The New Deal Cometh: Examining and Hughie in Relation to the Rhetoric of the Roosevelt Administration

John Curry

Eugene O'Neill Review, Volume 33, Number 1, 2012, pp. 91-109 (Article)

Published by Penn State University Press

For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/468307

[ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] The New Deal Cometh:

Examining The

Iceman Cometh and

Hughie in Relation

to the Rhetoric

of the Roosevelt

Administration

John Curry

Wall Street got drunk. . . . It got drunk and now it’s got a hangover. The question is, how long will it sober up and not try to do all these fancy financial instruments?

—President George W. Bush, July 18, 2008

We can’t afford to let the same phony arguments and bad habits of Washington kill financial reform and leave American consumers and our economy vulnerable to another meltdown.

—President Barack Obama, December 12, 2009

In 1939 Eugene O’Neill completed The Iceman Cometh, his powerful drama about the failed lives and sustaining pipe dreams of the unemployed alcohol- ics who inhabit a run-down tavern in New York. That same year saw a critical

Eugene O’Neill Review, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2012 Copyright © 2012 The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA

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92 the Eugene O’Neill Review ing administration’s Roosevelt the response states, to crisis,Brinkley this proved difficult to reform using the policies of the first NewDeal. In explain- economy of the 1920s, which created the conditions for the Great Depression, self-regulating or “free”The 1929. of crashmarket stock the caused had that confusion economic same the of result a primarily was “secondDepression”1937 of the theory, 1929.”In of crash the than severe more ways some in ­unemploymentresult“anof the was 1937of more economiccrashrapid and confidence in the regulatory policies of the New Deal. One year later, year the One as Deal. the New of policies regulatory the in confidence public faltering and unemploymentmassive reverse to struggled Roosevelt governmentsecond-term Franklinof the economicsas Americanchange in range of critical interpretations of playstwo havethese received attention,little critical wide the in particularly unemploymentin and work toYet, consideration.referencesnumerous careful the deserves plays these in characters main the by expressed progress IcemanCometh of writing the surroundingyears the in deterioration societal and ment conspire to avoid isolation.societal Because of the significance of unemploy- ration,O’Neill writingbegan economictoward prepa-strategies defense their shift to began Dealers New returning to work is the foundationreturning workthe tois characters their around build the which of dream The do. to used or do either they work the of terms their in existence define they and occupations, their to reference in listed initially are in situations evangelical nature of economic discourse inAmerican society. often the on commentary complex a reveals administration, Roosevelt the author’s the of ofcritiques hindsightstated the with and reform,behavioral of promotion a as Deal New the of light the in plays Depression–era later h Depression. the of years earliest the of the that to in equal nearly workersheight a unemployedreached States United of number the jobs, increase and economy culturalthe reflects influence economics of Depression during the years. nature, communal the pipe dream of returning to long-lost occupations also delusion found in the characters’ pronouncements to O’Neill’s view of human self- ­sustainingcommunityscholarshave mostillusion.While attributed the conspired with one another to impose high “administered prices” “administered high impose to another one with conspired often leaders business that market; the of workings spontaneous the frustrated naturally devices, own its to left when world, porate corthatthe believed, events had they proved,ofThe 1937 and 1938 In 1937, despite earlier New Deal policies designed to stimulate the the stimulate to designed policies Deal New earlier despite 1937, In economic and occupations specific historically to allusions O’Neill’s The Iceman Cometh Iceman The and 2 As economic historian Alan Brinkley has shown, the the shown, has Brinkley Alan historian economic As Hughie , the generally reticentattitudegenerally the toward, workand Hughie are undeniable. Nearly all the characters the all Nearly undeniable. are The IcemanCometh , a one-acta , play twocharacters which in . 1 Reading O’Neill’s two - The 16/02/12 10:48 PM Curry the New Deal Cometh 93 16/02/12 10:48 PM , moving ­moving Republic

4 New ­constriction 7 , published in 1937, Thurman the unemployed characters reminisce 6 Iceman 3 The Folklore of American Capitalism Using spiritual and psychological terms, Arnold stated that such regu- such that stated Arnold terms, psychological and spiritual Using 5 In In the midst of this debate over the myths and realities of the economy, Following Arnold’s suggestion, Following Arnold’s from 1938 through to 1941 much of the In In on their customers; that the result was an of artificial purchasing power and hence production. an unnecessarily low level of editor editor George Soule withheld complete agreement with the New Deal poli- cies, but he conceded, “we do know that the theory of ‘free economy’ is so from far the removed actual of behavior our that world it might as well be a angels.” of the flight of discussion metaphysical business business was an important element in the American but economy, he also econ- the controlling regulations state and federal of widerange a advocated omy. Arnold, Roosevelt’s head of the Antitrust Division of the Justice Department Department Justice the of Division Antitrust the of head Roosevelt’s Arnold, and one of the most outspoken advocates of the New Deal, argued that the of rugged concepts myths. individualism and a outdated were free economy Unlike the antimonopoly trustbusters of the past, Arnold believed that big had to sell the public on the necessity of a controlled economy. a controlled of the necessity on sell to had the public In In order to lower the unemployment figuresand get the economy ­forward, the second-term Roosevelt administration harsher economic decided controls and regulations, to despite the impose opposition of big business. Because of Deal the New Second the of stature advocates the that the economy,” “free business a of notion sector the around had constructed lation lation would establish “a religion of government which permits us to face frankly the psychological factors inherent in the development of organiza- responsibility.” public with tions impossible, impossible, yet all the characters realize that these pipe dreams help them fend off their sordidreality. In keeping with theNew Dealers’ viewof tavern, when big left to owntheir devices the Harry business, at regulars Hope’s Yorkers who Yorkers have reached the depths of alcoholism and financial despair. Throughout thefirst of act about their lives, primarily their occupations, and describe their confidence in a rosy future. Each man believes his former job is still available and that he will be rehired when Each the time is right—in some vague “tomorrow.” man in is the tavern recognizes of tomorrow dreams that each of the others’ O’Neill O’Neill completed his large play centered on the illusions of a dozen New New Deal rhetoric was directed toward demythicizing the business commu- the business demythicizing Deal was directed New toward rhetoric the linking Analogies economy. state-controlled a of portrayal negative nity’s “free economy” to a myth or illusion were soon appearing in sources other the of issue 1939 a in example, For literature. government than EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 93 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 94

94 the Eugene O’Neill Review McGloin recalls the bribes he collected as a police lieutenant; and Joe MottJoe andlieutenant; police a as collected he bribes the recalls McGloin Patcon-man; circus a as days his of boasts Mosher Ed outright:corruption their admit characters saloon the of Three corruption. economic to nected con- or in involved were most but society, to muchcontribute or labor cal occupationsrequirenotformsadmirablework. ofphysi-Not these did only not are occupations these clear increasingly becomes it occupations, past prominenceexcitementand their the of recalling byhistories personal their time same the at defending their while self-reliance and work work, ethic. Although the characters littleexpand for money easy desire saloon Hope’s vice tovice more of respectable types fraud. year play the primarily is set, as aresult of Tammany’s transition from illegal Tammany Hall in New York of City. flourishing the This era ofspecifically graft policy, ended public approximatelycorrupt into the refers nostalgia this of much Raleigh toAccording 1912. to up century nineteenth late the from situatescharacters—mostly of the thatmemoriesnostalgia ofRaleigh anera more than twenty years in his personal history. But the play also relies on the life of and nostalgia self-deception about future. their a support to another one withconspire alcohol), being device primary (the talgia play on at least two levels. two least at on play talgia uh s im te rets r h Hl Hole. Hell the or Priest’s the Jimmy as such fromO’Neill’s buddiesduringdays ownhis atdrinking tavernsNew in York for sources character identified have studies historical ofbarsManhattan.yearsO’Neill seedy the spentVariousin biographies and when everything when went.”everything American history that the character Slade Larry calls “the flushtimes ofgraft in period a of experience first-hand had playwright the that demonstrates writing of play. the most of the characters’ desires in relation to the years prior to and during the natureof basic the on touches occasionally only Heworld. destructive cally acters’ desire for sustaining illusions in the face of the harsh truths of a politi- the postwar production of the play and the philosophical aspects of the char the officepresidency.” of the in analysishis of In eitherthroughinstitutional arrangements orthrough responsible leadership ment that would “keep factions in check” so that “desire would be controlled govern- of form a established founders the that argues Diggins democracy. “dominantagainst the acquisitiveness”possessivecultureof from arises that desire individual and self-realization juxtaposes that philosophy political a examines Diggins Patrick In Like many citizens in pre-Depression America, the regulars at Harry Harry at regulars the America, pre-Depression in citizens many Like As John Henry Raleigh’s Henry JohnAsshown, has analysis historical uee ’el’ Aeia Dsr Udr Democracy Under Desire America: O’Neill’s Eugene 12 10 Thus,the play is nostalgia forthe writer, goingback Iceman 8 The play is set in 1912, which is within the within is which 1912, in set is play The , and most of O’Neill’s canon, in terms of terms O’Neill’sin of canon, most and , 11 9 oevr ti information this Moreover, Iceman , Diggins focuses on focuses Diggins , Iceman Iceman te ae John late the , s derived as is a nos- a is 16/02/12 10:48 PM - Curry the New Deal Cometh 95 16/02/12 10:48 PM - - - 14 Similarly, the characters who live in Harry 13 and the economic in situation which the play was written. Iceman days ago. days Solly ago. gives him he two Yesterday bucks and a bum outfit. put to dese rags gets and bits four Sollyfor to back one sellsbum de de bottom. on is sure . . . Willie on. Jees, I’ve Jees, seenI’ve him bad but never dis bad. Look at dat Beenget-up. de playin’ old reliever game. Sold his suit and shoes at Solly’s two Willie Oban’s Willie story Oban’s provides the most direct connection between the Rather than being mere examples of historical myopia and past corruppastand historical of myopia Ratherexamplesbeingthan mere the general public and the business sector could not deny the thatcorruption contributed to the crash of 1929 and, in turn, to the problems of 1938, neither wanted to accept government regulation of the business practices that allowed the corruption. tion, these characters can be viewed as allegorical of the central conscious ness of the 1937–39 period. The contradictions in the characters’ statements about work are typical of the attitudes confronting the New Dealers. While bums. Rocky describes Oban in terms of an economic scheme that we might might we that scheme economic an of terms in describes RockyOban bums. clothing”: your on water call being “under now misdeeds. theme of In the stage directions for scene 1, O’Neill positions Oban away from other the characters. Soon after theplay begins, the explains bartender, Rocky, that Oban is much worse off,physically and financially,than allthe other Hope’s tavern realizeHope’s that they have reached the bottom of economic exis tence, but they refuse to admit that their future will be determined by past of of 1933. Of all the characters “minor” in the Oban play, is perhaps the most forthright about the cause and depth of his decline, yet he is also the most reform. for prospects his about adamant lels lels one of the direct causes of the national crisis. Oban explains that, while he has never practiced law, his law degree was gained with the support of his father who Bucket shops was were illegalking “the of the bucket shops.” stockbrokerages that gambled on the stock market. Thebucket shops and the even- for blamed been practices largely have stock-market corrupt other Act Securities regulating the in resulted which market, stock the of crash tual Besides being an example of the destitution common in the depths of the paral- his problems of thealso source this that reveals character Depression, express a desire to return to work, but none of the characters will the of characters that admit none but to work, a to return desire express impossibility. this an is brags brags about the gambling casino he operated with the backing of gangsters. Thesecharacters alternate between admitting that theirrepeatedly all they jobsFurther, werewrong. anything corrupt done have they that denying and EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 95 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 96

96 the Eugene O’Neill Review machine. was a common stepping-stone toward involvement in the Tammany political saloon a operating that comments York NewCity.Raleigh of politics ward the in involvement past his on based is neighborhood the around walking and saloon the leaving of dream pipe his that reveals set, is play the which forwarded by the New Dealers. regulations the opposing factions political various the ofrepresentatives as to the Depression, some of the more central characters in leading corruption economic the mirror fashion, some in and, occupations relationship between big business and the politicians was strained. was politicians the and business big between relationship However,the 1930s, ties. the continuedunemploymentthrough the crisis as par political national both in positions major held leaders 1929, business manyof crash the to Prior Dealers. New the by proposed regulations and reforms the by threatened were 1920s the in popular theories free-market regulatorythe laws governing taverns and hotels inNew York. n srcue action. structured structuresand political all of dismissal own his by trapped also is Larry tions, inten- his despite yet, philosophy; anarchist of expressions are statements ofitssociety.”State.member the I’vecially useful a become to refused These either,espe- else anything don’tin Movement,I believe the don’tin believe theories. Initially, to seems have avoided Larry self-delusion stating, when “I political radical in faith continuing his emphasize only denial his of terms Anarchist I-Won’t-Worker.” Slade denies any involvement in politics, but the fool old “Damned a him syndicalist/anarchist, one-timeHopecalls anda as economy.Slade the describes O’Neillof regulation centralized any opposed yet Deal, New the to similar policies advocated who activists political the clout. political real no has thathe clear is it intact, still is influence political thathis believes firmly e, s lutae b Yn Sihs xeine ih h IW n O’Neill’s in IWW the with Smith’s experience Yank by illustrated as yet, unions, trade the should regulate of methods the production. that pipebelief workers’ on political dreams a based is organizations, mostly men’s other the of acceptance Larry’scynical that understand we Thus, ists. syndical- the by proposed self-determination of type the for concern more ened by “the fleeting alarms of agitation.”reform of alarms by“the fleeting ened same way, Harry Hope’s slightly liquor illegal business is threat occasionally While most of the anddrunks minor characters reminisce about former Many politicians and businessmen who had aligned themselves with the ovrey Lry ld’ pltcl oiin in position political Slade’s Larry Conversely, By the late 1930s, union membership had increased tremendously; tremendously; increased had membership union 1930s, late the By 16 In whatisaddition, activity allows Hopepolitical past his toskirt 19 s h pa cnius Lry xrse mr and more expresses Larry continues, play the As 15 Harry Hope, the proprietor of in the saloon 18 And while the proprietor the while And Iceman Iceman s nlgu to analogous is can be seen 17 In the In the 16/02/12 10:48 PM - - Curry the New Deal Cometh 97 16/02/12 10:48 PM

- - - 20 22 , most unions were less militant and more ­participate in politicized bargaining with the business commu This involves each man disavowing themyth of his corruptfor 21 Much Much like the early New Dealers, Hickey is initially a salesman of known known to science a great physician once told me. . . . I remember My opinion is opinion My the poor sap [Hickey] is bughouse temporarily from habit deadliest the It’s work. about careful too be can’t You overwork. As the business community fought the New Dealers’ attempts to returning to work “tomorrow,” for returning self-fulfillment,to work “tomorrow,” is apipe dream.Hickey wants the men to stop lying to themselves—to face their pipe dreams. He sums up his goal in one sentence: got “You’ve to face the do truth what and must then be done for your own peace and the cerned.” happiness of all con and and reform program initiated by the central play’s character, the salesman Hickey. want, men drinksthethe all for pays He reformer. supportive a ­recoveryand while he urges that they change their mode of existence. Hickey agrees to support their leisure habits only if each man will admit that his plan for In In the same Larry’s manner, criticism of the myths and pipe dreams of the drunks inis Harrysoon Hope’s overshadowed by the more direct recovery Administration, Administration, the National Labor Relations Board, and the Department of Labor had been designed by the labor leaders and social activists of the 1920s. For the most part, the policies of the New Deal had co-opted many of the economic reforms proposed by the socialist inmovement America. early work, ­willing to nity and the state. New Further, Deal programs such as theProjects Works the facts and acting upon them.” O’Neill O’Neill Jr., dated May 13, 1933, the playwright revealed studyingAmericanthat history presentedsomesophisticatedand the insight on he had been Dealthiseconomicpolicies.New themidstof the in riskfactorsIn involved analysis, O’Neill presented this opinion of the new president, “Roosevelt, whatever mistakes he may make, is a man with guts who is honestly facing mer occupation—honestly facing the facts. In a letter to his son, Eugene bums’ bums’ perception of this threat is revealed in anthe antiworkformer circusanecdote con that man Mosher tells as a rebuttal to Mosher quips: Hickey’s reform. impose a regulated economy in the late 1930s, so the men in Harry Hope’s tavern see Hickey’s interference as a misguided plan effort.is dismissed Initially as a joke, Hickey’s but the mere thought of returning to workfacing or the truth about their illusions obviously threatens the drunks. The EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 97 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 98

98 the Eugene O’Neill Review deceased friend was “a victim of overwork, too. . . . Only eighty years old hewhen was taken.”years eighty Only . . . too. overwork, of victim “a was friend deceased recently his that revealing by argument his concludes Mosher rescinded. is point the long before working, against jab a be to seems story this Though subsidy and control.andsubsidy government on dependence of reality the with market”economyconflicted New Deal. New reluctant to enforce self-regulation and equally opposed the proposals of the were they correcting, needed practices their that conceded sector business the While 1937–1938. in country the threatening conflicts economic the to escaping Hope. dichotomyandalcoholThis on dependence clearly analogous is their than important more is self-reliance of myth their Maintaining than expressing aresolve to change. with “bitter resentment” and “hatred” directed at the reformer Hickey, rather show him.”show I’ll drunk. stay and here sit was life my with do to wanted really I all think you’d“Christ, says, Oban Hickey’spersuasion, of pressure the to Reacting self-reliance. of illusions their affect to begins preaching his until support in bums The situation. their of ity real- sordid the accept to refuse men the contradiction, this of truth the see to them forces Hickey as tomorrow.even workBut to return will they that continueareavoidingandabletobar the drinking workin byinsisting men The drunks. unemployed the and Hickey between conflict the of reversal ironic an is Mosher’sanecdote age. old an to lives and overworks actually dent asserted: Workspresi- the explaining chatthe 1935Program, his Relief Ineconomics. evangelical support Keynesian of nearly with action to combinedcalls often writers his and president The 1930s. late the of Chats Fireside Roosevelt’s rampant unemployment and debt. the to solution possible only the were regulations that public the convince work if you can help it, you may live to a ripe old age. It’sage.staying old ripe a to live may you it, help can never you if and work evening, every breakfast before whiskey bad of pint a well his saying to me “you are naturally delicate, Ed, but if you drink sober andsober working that cuts men offtheir in prime. In fact, these characters do want to merely “sit here and stay drunk.”stay and here “sit merely to want do characters these fact, In rial and spiritual status through the instrumentality of the democratic faith in the vast possibilities of human beings to improve their mate vanishing side, Fearisrenewedconfidencegrowing and every is on were public the attention of the capturing means for effective most The 25 24 In this struggle, the myth of self-reliance in the form of a “free-a of form the in self-relianceof myth the struggle, this In But according to the stage directions, this statement is made is statement this directions, stage the to according But 23 26 Thejoke that is the manwho advocates avoiding work As a response, the government began its campaign tocampaign itsgovernment began response,the a As Iceman gladly accept Hickey’sfinancial accept gladly - 16/02/12 10:48 PM Curry the New Deal Cometh 99 16/02/12 10:48 PM

- 27 Near the end of 28 Hickey’s inability to reform his friends matches the failure of the policies the of failure the matches friends his reform to inability Hickey’s to distinguish fact to distinguish from falsehood, trained to believe that bitterness canbe no dictaThere affairs. in public a is never useful instrument by torship an or individual by a in group this save through Nation, never be. must there division Such hate. by fostered division As with the New Dealers, purpose Hickey’s is not so much putting the Self-restraint implies Self-restraint restraint by articulate public opinion, trained form of government. Thatfaith isform itsForof receiving just reward. that government. America. over watches Godwho the to thankful be can we Kimmel Kimmel concludes that “neither the new aim of fiscal policy—ensuring the full employment of the factors of production—nor the Keynesian with theory which it is closely allied had been fully accepted.” the myth of a self-regulating economy and admit that government interven- government that admit and economy a theof self-regulating myth tion in the economic process was necessary. If this solution was accepted, the New Dealers believed that the recession of 1937–1938 would be turned around. as However, Lewis Kimmel illustrates in his essay “Keynes, Public Opinion, and TheNew theDeal,” problems of unemploymentwere never really solved until the World War II defense effort was begun in1940–41. his own message. The drunks’ illusions of self-reliance return because Hickey Hickey because return self-reliance of illusions drunks’ The message. own his is not able to explain his faith in complete honesty without questioning his motives. own promoted by the rhetoric of the New Deal. The Roosevelt administration’s plan was dependent on public- and private-sector willingness to surrender level, and his zeal is actually a deterrent to his message. Although the men in men the Although message. his to deterrent a actually zealis his and level, search in bar the leaving by falsehoods their confront do saloon Hope’s Harry of work, before they leave they have become bitter and divided, and when his murdered has Hickey thefact that As converted. not they are theyreturn wife begins to surface, Larry argues that the salesman has lost confidence in men back to work as forcing the men to realize that the possibility of revert- the of the men to realize possibility that as forcing men back to work ing back to their previous occupations, including the corruption, the easy the money, dream life, is now a debilitating myth. Thereal goal of Hickey’s crusade, then, is a in not simply change the existence of physical the men in Many themselves. of view conscious their reform to hopes also he tavern; the O’Neill scholars have noted exhortations that approach a Hickey’s religious Further, the president’s address to the nation on April 14, 1938, called for self- for called 1938, 14, April on nation the to address president’s the Further, paragraph following the but citizen, each of part the on honesty and restraint direct response to the includes Roosevelt’s vehemence of to opposition gov- Deal: the New and regulation ernment EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 99 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 100

100 the Eugene O’Neill Review or learning.”or preachingby solved be to “anotone, wasregulationpsychological ernment character,”religiousin public’s the thatlaterwouldadmit he gov-of distrust Depression and eversince. the economic policies debated by the American public throughout the Great to directly apply they century; twentieth the in early setting the to only not Roosevelt’s ethics had turned. In two more letters to his son, O’Neill satirized on views his letter, 19331944 president’sbyhis in facts” the facing “honestly the praised had he Whereas Roosevelt. on soured also war,had O’Neill the his sly politician’s hypocritical tricks.” forcontempt feel “It’sI that statement true a included Tammanyand Hall” of tribune Gracchus, Franklin “Tiberius of story a with reforms Deal New never pay that price for liberty.”for price that pay never they’ll and greed, up give to they’dhave mean would that for themselves, from saved be to want didn’t men saw “I states: movement, anarchist the lefthe why explaining Slade, Larry play, when the of beginning very the in the system of capitalism/materialism. Perhaps this tendency is best expressed in inherent regulation outside to opposition and self-interesttoward dency andsocietal economic problems in the United States must recognize the ten- nomic changes years the between 1929 and 1939: 1930s,”Malcolm Cowley the presented a somber view of to the public’s “Farewell reaction to titled the eco- article an In changed. had future economic trol of economy. the prepareto enacted policies the increasingfortoas wargovernmentled con- interests public of and private partnership necessary but difficult the reflect and resolution conflict main The times. of difficult in survive to sary neces- confidence the maintain to order in realities their and illusions their in the same questions addressed in play,completed one writer, the but the by destroyed were plays these century.oftwentiethMost the of decades few first the of memories own his on based againplays short Hughie Though Thurman Arnold originally argued that “economic beliefs are beliefs “economic that argued originally Arnold Thurman Though In the year after finishing after year the In ingly endured as the price of ultimate success. Now as will- opportunities privation and work hard with ahead, getting was aim whole the Once ideals. of set different a up built slowly has class middle American the years ten last the during that be to seems truth The hopeful more a public’sabout attitude the 1939, of end the as early As , unlike the unemployed the unlike , dreamers ofHope’s Harry tavern, reshape 30

The Iceman Cometh Iceman The Hughie , written in 1941, can be seen as an extension of extension an as seen be can 1941, in written , The Cometh Iceman The 31 Iceman The questions posed by this drama apply drama this by posed questions The demonstrates that any attempt to solve to attempt any that demonstrates 29 . The difference is that the characters , O’Neill began a cycle of cycle a began O’Neill , Hughie 16/02/12 10:49 PM

Curry the New Deal Cometh 101 16/02/12 10:49 PM - - - - - 33 The Iceman Iceman The 32 as part of a cycle of one-act plays to be to plays one-act of cycle a of part as Hughie . According to his notes and his letters to George Jean , which is set in 1928, O’Neill asserts that this attitude is , which asserts is set this that attitude in 1928, O’Neill can be viewed as a commentary on the economic conflicts Hughie Hughie

By Way of Obit By Way O’Neill originally planned originally O’Neill Economic Law has overlooked it. It manages to keep running by cut by running keep to manages It it. overlooked has Law Economic minimum. a to cleanliness and repairs, service, for overhead the ting second second class but soon were forced to deteriorate in order to sur vive. Following the First and War World it Prohibition, had given a guest is paying and now anything of up respectability, all pretense catch-as-catch-can the to catering dump, class a third be, it to wants trade. But still it does not prosper. It has not shared New in of the Opulence Everlasting the The twenties. the Boom of Great Hollow It It is one of those hotels, built in the decade 1900–10 streets on of the the Great White sector, side which Way began as respectable in society; and there is a corresponding fear of change, of the private private the of change, of fear corresponding a is there society; and in job. one’s losing lead to might that misfortunes public or Through in business become fewer and less dramatic, the at aim a somewhat is lower level—that and security making the best position of what one’s one onto hold to determination growing a is There . . . has. tags he detects on everything and everybody.” In their biography of the dra theirIn tagsbiography he detects on everything and everybody.” matist, Arthur and Barbara Gelb have noted the similarities in O’Neill’s deceased friend while the other character primarily listened. In this play, the play, this In listened. deceasedprimarily character friendwhileother the Clerk.” Night “A and tales” of teller a Smith, “Erie as listed are characters two Thestage directions describe Erieas “small-fry a gambler and horse player, Labeled “a Wise-Guy,” as the thefringe rackets.” on of hand-to-mouth living sus modified as adjectivesare with such cynical,shifty, features physical his picious, and guarded. O’Neill writes that “his glances never miss the price second class” second has class” deteriorated to the third-class level. Thus, like Cometh, the play. writing was the time O’Neill to nearer the nation of strategies and titled Nathan, in each play one character would carry on a monologue about a Thisrevealsobvious metaphor that this smallplay will depict the basicsur vival of the characters who would inhabit a world where the “respectable the attitude of many Americans even at the height of Theprosperity. scene description of the small hotel in which the play is set establishes the charade: economic an as play- Twenties the view Roaring of sardonic wright’s not not limited to a particular decade, that, in fact, the to “determination hold onto position one’s in society” and the “corresponding fear of change” is EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 101 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 102

102 the Eugene O’Neill Review him to participate infixed games of chance. convincing and Clerk Night new the relationship a with building by fidence con- illusory his regain can gambler the whether is play this of conflict The debt. his off pay to order in again winning begin must he and, sharks loan buy to Hughie’sused he money The Hughiedied. from wreathcame funeral reveals that he has hadof a run luckbad and has losthis confidenceall since of a friendship. As the character most does who haltingly ofErie the talking, resembles Hughes, “Hughie,” Charliesomethingformed had Erie whomprevious with clerk deceased a is name his that reveals who Clerk, Night the that find to hotel the enters gambler The situation. present his of promise street.” NewYorkthe in in clerk sounds night a bythe time been tell can longhe so descriptions of the gambler and the salesman Hickey. roaring passage and receding with the passing minutes of the night. When night. the of minutes passing the with receding and passage roaring their connects and trains El the approachof the for listens momentshe ous vari- At world. the his dead-end of view his his shapereality, to illusions of his allows he occupation, future the in confidence no has Clerk Night the Because own. his than excitingmoreare jobs all which daydreamsin of consumer. willing a needs illusions of supplier the even that realization the to comes slowly he Hughie, deceiving in revels Smith Erie as much shops.”as Nevertheless, “bucket father’s his from money the on reliance Oban’s Willie as of stories condition present with their to analogous as sucker be would scores a big and profit easy regaling of boasts these 1929, of Crash the from removed years ten audience an For (28). it” have him don’t let you if dope you’re more, for a cries sucker a when and more, for cryin’ was he see soon I “But states Erie revelations, bolder the of one In fabrication. a audience his feeding was he that admits he “lies,” but stories exaggerated his call to refuses Erie dolls. or dames with spots” high the “hittin’ and exploits bling gam his of stories with him regaling by Clerk Night the for life vicarious a into basic develops Hughie with friendship his of description Erie’s Further, times.” million a cleaners the to “take could he whom “sucker” a a “sap” or was Hughie that states freely Erie get monologue, his I always Throughout hell, (15). the by” what but too, breaks tough had I’ve again. be will I More’n bucks. big and once, the in “I’ve been says, gambler bravado” of the nomics in of the early decades the century. O’Neill that writes “With a touch Some of Erie’s statements sound like a brief history of free-market eco of free-market history of Erie’s a brief Some like sound statements the in confidence much has Clerk Night the nor Smith Erie Neither Throughall of Erie’s revelations,the NightClerk is drooping into a world upircnue rltosi i ta te Ws Gy poie a provides Guy” “Wise the that in relationship ­supplier/consumer 35 34 The NightClerk “has 16/02/12 10:49 PM - - Curry the New Deal Cometh 103 16/02/12 10:49 PM - Thestruggle to regain confidence intheir 36 Throughout 1940 and even up to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the While this interior monologue presents a clear to allusion presents the While monologue this desirabil- interior management on governmentmanagementprograms.on Business leaders suspiciouswere of increasinggovernmentinterventionprice andcontrols. wage the of inareas Roosevelt administration struggled with convincing laborand business organizations leaders to fully commit to unions, defense the efforts.American TheFederation of large Labor labor (AFL) and Congressthe of newly Industrial formed Organizations (CIO), were at odds over shipmember and political issues, while jointly opposing the increasing influenceof social position and purpose becomes the main conflictfor both Erie Smith and Charlie Hughes. Theresolutionrequires that themen work together to construct a controlled illusion through which each man regains the confi- reality. own face his to dence was temporarily was lost temporarily sight of during the 1930s in the of process graftingnew economic ideas onto the old.” between insecurity and public acceptance that Cowley Similarly, when assessing alludes the lessons to of the Depression, above. Arthur Burns, the director of the Bureau of National Economic Research and chairman of the Federal Reserve, determined that: “If prosperity is to flourish, people must have confidence in theirown and fate ofthat This theirbasic country. truth ity ity and stability of public service work during the 1930s, the Night Clerk’s alsofantasies serve as in a that an doesoccupation acknowledgment change not ensure a change in hisThroughout attitude. the daydreams, clerk is just as cynical and detached as he is at his occupational his real on dependent job. so become Like has Clerk the Night the drinkers saloon, in Harry Hope’s illusion that he has lost touch with life. This situationreflects the conflict it it be big enough, do you think? I mean big enough to burn down the whole damn city?” The imaginary repliestherethat is and fireman stone muchtoo Clerk Night the which To left.” something be always city:“There’d the in steel (19, 17, me” to matter doesn’t really It anyway. hoping really wasn’t “I answers: 30). 24, 26, 27, he hears a policeman and hopes for a shoot out with a gunman. He becomes He becomes gunman. a with out shoot a for hopes and policeman a hears he an ambulance driver who asks the doctor, “Will he die, Doctor, or he isn’t the Clerk lucky?” Night Finally, hears the sound of a the siren. Within stage directions, O’Neill expresses the clerk’s despair: life “A fireman’s must be exciting!” His mind rides the engine and asks a fireman withstrangely dis- the interested fire?eagerness: Is “Where’s it areal good one this time?Will not not listening for the train, the clerk imagines himself as the various public collec- garbage a is he First night. at streets onthe servicework who officials Then they do!” than louder cans those bang “I’d around: cans the banging tor EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 103 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 104

104 the Eugene O’Neill Review labor leaders to rethink their goals for their organizations to form a jointdefense effort controlled the by government.a form to organizations their for goals their rethink to leaders labor controls, and other labor-friendly regulations instituted by New the Deal. extended “chat” Roosevelt affirms his support for collective bargaining, wage this of section next the supplies.”In of transportation mass quick of ment develop- the required, materials raw of hundreds the for supply of sources the employment of thousands of workers,necessary plants, the development of new new of establishment the factories, of enlargement the for provide help to money necessary the advance to ready stands States United the of Government“thethat clear Presidentmakes the personnel, and factories of While effort. defense expansion the throughproduction increase the privateindustry thatrequesting in him join to labor and business both on calls program,Roosevelt peacetime.”radio Navyin this the orin Army Later the states that Congress will be voting on “the largest appropriation ever asked by prior spending on weaponry and increasing military personnel, the president general outline for increasing spending for national defense. After explaining efforts, led to conflicts between all three parties: government, business, and business, government, parties: three all between conflicts to led recruiting efforts, up ramped military the as labor skilled in decrease a as well as materials, building and goods consumer of scarcity a by caused Inflation, labor. uhe eas “es u o te akt I en h woe goddamned whole the mean I life.”mean I racket. statementthis with of agrees Clerk The awakened Night racket. the of out “He’s because Hughie deceased the envies that he states Erie when point comes turning The sions. based on their positions in society, will not change despite their personal illu- both.”appointed he so he couldn’t give all power to a businessman or credibly then to a union leader compromise: Roosevelt uncharacteristic not a was “It leaders, business and labor with dealing for strategy wartime Roosevelt’s wartime recalled controls, setting price of charge in economist the was who Galbraith, Kenneth John co-directors. be to Motors General of Knudson William and Hillman restructured into the Office of Production Management,Roosevelt appointed was group that when Later Commission. Advisory Defense National the to the of president the AmalgamatedWorkersClothing CIO,founder the ofa andHillman, and Sidney Railroad, CB&Q Steel, U.S. Motors, General of leaders the appointed president the Chat, Fireside Defense” National “On the after days Within other. each with and administration his with cationcommuni- direct into labor and industry bring to 1940 in took Roosevelt In of analysis this of purpose the forMoreimportant InhisFireside Chat of May 1940,26, lays Roosevelt out topublic the his 37 Hughie , the two characters reach the similar revelation that their lives, 39 The administration needed to coerce business and business coerce to needed administration The Hughie is the action the is 38 16/02/12 10:49 PM Curry the New Deal Cometh 105 16/02/12 10:49 PM - - - - - can be Similarly, in Similarly, 43 Hughie Thisagreement not only 42 Thisagreement bewilders Erie, and 40 Similarly, in June of 1941 the major 41 editor George Soule concluded an articletitled an Soule George concluded editor New Republic New A regulated economy, A like regulated economy, a fake game of craps, boosts consumer con If If the play seems to be unusually optimistic or, if that is too strong a Wall Street and big business lost almost all of the Wall gained prestige during the 1920s, the irregular length of the Depression “forced business and govern ment to work more closely together, to form a kind of partnership which grew in importance in later years” fidenceand allowsfor a levelingof fiscal and emotional involvement: the highs and lows are not so extreme. Thus, theresolution of seen as a subtle commentary on the stabilizing enacted controls by the and Roosevelt agreements administration and on the cyclical nature of the In his assessment of the regulated New Deal,American economy. “Business and theeconomic historian Public,” Thomas Cochran contends that, while that that they begin to make real contact. Theplay ends with Erieproposing a fixedgame can’t crapsof You with it? get what jack, my all little money It’s . . . see? you, stake I’ll he chances. no has takin’ afford left: “I can’t know you he Erierelationship to Therestores fakethe confidence-building game lose.” the deceased with had Hughie. both men are so confused by their honesty about wanting to hold on to life “Toward A “Toward Planned Economy” by arguing that “we probably cannot abol ish the business cycle without a of fairly our renovation complete economic the fall of 1939, 1939, fallthe of resignation but adds, “We might resignation but adds, as “We well make the best of it, because—Well, you burn can’t it all down can you?” Porter Porter has suggested, these two characters are also caught up in a of “cycle same the beginningof the with ends play thebecause self-deception” mutual deceasednight the with had once Erie relationship “Sucker” and Guy” “Wise clerk. Thus, the interactionof thesecharacters produces no real progress: it only emphasizes the illusionary nature of perceived progress. of the country entering World War II, it also boosted War of the the countryof stature the entering AFLWorld in labor intervention government future for the paved way theand CIO and disputes. coop men bothbecausebe may it hopeful,least at work, O’Neill an for term erate in their struggle to regain their purpose in life. However, as Laurin increased employment increasedrates, which employment were boundwith to the improve advent of of building materials to government regulation in return wages and overtime uniform for pay, work shifts,government mediation established of all a labor guarantee that only disputes, and, most AFL notably, union workers would be hired for defense-related construction. unions unions agreed to a pact with the administration through which the work ers gave up the right to strike and ceded the choice of jobs and allocation EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 105 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 106

106 the Eugene O’Neill Review trayed and then let thatlivelifewithoutlet itselftrayed and then comment, your trick.” itdoes por ofbe lifeto restrainselection propaganda the youthe to if will purpose in the theatre is that it’s such a damned unconvincing propaganda—whereas, propagandaO’Neill“Mywrote:with quarrelplaywright, inclined politically political. Nevertheless, in a letter of advice to Michael Gold, a younger, more ­dramas of the 1930s, ­propagatingstability. rhetoric the of societal In comparison polemical to the desires. by “job creators,” economic rhetoricour culturepervades and influences our possibly capitalism”orregulated “well by employment”guaranteed “full or progress” “industrial marketbe it“freeeconomy” the hand ofbythe shaped whichever economic theory will be the guiding principle of the day. Whether in participate to members its persuade to discourse public a promotemust government or society a Such desires. individual’s basic each maintaining “fixed,”or corrupt for how matter no structure, economic and social stable a of necessity the depicts drama Each livelihoods. meager their from escape ofillusion require the Smithonly Erie andNight Clerk the both anddoned, aban- or lost have they careers the to return to are dreams pipe their that occupation-based: the drunks in the Harry Hope’s saloon collectively express f h mr ergos errors.” egregious more the of few a avoid changes drastic without could, we but structure, political and States shows that between 1854 and 1945 the country experienced six severe severe six experienced country the 1945 and 1854 between that showsStates the “Great the Recession” of 2008. in ushered above to alluded instruments” financial “fancy the and practices banking of deregulation the until is, length—that the half in ended erally gen have but years five every economy, regulated occurred have recessions more much the in II, After World War years. four every occurred traction depressions averaging three years in length and some form of monetary con this collective nostalgia allowed Cowley to draw a conclusion that can be be can that conclusion a draw to Cowley allowed nostalgia collective this as such plays of success the by Demonstrated tory. and more interested in overtly melodramatic versions of pre-Depression his- Malcolm Cowley notes that in the late 1930s Americans were becoming more the Inadvice. this heed not does politics American in and theatre American the Unfortunately,in propaganda most democratic state could not withstand the conflicts caused by individual by caused desires. and passions conflicts the withstand not could state democratic truly a by promised freedom the that recognized O’Neill that emphasizes f ore tetr a awy be oe f h mi canl for channels main the of one been always has theater course, Of n i cnlso to conclusion his In The IcemanCometh 46 In The Cometh Iceman The uee ’el’ America O’Neill’sEugene 45 44 suy f uies yls f h United the of cycles business of study A and NewRepublic Hughie and are not didactic or overtly Hughie , John Patrick Diggins Diggins Patrick John , Abe Lincoln in Illinois in LincolnAbe article quotedabove,article , these desires are desires these , 16/02/12 10:49 PM 47 - - - ,

Curry the New Deal Cometh 107 16/02/12 10:49 PM O’Neill: Son Son O’Neill: United United States , Judith , E. Judith Barlow (New Haven, CT: Yale (November 8, 1939): 30. 8, 1939): (November (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), 26. , April 13, 1938, 299. 1938, 13, , April (Carbondale: Southern Illinois (New York: Harper (New and York: Brothers, “may be the most written about of of about be the written most “may New Republic New TheRise Fallandof theNew Deal Order, O’Neill New Republic New , ed. Harry N. Schreiber (New Knopf, York: (New York: Vintage, 1957), 36. Vintage, York: (New The Iceman Cometh Iceman The 48 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), 490–91. Arthur and Barbara TheFolkloreof American Capitalism ThePlays of Eugene O’Neill (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1981), Floyd Virginia charts Frederick Ungar, most (New York: Critical Critical Essays on Eugene O’Neill : The Iceman Cometh Iceman The (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968), 130–31. He returns to this topic in , 8–9). The play has also been studied through numerous motifs such such motifs numerous through studied been also has play The 8–9). , , 68–69. Final Acts: The Creation of Three Late O’Neill Plays O’Neill ofLate Three Acts: TheFinal Creation , ed. Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Hughie Plays and and O’Neill at Work O’Neill s A man rising in the world is not concerned with history: he is too busy making it. But a citizen with a fixedplace in the community wants to acquire a glorious past. . . . By that past he is reassured of his present importance; in it he findsstrength to face the dangers him. of lie in front that Raleigh, and and Playwright Son O’Neill: and Artist Gelb indicate some different sources in 1962), and in expands some connections, especially the sources for the Don Parritt 10–15. 1985), Georgia Press, character of University (Athens: O’Neill, Eugene George Soule, “Towards a Planned Society,” Society,” a Planned Soule, “Towards George John Henry Raleigh, 67. 1965), Press, University In scenario the from notes character on excerpts includes and sources character the of in sources character of briefstudy a provides Sheaffer (260–80). Louis Press, 1989), 86, 89. 86, 1989), Press, Lewis Kimmel, “Keynes, Public Opinion, and the New Economic History: Deal,” in Selected Readings 539. 1964), 90. the State,” of “Idea Brinkley, W. Arnold, Thurman 389. 1933), Press, University on at least five general themes: love, death, illusion, peace, and existence (Martine, (Martine, existence and peace, death, illusion, general love, themes: least five at on Essays Critical the characters. of backgrounds the cultural and Catholicism, alcoholism, as Starve?” They “Shall Jr., Bruce Bliven Alan “The in Brinkley, Idea of theState,” 1930–1980 In In the introduction to his compilation of essays on the plays of Eugene O’Neill, that states Martine J. James all O’Neill plays.” to According Robert the Wright, various of interpretations the play have focused

7. 1. 5. 3. 2. 8. 9. 4. 6. 11. 10. Note advanced advanced as an stage O’Neillian description for the main characters of both Iceman EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 107 EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 108

108 the Eugene O’Neill Review 20. 24. 26. 29. 28. 22. 23. 25. 16. 14. 19. 18. 21. 12. 27. 13. 15. 17.

Kimmel, “Keynes, Public Opinion, and New the Deal,” 520. 524, Center, http://www.mhric.org/fdr/fdr.html. Information Regional Mid-Hudson Library, Presidential Roosevelt D. Franklin Roosevelt, D. Franklin of Chats Fireside 1938, 14, Conditions,” April Economic “On and 1935, 28, Program,”April Relief Works the “On Roosevelt, D. Franklin Brinkley, “Idea of State,” the 97. “BusinessCochran, and Public,” the 533. O’Neill, testifies to hisbelief inthe significance of this antiwork story. Barlow, tionscript. Since O’Neill’s general was totendency cut as he edited, expansion this produc- final the in reinstated were typescript second the from deleted lines few a and typescript, first the in tale the Morehundredto wordstwo wereadded than O’Neill’sduring expanded substantiallyrevisions. was scenario, the in appear not O’Neill, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 411. O’Neill, O’Neill, O’Neill, ed. Schreiber (New York: Knopf, 1964), 532–33. Public,” in the and “Business Cochran, Thomas University of Chicago Press, 2007), 261, 258. John Patrick Diggins, Steve Fraser,LaborQuestion,” “The in works (2007, 50–72). variousanarchism in philosophical of playwright’s use the andof with experience ‘Philosophical O’Neill’s Eugene “On Anarchism’” article Dowling’s in volume 29 of the M. Robert 31. 54, Ibid., O’Neill, “BusinessCochran, and Public,” the 533. Raleigh, to them unemployed the links characters. minorcharacters work, actually deny they that occupations their are which illegal, the of some although pimp.Thus, a himself consider not does but tarts, the from not like toprostitutes; called be arethey “just tarts that’s all.” Rocky moneycollects Rocky,“work”do overto moneyactivity they butturnMargie, their andconsider and Pearl streetwalkers, other two labor.The than appeasementmore minimal: is ing a farm. The nightbartender Rocky actuallyPioggi works, butthe work he does also acts as a pimp for one of the prostitutes, Cora, but together they dream of buy- day. the Heduring place take do scenes some although work,at Morello,never is bartender, Chuck day The prostitutes. the and bartenders the are there Then ing. work-areobviously they play; the of end the atHickeyarrest who policemen two minorsomeexceptions minor forcharacters.made the must Firstthereare the be in work of avoidance the specifically more or work, discuss to order In O’Neill, Selected Letters Iceman Iceman Iceman Iceman Iceman eetd etr o Egn O’Neill Eugene of Letters Selected Plays , 70. , 123. , 121. , viii. , 14. 88–89. Barlow has pointed out that Mosher’s story, which does does which Mosher’s story, that out pointed has Barlow 88–89. Eugene O’Neill’s America: Desire Under Democracy , 562. Eugene O’Neill Review Rise and Fall , ed. Travis Bogard and Jackson Bryer Bryer Jackson and Bogard Travis ed. , United States Economic History Economic StatesUnited , ed. Fraser and Gerstle, 68–69. provides an in-depth study Final Acts (Chicago: Iceman , 30. 16/02/12 10:49 PM , , Curry the New Deal Cometh 109 16/02/12 10:49 PM - - (November 8, 1939): 43. 1939): 8, (November , , translated into English in 1934, (New Haven, CT: Yale University (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981), 122. 1981), Mifflin, Houghton (Boston: New Republic New , 560. , 261. (New York: Harper Perennial, 1987), 843. 1987), Perennial, Harper York: (New , 22. Labor’s Home the Front: of American Federation Labor Labor’s O’Neill A Life in Our Times Our in Life A , 206. Theand Time,Memory, RitualinPrince: Banished the Late (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1988) 76. 1988) Press, Research MI: UMI Arbor, (Ann The Theory of Economic Development: An Inquiry into Profits, Profits, into Inquiry An Development: of Economic Theory The (New York: New York University Press, 2006), 21. Press, University York New York: (New Hughie: Hughie: A New One-Act Play , 11. , 33, 37. , 9, 8. Subsequent citations appear in the text. appear citations , 9, 8. Subsequent Eugene O’Neill’s America O’Neill’s Eugene Labor’s Home Front Home Labor’s Folklore of American Capitalism American of Folklore Selected Letters Selected Hughie Hughie Iceman O’Neill, O’Neill, 43. the 1930s,” to Farewell “A Cowley, Laurin Roland Porter, Laurin Roland Porter, O’Neill Eugene of Plays 32. Society,” a Planned Soule, “Towards “TheGross DomesticProduct and theNational Income and Product Accounts,” in the Survey of Current Business, Bureau of Economic Analysis (January 2000), http://www.bea.gov/scb/account_articles/general/0100od/maintext.htm. Diggins, during World War II War World during Conditions.” Economic “On and Program” Relief the Works Roosevelt, “On Galbraith, Kenneth John O’Neill, 540. the Public,” and Cochran, “Business Kersten, ing.” Thisquotationis presentedin ing.” an intriguing article,“Creative Destruction in Reinert, S. Erik and Reinert Hugo by Schumpeter” Sombart, Nietzsche, Economics: www.othercanon.org. at Gelb, Barbara and Arthur O’Neill, 521. Deal,” the New and Opinion, Public “Keynes, in Kimmel, Quoted Andrew Edmund Kersten, Press, Press, 1967), 7. The employed a Austrian-American hotel metaphor to explain economist his view of Joseph the cyclical nature of Schumpetercapital his ism. In 1911 work also Capital, Credit, Interest and the Business Cycle Schumpeter wrote that “in fact, the upper strata of [a capitalist] society are like hotels which are indeed always full of people, but people who are forever chang Arnold, Arnold, O’Neill, the 1930s,” to Farewell “A Cowley, Malcolm Eugene O’Neill,

37. 31. 35. 33. 47. 32. 41. 38. 43. 45. 39. 34. 36. 30. 42. 48. 46. 44. 40. EOR 33.1_07_Curry.indd 109