AU J.T. 8(4): 178-184 (Apr. 2005)

Khmer Civilization in Khemita Visudharomn School of Architecture, Assumption University Bangkok,

Abstract

Follow the footsteps of Khmer civilization from Wat to the center of cultural heritage in northeastern Thailand, Phimai, Phanom Rung and Mueang Tam. This paper is both an introduction and guide to Khmer temples in Isan. The first part begins with historical details tracing the Angkorean from the 8th to 12th century, and introduces a background to the religious traditions of the Khmer, which both inspired and governed the concept and execution of all their art and architecture. The second part is an emphasis on architecture and decorative art, which appear in Khmer temples. In its heyday the main concentration of Khmer temples extended far west to the border and associated with an area of the middle River in the southern part of northeastern Thailand. Keywords: cultural heritage, Phimai, Phanom Rung, Mueang Tam, the Angkorean, religious traditions, architecture and decorative art

1. Introduction The other sources of information on this period are Chinese accounts and references, in The name “Isan” refers to the these to tributary states such as Funan and northeastern part of Thailand .It covers an area . of one third of the Kingdom. Isan, is also th th known as the Khorat Plateau. The Phetchabun 2.1 Angkorean (8 - 12 century) Rage separates Isan from the Central Region while the Dongrek Mountains in the south The art and architecture of the Khmer has separate Thailand from . The Mun been classified into periods, by French art and Chi Rivers drain the majority of the historians. Each style takes its name from the plateau. They flow to the east and meet the principal monument built by the ruler at Mekong River in Ubon Ratchathani. Angkor. The Angkor Period began when This grate originates in the eastern Jayavarman II conducted a ritual that installed Himalayas and flows to China, Burma, him as universal monarch and ended with the Thailand, , Cambodia, and . The relocation of the Khmers from Angkor to Mekong River and its tributaries are dominant Phnom Phen in southern Cambodia. The features of the waterways have played a history of this period has been reconstructed significant role in . from the monuments, reliefs, statuary, excavated artifacts and inscriptions in Pali, and Khmer; all found within the 2. Historical Background boundaries of the former empire. During the Angkorean period of The earliest inscriptions of Khmer history Suriyavarman I (1002-50) was the significant th in northeast Thailand date to the end of 6 king. He strengthened the organization of the century AD. The inscription craved by order of government, established internal security, and , after he had conquered all achieved political acclaim for extending the the country with many attempts being made to territorial boundaries southward to Thailand assign a specific location to cities mentioned in through a series of wars. He conquered the other inscriptions found within Cambodia. Kingdom of central Thailand, and established a

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Khmer center at Louvo (Lop Buri), a move that have been held during one of the most strengthened the empire’s economic control. prosperous period of the region’s history by the During Suriyavarman I’s reign, the Khmer family of Narendraditya. empire reached its greatest degree of territorial Overlooked by Phnom Rung, and so now expansion. Ancient Khmer Highway between known as ‘Lower City’. Muang Tam has a Angkor and Phimai was built for local particular charm from its tranquil setting and communication of people from two cities. It its ponds. So far, however, no inscriptions have was about 225 Kilometers drawn in straight been found, which makes it difficult to place line from to , the history of Prasat Mueang Tam. Regional Prasat Phanom Rung and Prasat Phimai. accounts state that Prasat Mueang Tam was Suriyavarman II (1113-1150) was one built after Prasat Phnom Rung, to serve as of the most brilliant of the Khmer rulers and residence for the governor. The styles of the builder of the great temple of Angkor Wat. carving particularly in the lintels are the best He appears in the bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat. guide to the temple’s dates. Most are At one point he is shown standing on the back combination of Khleng and styles, of an elephant reviewing his troops and and so were probably carved between the end accompanied by his field marshals, and at of the 10th century and the end of the 11th another he is seated on an elaborately carved century. The complex must have been built throne. after the first phase of building at Phanom Jayavarman VII was another important Rung but before the later additions in the king in Angkorean period. He was Angkor Wat style. Buddhist, since he believed himself to be the Although the main sanctuary was Bodhisattava who gives mercy to all human dedicated to , a small statue of , beings. He built many hospitals (Arokhaya fragments of which remain has also been Sala), shelters (Dharma Sala), and sanctuaries found. Worship of the two gods in the same along the route from to Khorat temple was by no means uncommon. Plateau. Another parallel to Phnom Rung that can be seen is Prasat Phimai. The earliest 2.2 The Center of Cultural Heritage in Isan inscription in the Phimai area written in both Sanskrit and Khmer was found in 1082 also The majority of Khmer temples in mentions Vimayapura, the city of Vimaya Thailand were built after the 10th century; the (Phimai).A monastery is thought to have Khmer control was exerted over an increasing existed at Phimai also, one which was kept number of northeastern Thai principalities. active within the temple wall well into this The inscriptions of Prasat Phnom Rung century. Several inscriptions have been found offer a unique insight into the nature of Khmer in Phimai sanctuary, most were broken. The rule in northeast Thailand between the 10th and oldest is date to the 11th century, while the 13th centuries AD. The most important is the other belonged to the 12th and 13th centuries. last, a stele erected in 1150 by Hiranya, son of Prasat Phimai was the sanctuary as Mahayana Narendraditya, making clear that they ruled in the 12th century during the reign autonomously, not as vassals to the king at Angkor. of Jayavarman VII. He was a devout follower He was indeed a relative and of Mahayana Buddhism and changed the contemporary of King Suriyavarman II, he also former Deva-Raja cult into a Buddha-Raja sect, having defeated many of Suriyavarman II’s this spiritual dedication permeated every as enemies. In former times, Phanom Rung was perfect of his reign. midway between the great city of Angkor to the south and Phimai to the northwest .The 2.3 Religion ruler who controlled the Phnom Rung area most probably also had suzerainity over the The appreciation of Khmer temples will fertile floodplain stretching south to Prasat be greater if have background to the religious Muang Tam. This powerful fiefdom appears to and traditions which both inspired and

179 AU J.T. 8(4): 178-184 (Apr. 2005) governed the concept and execution of all their symbol of the ‘creative energy of the powers of art and architecture. nature’. Shiva is also most easily identified by his third eye in the middle of upper face. He 2.3.1 Hindu: The Hindu religion developed carried a trident and axe, wear a snake across over time of complex rituals led to the his chest and may have matted hair. His mount establishment of a powerful caste of Brahman is the bull, popularly known as ‘Nandi’ and his priests. At a simple level, much of this centers consort is Uma (or Paravati). Another cult on cycles of birth and rebirth, and is object is depicting Shiva as ‘Lord of Dance’ (or personified in the three major Hindu deities, Tandava). Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, with their ability to present themselves in various incarnations. 2.3.2 Buddhism: Each Hindu deity is associated with specific - Mahayana Buddhism, known as the symbols or attributes that represent his powers ‘Greater Vehicle’, may have reached Cambodia and he often holds these in his hands, which in the 5th century. However, it reached the peak help to identify him. of popularity in the 12th and early 13th centuries A deity often rides a mount or vehicle, during the reign of Jayavarman VII. The which is another distinguishing feature. The religious ideal of Mahayana is and presence of a wife or consort, representing the it was widely portrayed in Khmer art, god’s female energy, or sakti, who often carries especially during the late Angkor period. A the symbols of her spouse is yet another clue to Bodhisattva is one who has performed enough the identity of a deity. merit to enter Nirvana, but renounces - Brahma is the Creator, endowed with four attainment of enlightenment to return to earth faces, allowing him to survey the four quarters and help the sufferings of all humanity. The of the earth. He carries objects in his many principles of this sect are expounded through hands, these attributes and his multiple limps the Sanskrit language. Several symbolizing his divinity. Brahma’s mount is appear in Khmer art, particularly in stone , a scared goose and his consort is sculptures, but the most frequently represented Surasvadi. Brahma was most important as a in reliefs is the Avalokiteshvara. He appears in Hindu god than in Vedic times, but he was several forms in art during the reign of never as widely worshipped in Khmer as Shiva Jayavarman VII. Some believe the faces of the and Vishnu. tower of represent this. If the - Vishnu is the Preserver, he is riding his Bodhisattva has eight arms, he holds additional mount the garuda, the mythical king of birds, objects: a thunderbolt, an elephant goad, a with a human body, and he is accompanied by conch, discus and sword. his consort Laksami. Vishnu was a popular - Theravada Buddhism, known as the Hindu god in Khmer art, widely depicted both ‘Lesser Vehicle’, adhered to conservative in sculpture and reliefs. Vishnu is standing with principles preserving the original doctrines and four arms and holds a conch shell, a ball expressed them through the Pali language. representing the Earth and two weapons-the Theravada was practiced in Cambodia in the club and the discus. One of the most popular of period of Post-Angkorean after the reign of the ten incarnations of Vishnu in Khmer Jayavarman VII. The Buddha apparently had imagery is that of Rama, the principal character great practical and organizing ability together of ancient India romantic epic, . with his unquestionable personality quickly Another incarnation was Krishna in Maha made him a popular and successful teacher. Bharata, the great epic of the Bharata Dynasty. Finally, the aesthetic of Buddha image was - Shiva (or Isavara), god of Destruction non-ritualistic and simple. that must precede Creation. Shiva was one of the earliest and most popular of the Hindu gods 3. Typical Architectural Features represented in Khmer iconography. Shiva was in the form of linga, shaped like erect phallus The temple, then, served as a link and usually made of polished stone. The phallic between man and the gods. It was built meaning associated with the linga was more a according to carefully ordered principles and

180 AU J.T. 8(4): 178-184 (Apr. 2005) base on geometric plan with orientation to the Prasat Phanom Rung located on volcano cardinal points. Emphasis was on the east-west that rises over the flat farmland that stretches axis, which associated the temple with the 30 km. south to the visible Dongrek Mountain rising and setting of the sun. Although the that increasingly focused on the recreation of cosmological symbolism and astronomical Mount Meru and surrounding elements of the calculations are less understood than other Hindu universe, made mountains particularly aspects of Khmer architecture, it is clear that compelling and special sites. The Khmer word the movement of the sun, the moon, stars and ‘phanom’ meaning hill, describes the location. planets had significant bearing on architecture Phanom Rung was built to take advantage of its forms. naturally commanding site, and a sequence of Layouts of temple and monasteries are all causeway; steps and terraces make a long symmetrical around a central axis called impressive approach to the sanctuary on the top. ‘centralization’. This symmetry provides Phimai’s concentric plan now becomes mirrored images, profiles around a central apparent, a cosmological arrangement found in dominant architectural feature such as the so many major Khmer temples. The central central tower on the grand scale or the main sandstone prang as the concept of Mount Meru porticos on the axial route. and the surrounding gallery are the earliest Phimai is a rectangular city, 565 m wide parts, construction of these parts began during and 1,030 m long. It surrounded by a city wall the reign of Jayavarman VII. and moat with the sanctuary in the center. The The five central towers of Prasat Mueang plan of Phimai sanctuary is similar to those at Tam and the dedication to Shiva make it clear Preah Pa Lelai and in Cambodia. that the central sanctuary was supposed to The lower staircase of Phanom Rung is represent Mount Meru and the larger main almost half a kilometer own the eastern slope tower probably Mount Kailasa where Shiva of the hill. These laterite steps lead up to the lives. The five brick towers are one of Muang first of four cruciform platforms, which mark Tam’s peculiarities, being built as a front row the ascent to the eastern entrance. The presence of three and a back row of two rather than as a of steps below the platform suggests that a quincunx. pavilion once rose above it, to mark its importance on the way to summit. This type of 3.2 Causeway and ‘Naga Bridge’ layout is found at other Khmer temples such as Khoa Preah Vihear to the east of Phanom Rung The combination of a causeway and a on the Thai-Cambodian border. moat provide a dramatic backdrop for naga or Mueang Tam is a substantial ‘flat’ temple serpent balustrade that appeared in Khmer built to a concentric plan, but with two unusual architecture since ninth century. features. It is flat in the sense that there was no The ‘naga bridges ’link the world of man attempt at physically elevating the central to that of the gods on the summit of the hill. sanctuary, either by raising the platform or by Having crossed over, the pilgrim ascends the building a dominant tower. final and grandest staircase. The cross-shaped terrace marks the 3.1 Temple Mountain beginning of the principal approach to Prasat Phanom Rung. From the middle of this The Khmers adapted the Indian concept platform the view is directly towards the of a temple-mountain so successfully and staircase and the tower. Sixty- seven lotus-bud- uniquely that today it is synonymous with tipped boundary stones line each side of the Khmer architecture, the temple draws its causeway. The architectural style indicated symbolism from Hindu mythology. It is an which of the Angkor Wat period from the first earthly facsimile of Mount Meru, the scared few decades of the 12th century. abode of the gods. The temple as a microcosm The ‘naga bridge’ of Phanom Rung is of a central mountain was an essential concept one of the finest ever craved. Constructed with that had profound influence on Khmer art. sandstone, it is raised up about one and half

181 AU J.T. 8(4): 178-184 (Apr. 2005) meters. A large lotus is lightly inscribed on the hands firmly grasps the garland issuing from its stone floor of the unfinished platform. The mouth .The kala plays a particularly important five-headed naga balustrades lining it in the role in the decoration at Mueang Tam, and form of balustrades here perform the function occurs frequently in the lintels and pediments. of a rainbow, and are a bridge between this The entrance to Prasat Phimai is the world and the divine. The hill beyond, and the southern gopura, built of sandstone, is the sanctuary at its top, are a recreation of the largest of the four gopuras, which break the center of the Hindu universe. outer wall. The gate has three parts, the first The entrance to Prasat Phimai courtyard marked by a pair of large square pillars flanked is marked by the ‘naga bridge’ leading to the by balustrade windows. More pillars are seen main southern entrance .The construction of in the second section, an imposing and such a terrace is the mark of the temple’s monument feature. To the left and right arte importance. The nagas are similar to those at additional porches, each divided into three Phanom Rung, but the slightly smaller head- rooms .The gopuras have stairs to enter the dresses. To the left of the ‘naga bridge’ is a gallery, which is raised almost a meter above large rectangular building date to the end of the ground level. 12th century, the reign of King Jayavarman VII, commonly referred to as storehouse (khleang), 3.4 Main Tower which may have been used by Brahmin priests to mark ritual preparations. The tower is the predominant architectural feature of Angkor. Its form is 3.3 Gopura derived from the south Indian temple .The base stands firm on a platform with symmetrical A gopura or gateway is the main doorways on each façade. These doorways architecture feature of the wall that surrounds a either open or are false, depending on the use Khmer temple. The name, which is derived of the tower. Above the cornice level, the tower from Sanskrit, originated in 7th century Pallava begins to taper slowly as the base, but more architecture of south India. The gopura placed pronounced towards the top creating a round on the principal axes stands out in contrast to effect. The tower is crowned with a lotus, the simple laterite walls. Early gopuras are which possibly served as the base for a glided rectangular in plan, but later, as the form metal spire .The tower is constructed with developed in complexity, they were built much cantilevered stones following the principles of larger and more elaborately, with extensions vault corbelled construction with the exposed such as porches and steps. outer surface being elaborately carved. Prasat Phanom Rung was enclosure by a Phimai main tower was constructed of rectangle of galleries, with gopuras in the sandstone and decorated with carved designs. middle of each four sides. The eastern gopura There is no trace of the use of cement to join is the principal entrance, a succession of each block of stone, iron bars were used for doorways lies ahead on the line of the temple’s process. An inscription, dated from 1105 to axis through the central sanctuary, and out 1112, was found on the door frame of the south again through the western gopura. The eastern entrance. gopura is an elaborate building in its own right, Comparing this view of decorative details with diminishing chambers on either side. The with the same at Phimai, Phnom Rung’s tower main doorway has a double-sectioned built in the early 12th century, after that of projecting porch, with a double pediment at Phimai, but still before Angkor Wat. The re- front, and a slightly higher one behind. denting of Phimai’s tower, with six interior A short path leads to the main eastern angles at each corner, gives it a rounded section entrance of Prasat Mueang Tam .The eastern look and those at Angkor Wat even more so. gopura was decorated with lintel over the At Phanom Rung, however the corners doorway and the pediment above is craved have been re-dented to only four interior angles around a central kala face. The creature’s and the tower is distinctly pyramid. Phnom

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Rung has its own unique character unlike any famous in Thailand. In counterpoint to the other Khmer temple. dancing Shiva, the image here is of Vishnu In the central area of Prasat Mueang Tam reclining (Vishnu Anantasayin). Vishnu is are five brick prangs, these probably reclining on his right side on the back of the symbolized the five-peaked Mount Meru, home naga, the world-serpent Ananta. Brahma rises of the gods. Construction no doubt began in from Vishnu on a lotus flower, while Lakshmi brick which was an easily available material, as usual cradles Vishnu’s legs; the tail plumage and then later sandstone would have brought to of two hamsa makes an arch for the scene. The complete the buildings .Both the inner and lintel over the west door of the sanctuary outer enclosures are paved with laterite carries the scene of Rama and Lakshman throughout; further evidence of the importance caught the coils of serpent. The pediment is accorded to this site. related to it, and shows Sita being taken under Ravana’s order, most of the pediment is in the 3.5 Lintels and Pediments or Frontons scene from the Ramayana. At Prasat Mueang Tam the lintels are of Lintels in Khmer architecture are highly high quality, the main east-facing lintel of the decorated rectangular sandstone blocks northern tower on the front row is in the spanning over a doorway and window and Baphuon style, it shows Shiva with Uma riding often support the fronton. A typical decorative the bull Nandi. Another good example of on lintel includes for example Vishnu on his provincial folk art is the treatment of the lintel mount, surmounting the head of a monster; a on the tower directly behind; this features a pattern of foliage surrounds this central scene small scene of Krishna lifting Mount and fill out the lintel. Govardhana, Krishna stands above a kala Fronton is more commonly used in which appears on the entire tower lintel. The Khmer style to describe the pediment or inner eastern gopura that leads to the central triangular motif above a lintel normally located tower has the lintel in a scene from the life of over a portico or door. A fronton is the source Krishna, in which he battles the naga Kaliya, of rich decoration with mainly narrative scenes and wins. The pediment above features a and draw inspiration from Hindu mythology, singha above the ubiquitous kala. particularly the Ramayana. From the scenes on the lintels and pediment carving at Phimai, much information 4. Conclusion has been gleaned about Phimai society and traditions during the 11th - 13th centuries for To appreciate the ruin of Khmer temples example, various types of utensils and vessel, that remain today, the contemporary history drama and musical instruments, style of dress and religion of the Khmer require introduction. and jewelry. However, this paper is a first step to walking Phanom Rung has a total of eight along. They have also made provoking and entrances in the sanctuary, each of them give interesting suggestions on Art History and the opportunity for placing a lintel and Architecture of Khmer art in Isan. They are pediment. These locations, together with the link between past and present, and they are the ones who must see Angkor and Isan through interior lintels, give Phanom Rung a wealth of st imagery, all of it Hindu. Enter the main the 21 century and beyond. doorway to the gopura, the pediment and lintel Regardless of the co-operation between of mandapa are the first things that you can the Fine Arts Department and the UNESCO, see, and both are masterpieces. The pediment the preservation of the monuments ultimately depicts a ten armed dancing Shiva - Shiva emerged as a symbol of a culture heritage that Nataraj; this god has a more benign the people can recognize as their own. Khmer expression, and there is great suppleness to the temple in Isan is still a cultural masterpiece and posture. Below the pediment is the lintel, it deserves to be saved. which in recent years has become the most

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References PLANS OF THE TEMPLES

Rooney, D. 1999. Angkor, 4th ed. Odyssey, Prasat Pimai New York, NY, USA. Siribhadra, S.; and Moore, E. 1992. Palaces of the Gods, 1st ed. River Books, London, England. Hingham, C.; and Maund, L. 1999. Phimai National Museum, 1st ed. Fine Arts Department, Bangkok, Thailand. Freeman, M. 1998. Prasat Phanom Rung and Mueang Tam, 1st ed. River Books, Bangkok, Thailand.

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