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Women Adrift: Familial and Cultural Alienation in the Personal Narratives of Francophone Women

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Women Adrift: Familial and Cultural Alienation in the Personal Narratives of Francophone Women WOMEN ADRIFT: FAMILIAL AND CULTURAL ALIENATION IN THE PERSONAL NARRATIVES OF FRANCOPHONE WOMEN by KAREN BETH MASTERS submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Literature and Philosophy in the subject French at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF. EDGARD SIENAERT, Research fellow, Centre for Africa Studies, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa November 2015 © University of South Africa 2015 ABSTRACT This study analyzes the experience of alienation from family and culture as portrayed in the personal narratives of francophone women. The authors appearing in this study are Assia Djebar and Marie Cardinal, from Algeria, Mariama Bâ and Ken Bugul, from Senegal, Marguerite Duras and Kim Lefèvre, from Vietnam, Calixthe Beyala, from Cameroon, Gabrielle Roy, from Canada, and Maryse Condé, from Guadeloupe. Alienation is deconstructed into the domains of blood, money, land, religion, education and history. The authors’ experiences of alienation in each domain are classified according to severity and cultural normativity. The study seeks to determine the manner in which alienation manifests in each domain, and to identify factors which aid or hinder recovery. Alienation in the domain of blood occurs as a result of warfare, illness, racism, ancestral trauma, and the rites of passage of menarche, loss of virginity, and menopause. Money-related alienation is linked to endemic classism, often caused by colonial influence. The authors experienced varying degrees of economic vulnerability to men, depending upon cultural and familial norms. Colonialism, warfare and environmental degradation all contribute to alienation in the domain of land. Women were found to be more susceptible to alienation in the domain of religion due to patriarchal religious constructs. In the domain of education, it was found that some alienation is inevitable for all students. Despite its inherent drawbacks, education provides tools for empowerment which are crucial for overcoming alienation. Alienation in the domain of history was found to hinder recovery due to infiltration of past trauma into the present, while empowerment in this domain fosters optimism and future-oriented thinking. Each domain offers opportunities for empowerment, and it is necessary to work within the domains to create a safe haven for recovery. Eight of the nine authors experienced at least a partial recovery from alienation. This was accomplished via cathartic release of negative emotions. Catharsis is achieved by shedding tears, talking, or writing about the negative experiences. The personal narrative was found to be especially helpful in promoting healing both for the author and the reading audience. ii Key words: alienation, culture, family, post-colonialism, blood, money, land, religion, education, history, Mariama Bâ, Calixthe Beyala, Ken Bugul, Marie Cardinal, Maryse Condé, Assia Djebar, Marguerite Duras, Kim Lefèvre, Gabrielle Roy iii RÉSUMÉ Cette étude examine l’aliénation de la famille et de la culture représentée dans les récits personnels des femmes francophones. Les auteures examinées sont Assia Djebar et Marie Cardinal d’Algérie, Mariama Bâ et Ken Bugul du Sénégal, Marguerite Duras et Kim Lefèvre du Vietnam, Calixthe Beyala du Cameroun, Gabrielle Roy du Canada, et Maryse Condé de Guadeloupe. L’aliénation est déconstruite dans les domaines du sang, de l’argent, de la terre, de la religion, de l’éducation, et de l’histoire. L’aliénation de chaque auteure est classifiée selon la sévérité et la normativité culturelle de l’expérience. Cette étude cherche à déterminer la manière de laquelle cette aliénation se présente dans chaque domaine et à identifier les éléments qui aident ou entravent la guérison. Dans le domaine du sang, l’aliénation se produit comme résultat de la guerre, des maladies, du racisme, du traumatisme ancestral, et des étapes importantes de la ménarche, de la perte de la virginité, et de la ménopause. L’aliénation relative à l’argent est liée à la discrimination endémique contre les classes sociales inférieures, souvent provoquée par le colonialisme. Quelques auteures ont souffert d’une vulnérabilité financière aux hommes, selon les normes familiales et culturelles. Le colonialisme, la guerre et la dégradation de l’environnement contribuent à l’aliénation dans le domaine de la terre. Il a été déterminé que les femmes sont plus vulnérables à l’aliénation dans le domaine de la religion à cause des constructions patriarcales. Dans le domaine de l’éducation l’aliénation est inévitable pour tout élève ou étudiant, mais l’éducation offre beaucoup de stratégies essentielles pour surmonter l’aliénation. Aliénation dans le domaine de l’histoire entrave les efforts de surmonter le traumatisme à cause de la transmission du traumatisme du passé qui s’infiltre dans le présent, mais l’émancipation dans ce domaine permet à l’individu d’accepter un passé douloureux et d’avancer vers un avenir bénéfique. Chaque domaine offre des occasions pour l’émancipation, et il est nécessaire de travailler dans le cadre de ces domaines pour créer un abri en sécurité pour la guérison. Huit des neuf auteures ont ressenti au moins un rétablissement partiel de leur iv aliénation. Cela a été accompli par moyen d’une catharsis des émotions négatives. La catharsis est réalisée par moyen des larmes, de la parole, et de l’écriture au sujet des épreuves vécues. Le récit personnel est particulièrement utile pour encourager le rétablissement pas seulement pour l’auteur, mais aussi pour le lectorat. Mot clés: l’aliénation, la culture, la famille, le post-colonialisme, le sang, l’argent, la terre, la religion, l’éducation, l’histoire, Mariama Bâ, Calixthe Beyala, Ken Bugul, Marie Cardinal, Maryse Condé, Assia Djebar, Marguerite Duras, Kim Lefèvre, Gabrielle Roy v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Edgard Sienaert, for consistently holding me to the highest academic standard. His patient encouragement, insightful comments and sound mentorship inspired me to a greater degree of academic growth than I would have thought possible. I also wish to thank Professor Elizabeth Pretorius for guiding me through the administrative requirements of being a doctoral student. From early childhood through graduate school, I have benefitted from the wisdom of many talented teachers, both in and out of a traditional classroom setting. A few have influenced me to such a degree that I might not have made it this far without their guidance. I express my heartfelt thanks to Professor Edgard Sienaert, Dr. Nina Hellerstein, Dr. Cathy Stults, Tom Dwiggins, June Brandt, Don Simmons, and Rev. Richard Burdick. I am extremely thankful to my wonderful husband Michael Borge Jr., for providing tech support and unfailing moral support. Sometimes I needed to be reminded to take a break, and sometimes I needed to be reminded to get back to work, and you always knew how to tell the difference. I must also thank my beloved son Miles Sent-Leger-Franklin, whose departure from the nest inspired me to begin a new chapter in my life. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page number Chapter 1: Alienation and the personal narrative 1 1.1 Our ancestors … the Gauls? or What would Vercingetorix do? 1 1.2 The origins of autobiography and feminism 4 1.3 Alienation in the francophone world 9 1.4 The authors 15 1.4.1 Maryse Condé, Guadeloupe 16 1.4.2 Gabrielle Roy, Manitoba, Canada 18 1.4.3 Assia Djebar and Marie Cardinal, Algeria 19 1.4.4 Marguerite Duras and Kim Lefèvre, Vietnam 21 1.4.5 Mariama Bâ and Ken Bugul, Senegal 23 1.4.6 Calixthe Beyala, Cameroon 26 1.5 Research methodology 27 1.6 Anticipated impact of study 31 Chapter 2: Alienation in the domain of blood 34 2.1 Introduction 34 2.2 Une femme n’a qu’un seul trésor 36 2.3 Une femme indisposée 42 2.4 Bloodshed 46 2.5 Bloodlines 51 2.6 Tainted blood 56 2.7 Blood as carrier of genetic memory 61 2.8 Conclusions 63 Chapter 3: Alienation in the domain of money 67 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 She works hard for the money 72 3.3 Can’t buy me love 77 3.4 Been caught stealing 84 3.5 Une sale mentalité de pauvre 87 3.6 Conclusions 93 vii Chapter 4: Alienation in the domain of land 99 4.1 Introduction 99 4.2 Homesick 105 4.3 Do you have a flag? 113 4.4 Terre / mère 120 4.5 Conclusions 128 Chapter 5: Alienation in the domain of religion 134 5.1 Introduction: The beginning of wisdom 134 5.2 Opting out 143 5.3 Conversion or coercion? 148 5.4 Conclusions 159 Chapter 6: Alienation in the domain of education 165 6.1 Introduction: The roots of education 165 6.2 Unequal opportunity 172 6.3 Curriculum 182 6.4 Le premier métier 189 6.5 Conclusions 196 Chapter 7: Alienation in the domain of history 201 7.1 Introduction: What is truth? 201 7.2 Where do we come from? 206 7.3 Your history, my history, our history 214 7.4 Conclusions: Where do we go from here? 224 Chapter 8: Conclusions 233 8.1 Introduction 233 8.2 Spotlight on Vietnam 238 8.3 Safety and catharsis 245 8.4 Something to strive for 251 8.5 Final thoughts 258 Works cited 262 viii Chapter One—Alienation and the personal narrative 1.1 Our ancestors … the Gauls? or What would Vercingetorix do? To fight the Empire is to be infected by its derangement. This is a paradox; whoever defeats a segment of the Empire becomes the Empire; it proliferates like a virus, imposing its form on its enemies. Thereby it becomes its enemies. --Philip K. Dick (1981, 235) (1) According to the majority of French history books, the history of the French people began with the Gallic resistance to Rome, led by the young king Vercingetorix.
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