhere only tracesof the influenceof the greattradition can be felt. The musical styles of the Jews of Kurdistan,Southern Morocco and even the urbancenters of Yemen are instancesof differentlittle traditions.The YemeniteJews usuallymake a distinctionbetween the urban San'anistyle and all otherYemenite styles, consideredto be ruraland thus implicitlysim- ple and inferior. No doubt the San'ani style distinguishesitself by some refinement,but it has never attained the degree of sophisticationof the great traditionof Near Easternmusic. If we wish to examinethe changesin the musicof JewishOriental com- munitiesin Israel,we shouldnote that therewere major differences between them in the extent to which their music changedprior to immigration.The extent of change dependedprimarily upon the nature of the relationship betweenthe Jewishmusicians and the culturallife of the surroundingsociety. This relationship,in turn, influencedthe degreeto which Jewishmusic participatedin the great traditionand the emergingmainstream Western- influenced style. While some Jewish communitiesoriginating in remote ruralareas were, upon theirimmigration to Israel,distant from the trendto musical modernization, for other groups the encounter with modern SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 233

Photo 3. EzraAharon, one of the great 'ud players,represented Iraq, in the companyof other Jewish musicians,in the first InternationalCongress of Arab Music in Cairo in 1932 (from the volume of proceedingsof the Congress).

Westernculture in Israelwas not new, as their members,especially the in- telligentsia,had alreadybeen in contact with it priorto immigration.They broughtto Israelthe mainstreamstyle, to the elaborationof whichthey had themselvescontributed, and continued to evolve it, both with relation to current developmentsin their countries of origin and to Israeli culture. Therefore,when speakingof changein Iraqi Jewishmusic in Israel, for instance, we cannot put together the KurdistaniJews, who essentiallybe- longed to a folk-tribal culture, and the Baghdadi Jews, who, since the second half of the last century,played a determinantrole in the musicalac- tivity of their non-Jewishenvironment and participatedin the evolutionof its mainstreamstyle. The immigrationof the differentcommunities to Israeloften proceed- ed in waves. The earlyimmigrants who came before the Second WorldWar became the absorbersof the newcomers,after havingbeen themselvessub- jected to a process of change. Thus, in some cases the "newcomers" adapted rapidlyto the style in vogue among their predecessors.The great tradition and the mainstreamstyle may have come to influence the little traditions of remote Jewish communities through this mingling of im- migrantssubsequent to their arrivalin Israel. 234 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983

Immigrationto Israelexposed these people to a new and complexreali- ty. They had been removed from their natural environmentand found themselvesin a new one, where,in the realmof arts, Westernconcepts en- joyed exclusivesway. Moreover,as a resultof the state of belligerencebe- tween Israeland its neighbors,they experiencedan emotionalconflict. They had to reconcile their national identification and their emotional at- tachmentsto the cultureof those who now becametheir enemy. To com- plicate matters,in Israelthey were asked to be "integrated"into an alien, Westernculture, and it was frequentlydenied that they even had a culture of their own. In their country of origin they had the status of a minority community;but in the creativearts many individuals were integrated and in some cases dominant.In the new reality,their civil statuschanged, but they becamea culturalminority, because their culture was not legitimizedby the establishment.In this respectthey differed from the ethnic groups of the Fourth World, which are allowed preservetheir culturalparticularity and sometimeseven encouragedto do so in order to attracttourism, though they have been economicallyand politicallyincorporated. Duringthe Mandateand especiallythe earlyphase of statehood,the official attitudeof the Zionistestablishment toward ethnic cultural traditions advocatedtheir disappearancein the "melting-pot"of a general "Israeli society." Nevertheless,some musciologistsand devoteesof Westernorigin were anxious to safeguardand preservethese traditionsbefore they disap- peared.Composers and arrangersof Westernorigin attempted to introduce Oriental elements into the realm of Western art with the aim either to elevate the Oriental or to lend color to the Western. These concerns, however, were exceptionalwithin a general attitude of disregard,if not denigration. Despitethat attitude,ethnic music preserved a subduedexistence in the immigrantcommunities. Especially in the realmof religiouspractices, par- ticularmusical traditions have been substantiallyperpetuated. The readers of the Bible, the cantorsand the singersof religiouspoems have kept close to those expressivemusical patterns and intonationsto which the worship- pers had been accustomedand in which they felt at home. These are patterns "acquiredin childhood," ("girsa de yankuta" in Aramaic)and as such they deeply mark the individual's subsequent musical sensibility. Therefore,even today, people living far away from their group of origin will do their utmost to pray on festive occasionsin a synagoguewhere they can hear the sounds that symbolizetheir earliestchildhood memories and their first religiousexperience. Even outside the liturgical and paraliturgicaldomains, traditional musiccontinued to be vital in familyand communityrejoicing, and to a certain extent became a vehicle through which the traditional poet-singers ex- SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 235 pressedtheir experienceof the encounterwith the new environmentand the emotionalimpact of the changesin their lives. However,during the period dominated by the melting-potideology of the Israeli establishment,the status of professionalethnic musicians(those who lived by means of their art in theircountries of origin)was seriouslyaffected. The establishedsocie- ty did not recognizeor appreciatetheir talents and their previousstatus. Their original audiencewas scatteredin different localities and could not supportthem economically.Nevertheless, their activitywas not completely interrupted,but only impeded.Unfortunately, this has not been the case in most of the other folk arts of Orientalcommunities. As a resultof the rapid process of modernization,the demand for traditionalgoods decreased. Most Jewish traditionalartisans, who used to produce for the marketin their countriesof origin, were compelledto abandontheir originaloccupa- tion in Israel. Today, one finds, for instance, very few traditionalJewish silversmiths,goldsmiths or coppersmiths.In contrast,it seems that the in- dispensabilityof music on ritual occasions, and its relativeindependence from economic factors, has helped it to overcome the shock of the encounter with the new culturalenvironment and to surviveunder the new conditions. Though some of the traditionalmusical forms survivedwith little, if any alterations,there was considerablechange in most forms of Oriental Jewish music under the impact of the new environment.The mutual encounter of the differentOriental traditions resulted in some alterationsin the original pre-immigrationmusic of each group. In localities of mixed ethnic populations, musicians and cantors from one community participatedin the festivitiesof the others. This permanentexposure to other styles gradually led to mutual borrowing and the adoption of various musicalelements. One of the consequencesof this processin the realm of synagogue music is the emergenceand gradual disseminationof the so- called " Jerusalemite-Sephardistyle" (see below), popular particularly amongthe youngergeneration of Orientalcantors. Another major direction of change has been the conscious modernizationof ethnic musical styles (Nettl 1978b:127),through the incorporationof Western elements into traditionalOriental tunes. While these types of change were often spon- taneousand took placewithout outside encouragement and help, othersoc- curredwith the assistanceand sometimesthe sponsorshipof outsiders,for example,the transpositionof Orientalmusical styles into the realmof light musicand, lateron, the fine arts. The most recentdevelopments of this kind are attemptsby both ethnic musiciansand outsidersto combine Oriental and Westernelements in Israeli music in ways that reflect an ideology of culturalequality and pluralism.These take a variety of forms to be dis- cussed in our typology in the following section. Recently however, the op- 236 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, MAY 1983

posite tendencyto returnto roots has also emerged.Some ethnicmusicians endeavor to reconstituteparticular traditional repertories,while ethnic ensemblesstrive to revivetheir old traditions,either on their own or with the supportof national institutions.As a consequenceof changedofficial attitudes, the frequencyof ethnic musical performanceson the stage, the radio and televisionhas multiplied.While most of these performancesare destined for a general public, some are organized by scholars and folklorists,who striveto reconstitutefor specializedprofessional audiences what they believe to be the authentic,pre-immigration versions. The growing pressurefor recognitionof and wider exposure to the cultureof the Orientalcommunities caused various new developments.On the one hand, it led to the official recognitionof the need to preserve, cultivateand promote the culturalheritage of OrientalJewry. This found institutionalexpression in the establishmentof the "Centrefor the Integra- tion of the OrientalJewish Heritagein Cultureand Education,"which is located in the Ministryof Educationand Culture. Its principalaim is to achieveacceptance and recognitionfor this heritagein the widersociety. To that end the Centrebacks and promotesvarious cultural activities, whether initiated within the ethnic communitiesor sponsored from the outside. There, "serious"music is promoted.Concomitantly, however, the pressure for recognition,together with changingtastes among the youngergeneration, led to the emergenceof a new, light commercializedmusical style, ex- pressedprimarily in the form of "Orientalhits." The most importantin- stitutional frameworkfor the performanceof such works is the yearly "Festivalof Songsin the Styleof OrientalCommunities." Since this style is widelypopular and profitable,non-Orientals have penetratedit. Evenwhen the composersthemselves are Orientals,the arrangersand orchestratorsare usually of Westernorigin. The commercializedlight Orientalstyle differs little from other such music in Israel and sometimescompletely loses its distinctiveness.The successfulpenetration of popularOriental music into the national popularculture may thus eventuallyprove its undoing.

DIRECTIONSOF CHANGE IN ETHNICMUSIC: A TYPOLOGYOF STYLISTICDYNAMICS

Ourpreceding historical survey clearly indicates the intricaciesinvolved in the problemof changeof musicalstyles underthe impactof variousex- ternalforces. We shall now attemptto systematizethe existingvariety into a typology of stylisticdynamics. The models for stylisticchange in ethnic art and music currentin the literature are based at least tacitly on the premise of unidirectionality, if not SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 237 unilinearity of change. This is in principle true even of the most sophisticated approaches in the field. Thus, Graburn (1976) bases his typology on the concept of "acculturation,"and despite his important distinctionbetween arts producedfor an internaland an externalpublic, his typology is essentiallyunidirectional in conception.Nettl's (1978b:127)approach, couchedin terms of "tradition," "modernization"and "western- ization," seems to be based on a similar premise;interestingly, the very richnessof concretestylistic transformations that he lists raisesquestions as to the sufficiency of these three simple terms to account for the variety. Moreover,any assumptionof unidirectionalityor unilinearitysuffers from a major theoreticaldrawback: it precludesthe conceptualizationof various types of stylisticdynamics emerging under different circumstances. Depart- ing from the earlierwork by Cohen (forthcoming)we base our typologyof stylistic dynamicson four variables:

1. Perpetuationvs. innovation in musicalproduction or performance. This variable relates to the extent to which musiciansmerely reproduce alreadyexisting stylistic elements or introducenovel ones.

2. Orthogenesisvs. heterogenesisof the processof musicalchange. This variableis adoptedfrom the work of Redfieldand Singer(1969[1954]) and refersto the extent to which ethnicmusical styles are replicated,or further developedand elaboratedunder the new conditions(orthogenesis), or com- bined with extraneous elements to create new, original musical styles (heterogenesis).

3. Internalvs. externalaudience. This variable,adopted from Graburn (1976), relatesto the intendedaudience of the work:the internalaudience is the audienceof the musician'sown ethnicgroup, while the externalaudience ranges from other JewishOriental groups to the generalIsraeli, Jewish or world public.

4. Spontaneousvs. sponsoredmusical production. This variablerelates to the sourceof the initiativefor new musicalproduction, and is of muchim- portancein Israel, where ethnic culturalevents often do not occur wholly spontaneously,but are in variousways sponsored by a varietyof outsidersor public and nationalinstitutions.

A completecross-classification of all these variableswould be cumber- some and is in fact unnecessary.We have found that a nine-foldclassifica- tion, as presentedin Table 1, does justice to the importantdevelopments in ethnic music that came to our attention, and we shall discuss each type in detail. 238 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, MAY 1983

TABLE 1

A TYPOLOGY OF STYLISTIC DYNAMICS IN JEWISH ORIENTAL MUSIC IN ISRAEL

Spontaneous- Spontaneous-Sponsored Sponsored- Internal External External Audience Audience Audience Perpetuation- (1) (2) (3) Orthogenetic Traditional Conserved Museumized Innovation- (4) (5) (6) Ortho / Heterogenetic Neotraditional Transitional Pseudoethnic Innovation- (7) (8) (9) Heterogenetic Popular Ethnic fine Fine

1. Traditional: continuation of pre-immigration musical forms. This type includes the bulk of liturgical music, which is still regularly performed in ethnic synagogues and festivities, as well as some paraliturgical and secular musical pieces, such as functional songs and dances related to major family rituals: birth, circumcision, bar-mitzvah, wedding ceremonies, and death (dirges are still commonly used), songs related to the yearly festivals, like Purim and the Seder Pessach family feast, and the home hymns (zemiroth) sung at Sabbatical repasts, cradle and epic songs, romances, pilgrimage songs, and so on (photo 4). In the first period after immigration, under the impact of the exhilara- tion of arrival in the Promised Land and of the more prosaic hardships ex- perienced there, some novel themes appeared in the secular music of the purely traditional type. A major example are the "Aliyah (Immigration) Songs" (Shiloah 1970), which were created spontaneously and informally performed for an internal audience, particularly among Yemenite, Iraqi and Moroccan immigrants. The creation by gifted folk poet-singers of such "new" songs is characteristic of most musical cultures of the Near Eastern region. These poet-singers express the feelings and complaints of the community concerning current affairs by creating a new text that they associate with an old tune. Jewish poet-singers used to compose such songs in the Diaspora and continued to do so upon immigration to Israel. Their works cover diverse topics, sometimes expressing the enthusiasm of the immigrants and sometimes their protest, particularly against alleged discrimination and injustices perpetrated against them. Since no musical in- novations are introduced in such songs, we have classified them as "traditional"; moreover, even if new literary motifs are introduced, these too are expressed in stereotyped traditional forms. The scope of musical production SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 239

Photo 4. A Yemeni wedding;Yemeni immigrantsimmediately after immigrationto Israel, sing and accompanydancers (not in the photo) by drummingon tin cans and clapping (Photo from the archivesof the InternationalCultural Center for Youth, in Jerusalem). in the purely traditional style diminished soon after immigration and various innovationsappeared even in the spontaneousethnic music.

2. Conserved:deliberate preservation of traditional,pre-immigration musical styles, edited and adapted for a new, externalaudience. Though membersof the ethnicgroup may be interestedin the disseminationof their music, the editing and adaption is usually done by outsiders, professional musicianswith a Westernmusical education. Major examples of such music are traditional tunes with certain characteristicsremoved or modifiedin orderto facilitatetheir performance by outsiders, who are unable to performthem in their original form. The modifications range from simplification to stylization; microtonality, a large part of the ornamentation,rhythmic freedom and complexity,as well as inheritedvocal intonations,nasal and gutturalemissions and pronuncia- tions are neglected.The long individualimprovisations are shortenedand heterophonyin group singing is changed into monophony. This process startsby the intentionalsimplifications in transciptionsof traditionaltunes into Westernnotation to make them accessibleto outsiders(see, for example, Adaqi and Sharvit 1981), and culminatesin performancesof these tunes from the simplifiednotated version. The "Centerfor the Integration 240 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983

of the JewishOriental Heritage" aims to propagatethe musicalheritage of the communitiesby helpingto adaptit to a modernWestern audience, while preservingits distinctiveness.In this sensethe work of E. Avitzur,a modern composersponsored by the Center,could be seen as performinga "conser- vational function." However, from another perspective, they are also original compositions,and will be discussedunder the rubricof fine arts (Type 9). Simplificationand stylizationalong similarlines also characterizethe staging of traditionaldances. While in museumization(Type 3), the em- phasisis on the strictpreservation of the "authentic,"conservation changes the original somewhat, as it strives to make it acceptableto a wider audience.

3. Museurnized:traditional, pre-emigrationmusic, collected and preservedin its "authentic"form by ethnographicallytrained outsiders, in the interestof scientificand artisticdocumentation of ethnic arts and performed primarilyfor selectedexternal audiences. The movementto safeguardthe authentictraditions before they disap- pearor changegoes back to A.Z. Idelsohn,who came from EasternEurope to Jerusalemin 1905. However,the movementreceived its majorimpetus in the wake of mass immigrationafter the creation of the State of Israel. Traditionalmusic and dances were collectedby Edith Gerson-Kiwi,Gurit Kadmanand other ethnographers.Major collectionswere storedin several archives, including a national archive affiliated with the National and UniversityLibrary in Jerusalem.These thousandsof documentsnow serve as material for research, musical education, and occasionally for the preparationof recordsedited by scholars. Composersuse the archivesin order to acquaintthemselves with the disappearing"original" traditions, and sometimes use the melodies they like in their own compositions. Scholarslike Gerson-Kiwihave also organizedspecial concertsdevoted to the performanceof "authentic" music and dance, for example, in the frameworkof internationalmusicological congresses. Such performances took place at the East-WestEncounter in Music (1963), the International Congressof Jewish Music (1978) and the InternationalDays of Contem- poraryMusic (1980). GuritKadman, who devoted herselfto the collection of traditionaldances, has initiatedtheir revivalin "authentic"forms, performed by membersof the variousethnic communities.

4. Neotraditional: innovative continuation of traditional musical styles, occurring spontaneouslywithin the ethnic group, but absorbing some outside influences;the synthesisis to a degreeheterogenetic. Thus, many immigrantgroups, which prior to immigrationhad their own little SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 241 musical traditions,adopted the so-calledJerusalemite-Sephardi style. This style, in turn, developed at an earlier stage within the old, established Sephardi community of Jerusalem and incorporated elements from throughoutthe OttomanEmpire. This style, enrichedby additionalMiddle Easternelements derived from the immigrants'traditions, now dominates the synagogal music of Oriental communities such as the Iranian, Bokharian,Moroccan and Yemenite.It providesthe basis for an emergent "pan-Sephardi"style in Israel, toward which most of the generationof Israeli-bornOriental cantors are inclined. A strikingexample is a young Yemenitewho sings in perfect "pan-Sephardi"style.4 In addition to such homogenization,there is also a tendencytowards various forms of syncretismin liturgicalmusic, one of its most interesting forms being the penetrationof elementsof Ashkenazihazzanut5 into the synagogal music of some Oriental communities. A good example is a recorded collection of traditional Moroccan hymns sung by a famous Moroccancantor, H. Luk. Here, the originalstyle still predominates,but the cantor has purposely introduced Western instrumentsand stylistic elements borrowed from Near Eastern music and from Ashkenazi haz- zanut. Thus, even in liturgicalmusic, the one most resistantto change,some processesof heterogenizationcan be observed.

5. Transitional:this category, embracingthe bulk of contemporary ethnic musical production, consists of music which, while still in many respectsessentially orthogenetic, introduces so many extraneouselements that it becomesprogressively heterogenetic. While directedprimarily to an external, Oriental or general public, its production and performanceis typically the result of a combinationof spontaneousinitiative within an ethnic group and sponsorshipby institutionsor individualsfrom the outside. Traditionaltunes, melodic patterns, and ways of performanceare fused into new popular songs, which are usually set to a Westernaccom- paniment. Some top performersin this style, particularlysingers such as Bracha Zephira(at an early stage of her career), Joe Ammar, and Yigal Ben-Haim, enjoy a wide popularityboth within their group of origin and among the generalpublic. Others, such as ShoshanaDammari and Esther Gamlieli achievedan internationalreputation, and were among the principal popularizersof what is seen abroad as "typical" Israelimusic. The transitionalstyle is widelydisseminated through records and radio and televisionprograms. Owing to the sponsorshipof public and national institutions, special events for music in this style have been initiated. The principalone is the yearly"Festival of Songs in the OrientalStyle." Due to borrowingand amalgamationof elementsfrom varioustraditions, the differences between the "transitional" music of different ethnic groups tend to 242 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983 be graduallyobliterated as a mainstreampopular Oriental style emergesin Israel. Also, musiciansfrom one ethnic communitylearned to performthe transitionalmusic of the othersand thus to diversifytheir programs. At the major ethnic festival of the Moroccan Mimuna (Ben Ami 1976) a wide varietyof transitionalpieces are performed,in additionto some museumized ones, by musiciansfrom variousethnic groups. A greatdeal of musicin the transitionalstyle is purely commercial,making money for producers and performersthrough popular concerts and the sale of records.Through the growingpenetration of outsidersthis style tends to be transformedinto "pseudoethnic"music (Type 6).

6. Pseudoethnic:the artistictransmutation of ethnicmusical forms by producersand performersfrom outsidethe ethnicgroup for an externalaudience. While the works are presentedas ethnic music, their form has undergonesuch far-reachingchanges to Westernstylistic patterns that, pro- perlyspeaking, they no longerbelong to the realmof ethnicmusic. This indeed is what happenedto manyof the songs, composedby Jews of Western origin or rearranged,harmonized and orchestratedby them at recent "Festivalsof Songsin the OrientalStyle." This developmentwas vehement- ly criticizedby Ben-Moshe,who, in a reviewof the most recentFestival ap- pearing in the Ba'Ma'aracha(the bulletin of the Sephardiand Oriental Jews), arguedthat "the 'style' of the festival had no connectionwhatever with the Oriental Jewry; even arrangersand performerswere Western Jews" (Ben-Moshe 1981:24). The "ethnic" label on music of this type refers, at most, to superficial imitations of traditional elements incorporated in the new songs. The outsider composers, arrangersand per- formersare most anxiousto meet the standardsof the commercializedlight musiccurrently popular on the market,rather than rendertraditional ethnic musical patterns.Despite their similaritieswith other light music, such as the use of big orchestras and overwhelmingsonorities, pieces in the "pseudoethnic"style are fraught with stereotypic"Oriental" elements, such as Spanishrhythms and harmonies.Many so-called "Israeli" songs us- ing adapted Oriental musical elements exemplify a version of the pseudoethnicstyle, still more remote from the original. 7. Popular: the spontaneousproduction or performanceby members of one ethnic group of music adopted from other musical traditions- Oriental,Mediterranean or even Western- for an internalethnic audience. Contraryto all previoustypes, this musicis alien in its originsto the traditions of the ethnic group and hence purelyheterogenetic. A strikingexample is the wide adoptionof modernpopular Greek music by differentOrien- tal Jewish communities.At big family rejoicings,Greek music performed SHILOAHAND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 243 by JewishOriental musicians is very popular.Indian popular music also en- joys a wide popularity.Insofar as the musiciansintroduce no changesinto such music, it is in fact perpetuative,rather than innovative, despite its heterogenesis.

8. Ethnicfine: this categoryincludes the works of ethnic artistswho, while makinguse of the musicalheritage of their own group, fuse this with elements taken from other, includingWestern, musical traditionsto produce works of an essentially innovative, heterogeneticcharacter. While often spontaneouslyinitiated, the musicalproduction of such artistsis later frequentlysponsored or helpedby outsiders.A majorcharacteristic of this type is the efforts of the ethnic musiciansto "aestheticize"folk music and elevate the traditionalstyle to the rank of concert hall "fine art." These musicians,such as BrachaZephira and Isaac Levy, who are animatedby a desire to enhancethe prestigeof their own tradition,have frequentlyhad recourseto outsiders- composersand performers- to transposetradi- tional tunes into new, concert-hallforms. However,in the long run, some of the productsof this collaborationbecame more and more sophisticated and led finally to fine art compositions,with only some Orientalflavor left (Type 9). A similar process occurredin Orientalfolk dancing;this is best exemplified by the Inbal dance company. Initiatedby Sara Levi-Tanaiand originally based on Yemenite folk dances, the company soon employed choreographers of Western origin. Gradually it introduced musical elements from other Orientaltraditions, and even some Ashkenaziones. The sequencesof the dances were presentedin a "dramaticframework" (Manor 1975). Inbal thus moved consistentlyaway from folklore and into the realmof art. The recentappearance of the "NaturalSelection" (Breira Tiv'it)ensemble, under the leadershipof a Jew of Moroccanorigin, Shlomo Bar, introducedanother interesting variation into this type. The leader,who serves as a singer, drummer,and flutist in the ensemble,joined with an Americanguitarist, an Indian Jewish violinist and an Israeli-bornJew of Bokharianorigin as contrabassist,to create an amalgamated,completely new style, dominatedby his powerful personality.The composerseeks to integratewidely different musical traditions, and yet endowhis workwith a pervasive"Oriental" spirit. It thus representsa balanceof stylisticplurality and stylistic fusion.

9. Fine: this type includes modern Westernmusic producedby com- posersof mostlyWestern origin, who have formalmusical training and who utilize ethnic thematic elements in their works. 244 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983

In the 1930s and 1940s, as a result of their encounterwith Oriental Jewishand other Near Easternmusic, some of the composerswho had im- migratedto Palestinedeveloped an ideology advocatingrecourse to Orien- tal musicas a way to form a new Eretz-Israelistyle. At that earlystage, the central figure through whom composerscame into contact with Oriental musical traditionswas BrachaZephira. Born in Jerusalemto a Yemenite family, she later studiedmusic in Berlin, whereshe met the composerand pianistNahum Nardi with whom she made her first appearanceon stage as a singerof traditionaltunes. She latercooperated with composers such as P. Ben-Haim,O. Partos and M. Lavryand helpedto introduceOriental traditions into modernWestern concert music. It shouldbe stressedthat the early encounterof these composerswith Orientaltraditions was thus not by direct exposure, but through a mediator who had already been "con- taminated" by Western musical conceptions. However, Bracha Zephira herself, a musicianwho originallystrove to fulfill the dreamof a cultural synthesis of Oriental and Western Jewish traditions, recently reacheda skepticalconclusion concerning the success of her efforts. In an introduction to her collectionof notatedtraditional songs she explicitlystates: "In conclusion,despite our cooperationand contributionin the realmof art we did not succeed to create a true merger, neither cultural nor social" (Zephira1978:26). In the last decadenew attemptsto incorporatethe Orientaltradition in- to Westernmusic have been made by severalcomposers including H. Alex- ander, Y. Braun and E. Avitzur. Unlike the earlier generationof composers, these artists addressedthemselves directly to the Orientalmaterial withoutthe help of a mediator.Avitzur has attempteda novel combination in which the traditionalmaterial is performedby the representativesof the ethniccommunities with an instrumentalaccompaniment written by himself and played by a small Westernand Orientalensemble. While in one sense serving the conservation of Oriental music, Avitzur's works are also original, artisticcompositions, and he conceivesof them as such. Therewere also some spontaneousattempts to raise ethnic music to a higherdegree of sophisticationthrough the introductionof some Western elements; these were initiated primarilyby representativesof the little musical traditions: Bracha Zephira, Isaac Levy, Sara Levi-Tanai and others. It could well be the case that other musiciansrepresenting the great Near Easternmusical tradition, such as D. Buzaglo, E. Dardashti,and Z. Musa, did not deem it necessaryto "raise" the level of theirmusic, since it appearedto them as sophisticatedas its Westerncounterpart. Indeed, as Saroussi(1981:65) found in his thesis on the baqqashotof MoroccanJews, musiciansof this traditionexpressly claim that their music equals Western art music, arguingthat "this is our concertmusic." SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 245

The sponsored introduction of Jewish Oriental musical elements into works by composers of Western origin underwent a more complicated process: the composers of popular Israeli folk songs borrowed exclusively from the little traditions. Composers of serious music initially also borrowed from the same source, but later turned increasingly to the great tradition. The latter is exemplified by attempts to introduce into art music the maqam and other basic patterns of the great Near Eastern tradition.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Having outlined the major directions of change in the ethnic music of Oriental Jewish communities in Israel, we shall now consider a question of wider anthropological interest: what role do the emergent musical forms play in the formation of an encompassing national identity, on the one hand, and of particular ethnic identities, on the other? We learn from the general literature that the arts of the people of the Fourth World are frequently utilized by their national institutions to help the formation of a distinct national identity. Graburn (in press) claims that Fourth World people, while failing to establish an autonomous national identity, "have become the 'totems' of the faceless modern nations which engulf them," helping the latter to achieve a distinguishing identity. By the same token, the art of an ethnic group, as it comes to be oriented toward a new, external, national or international audience, creates an awareness of the group's existence in ever wider circles and helps to endow it with a new identity. This, in turn, may contribute to the transformation of its self- perception. In Israel, however, some peculiar problems emerged with respect to Jewish ethnic groups. While the national institutions were keen on creating a distinct Israeli Jewish national identity, they were also, particularly in the early period of statehood, eager to "integrate" - to acculturate and assimilate - the various ethnic groups into one "nation." This created a dilemma with respect to ethnic cultures. While distinct ethnic cultural elements could be used, as they were elsewhere, to enrich the national identity, for example by absorbing into "Israelness" certain types of dishes, designs, fashion, or tunes derived from the culture of a specific Jewish ethnic group,6 it was considered undesirable to perpetuate or emphasize the cultural distinctiveness of that very group. Such elements have often been tacitly incorporated, and their specific ethnic origins remained unacknowledged. This was especially the case with pseudoethnic music (Type 6) and fine art music (Type 9), which were the most intensively sponsored during the Mandate and the early period of statehood. "Israeli" 246 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983 danceadopted elements of a varietyof Jewish(for example,Yemenite) and even non-Jewish(Druse and Arab) ethnic traditions.Israeli folksong was frequently based on ethnic melodies to which new, Hebrew texts were adapted. In Hebrewsong books the origin of the tune was frequentlyonly vaguely mentionedas "traditional"or "Oriental"(for example,the song Shir Noded, based on the Bokharian song Gudur Farona, and the song Bein Nehar Prath, based on the Arab folk-tune Aduq al Mayas); in other cases, the specific ethnic group from which the song originatedwas pointed out (Sephardi,Yemenite or Persian), but the name of the original piece was generally omitted (for example, the song Etz Harimon, based on the Bokharian song Shudam der Surtat Ushuq, and the song Yefeh Nof, based on the Judeo-Spanishromance, Tres Hermanicas Eran). Traditionalethnic tunes were frequentlyappropriated by modern composersand published undertheir name; for example,the songs Hitrag'utand Sirati, by the composer NahumNardi, are basedrespectively on the Judeo-Spanishromances Mamma Yo Tengo Visto and Povereta Mucha Chica; similarly, Isaac Levy's cycle of Hebrew songs, HaktantanaHismiqa, is based, as the ar- rangerhimself stated, on various Judeo-Spanishromances. In the field of fine arts, members of the so-called "Mediterranean School of Composition," which included such well-knownnames as P. Ben-Haim, M. Lavri, U. Boscowitz, M. Seter and 0. Partos, frequentlyborrowed elementsor whole tunes from specific ethnic groups, or from a varietyof traditions,to endow their work with an "Oriental"flavor. Such borrowings, however,were highly selective,sporadic and taintedby a tendencyto exoticism. They were not intended to bring the music of any particular groupto the attentionof the widerpublic. Indeed,the identityof the group from which the borrowingswere made often remainedobscure (except in cases wherethe composermerely arranged ethnic songs for concertperfor- mance). The borrowingshad, therefore,little, if any, feedbackeffect upon the image of the group in the widerJewish society. The Yemenites are the only exception to this generalization.The Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts, dancingensembles such as Inbal, and singerslike Sh. Dammariand B. Zephirahelped to propagatean image of the Yemenites as a versatile, artisticallygifted people, whose tradition significantlyenriched the emergentIsraeli culture.7 For many non-Oriental Jews the Yemenitescame to symbolizeOriental Jewish culture in general. Indeed, it is quite possiblethat, in the popularmind, culturaltraditions of other OrientalJewish communities were mistakenlylabelled "Yemenite." The offical attitude toward Oriental Jewish ethnic cultures, if not necessarilythe attitudeof the Westerneducated public, began to changein the 1970s, largely under the impact of various forms of ethnic protest SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 247

Photo 5. Staged Yemeni wedding, performedby the "Pe'amei Teiman" ensemble, December,1981, in the InternationalCultural Center for Youth,in Jerusalem(Photo fromthe Centre'sarchives).

(Cohen 1972; Smooha 1978:208-16).As part of their demand for greater participationin the center of Israeli society, the Oriental ethnic groups demandeda widerrecognition of theirparticular cultural heritages. Various ethnic instituteswere founded for researchand disseminationof the par- ticularcultural heritages of the differentOriental communities, such as the Iraqi, the Moroccan and the Yemenite. In response to the demand for greaterrecognition, several major cultural events were sponsored by various public and national institutions,such as the MoroccanMimuna, a popular festival at which different ethnic groups make appearances,and more recently, another traditionalfestival, the KurdishSeherane. These events are attendedby representativesof the State and the government,including the Presidentand the Prime Minister.The IsraelMuseum staged major ex- hibitions of Moroccan, Bokharanand KurdishJewish culture. In the field of music, there was a marked increase in the broadcastingof Oriental Jewish folklore on radio and television,and the "Centerfor Integrationof Oriental Jewish Culture" sponsored performances and publication of recordsof ethnic music (photo 5). Oriental Jewish ethnic music and dance came to symbolize "Israeli" culture in festivals abroad. While preservingto varying degrees its particularethnic identity, such music often undergoesconsiderable adaptation 248 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,MAY 1983 and change, which makes it more acceptableto a Westernor Westernized audience.Rather than leadingto a mererevival of tradition(Type 1 or 2) or puremuseumization (Type 3), these efforts lead primarilyto a proliferation of conserved (Type 2) and transitional music (Type 5). While these developmentsmay contributeto a wider recognitionof the various par- ticularOriental Jewish communities, their new "external"identities are to a degree slanted, and differ significantlyfrom the communities'traditional self-images;it may be expected, however, that, as in the case of some FourthWorld groups who were given wide exposure,the externalidentities will eventuallyinfluence self-images, and the self-imagebecome gradually assimilatedto the externalidentity. This mightalready have happenedin the case of the most widelyknown OrientalJewish community, the Yemenites. The latest development in the changing relationship between the general Israeli culture and ethnic culture in the field of music is the emergenceof ethnic fine art (Type 8). Whilethe composer'sethnic identity is clearlypreserved and emphasizedin his style of compositionand performance, his claimsare set higherthan in the precedingcases. By weavingthe ethnic element into essentially heterogenetic compositions, he claims recognitionof his work as a stylisticvariety of fine art music and thereby asks for legitimationof his own status as an "artist." If this is granted, Jewish Oriental ethnics will have penetratedthe mainstreamof Israeli music, not throughacculturation to Westernstandards, but throughthe ac- ceptanceby the widermusical public of their compositionsas "art." Our presentationthus indicatesa trend away from the idea of mere amalgamationof different ethnic traditions into an overall "national musicalstyle," but ratherthe gradualemergence of legitimatepluralism in music on the national level. This shows that the emergentIsraeli cultural identity is becomingless monolithicand more pluralisticthan it has been conceivedof in the past. The acceptanceof diversity,however, is achieved at the expense of preservationof "authentic" traditionalforms. Jewish Orientalethnic music, like other FourthWorld arts, changesin responseto alteredconditions and audiences.Though theirrole may graduallyachieve legitimation,ethnic musiciansstill face the dilemmaof makingtheir work widely acceptable,without erasingits distinctethnic characterand thereby destroyingtheir own particularethnic identity. SHILOAH AND COHEN: MUSIC IN ISRAEL 249

NOTES

1. The concept of the Fourth World was first appliedto the study of art by Graburn (1976), who traces it back to Berreman(1972), Whitaker(1972) and Manueland Poslums (1974). The concepthas to be qualifiedwhen appliedto the JewishOriental ethnic groups in Israel, since these are not full-fledged"minorities": though they possess distinctidentities, they see themselvesas belongingto an encompassingJewish nation. In this respectthey differ sharply from other minoritiesin Israel, such as the Arabs, Druze, Circassians,or from minoritiesin ThirdWorld countries who are unrelatedto the dominantnational group. 2. We borrow the term "great tradition" from the work of Redfield and Singer (1969[1954]).In our context it designatesthe "high" and sophisticatedmusical art style elaboratedin NearEastern music after the adventof Islamand widelyadopted by the cultures under Islamicinfluences, including the Jewish(see Shiloah, forthcoming).The "greattradition" contrasts with the many specific "little traditions" of particularethnic, linguistic, religiousor regionalcommunities; the music of the little traditionsis usuallylabelled "folk music." Both musicaltraditions are orallytransmitted. In the past therewas alwayssome in- teractionbetween them. 3. Thereexists a rich literaturein Arabicon music, musiciansand musicallife; its beginnings go back to the ninth century.For furtherdetails, see Shiloah 1979. 4. The boy is thirteen-year-oldYehiel Nahari, who singsbaqqashot in the maqamicstyle, accompaniedby an 'ud and a qanun;his recordingsappear on a commercialcassette, produced in New York. 5. The termHazzanut referred initially to the traditionalform of liturgicalchanting and later to professionalcantoral singing. 6. In a review of the contributionof OrientalJewry to the "nascent Israeliculture," Smooha (1978: 185), while arguingthat this contributionis on the whole deficient,claims: "Only in the aestheticfield have Orientalshad some minorinfluences, mainly in folk music and dance, arts and crafts...." 7. Thus Ben-Moshe(1981: 24) points out that " ItheYemenite song has long ago become the propertyof the nation as a whole." Smooha(1978: 185)argues that the OrientalJewish contributionto artsand craftsconsisted "by and largein Yemeniteembroidery and jewellry."

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DISCOGRAPHY

The following is a brief discography,representative of most of the stylistic dynamics discussedin the paper.No attemptis madeat eithercompleteness or systematicillustration of each type:

1. Diwan. Yemenitereligious poems compiledand commentedon by A. Bahat. UNESCO Collection,Philips 6586037.

2. Elei Shorashim,first record of the groupHabreira Hativ'it, Isradisc 31144; Second record, Mehakkimle-Samson, Hed Artzi 14813;Third record, Hut Shazur,CBS 85837.

3. Folk Music of Palestine,collected with commentsby E. Gerson-Kiwi,Ethnic Folkways, FE 4408.

4. Hezyonot, flute, piano and stringsby O. Partos; includesa "YemeniteDance," RCA ISZ 0012.

5. Jewish Music, collected with commentsby A. Shiloah, UNESCO Collection, Philips, 6586-0032.

6. Lamenatzeahshir mizmor,all the songs of the Orientalsong festivalwith two ensembles, Westernand Near-Eastern;held each year since 1971;First Festival, Hed Arzi 14164.

7. MahazotIsrael, suite for orchestraby Paul Ben-Haim,includes a movementbased on Yemeniteand Sephardisongs, UnitedArtists 7005.

8. MishireiYehudei Teiman, Sefarad, etc., songsof variousOriental communities and Israeli songs, presentedby BrachaZephira, with piano or orchestralaccompanient; CBA 112.

9. Morashah,Traditional Jewish Musical Heritage, collected and commentedon by A. Shiloah,Ethnic Folkways, FE 4203.

10. Musicof theBible, collectedand commentedon by E. Gerson-Kiwi,Schwann, Duesseldorf AMS 8.

11. Shirei'Adot Israel, arrangements of traditionaltunes by Y. Braunand Z. Avni, sungby the CameranChoir, CBS CS 19811.

12. Siftei Renanot,supplications of the Jewsof Libya,arranged by E. Avitzur,sung by traditional cantorswith accompanimentof Westernand Orientalinstruments, CBS, Myl. 1.

13. TiqquanHatzot, Cantatabased on Yemenitetunes, by M. Seter, IsraelCBS, 72564.