Media Attacks and Political Institutions A

MEDIA ATTACKS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS _______________ A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Political Science _______________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Jonathan A. Solis May, 2018 MEDIA ATTCKS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS _________________________ Jonathan A. Solis APPROVED: _________________________ Ryan Kennedy, Ph.D. Committee Chair _________________________ Eduardo Alemán, Ph.D. _________________________ Lydia B. Tiede, Ph.D. _________________________ Elizabeth A. Stein, Ph.D. Indiana University Bloomington _________________ Antonio D. Tillis, Ph.D. Dean, College of Liberal Arts and Social Sciences Department of Hispanic Studies ii MEDIA ATTACKS AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS _______________ An Abstract of a Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Political Science _______________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy _______________ By Jonathan A. Solis May, 2018 iii ABSTRACT My dissertation examines media freedom’s measurement and then more specifically the institutional determinants of (1) government attacks against media and (2) journalist killings. Media's ability to freely gather and disseminate information remains a critical aspect of democracy. Studies link media freedom to other concepts ranging from human rights, corruption, the democratic peace and conflict, natural resource wealth, political knowledge, and foreign aid. However, media freedom's many dimensions make it difficult for any one index to reliably measure it. In the first part of my dissertation, I propose a new method for measuring media freedom. To develop a more robust measure, I treat media freedom as a latent variable and analyze 12 extant indicators using an Item Response Theory (IRT) model. Utilizing a Bayesian approach, the IRT model generates time-series, cross-sectional (TSCS) data on a bounded, unidimensional scale from 0 to 1 that measures media freedom in 196 countries worldwide from 1960 to 2016. I then apply the data in a replication of Egorov et al.'s (2009) analysis of media freedom and natural resource wealth. The findings indicate that the published results do not hold once I include the more robust measure. Next, I focus on the institutional determinants of government perpetrated attacks against media. The ability for media to produce news content without government interference remains an important cornerstone of a healthy democracy. However, the influence of institutions on the government's decision to censor, jail, harass, or perpetrate other attacks against media remains understudied. In this analysis, I argue that countries’ judicial independence in low and moderate levels of electoral democracy reduces government attacks against media. Using panel analysis on 170 countries worldwide from 1948 to 2012, I test my hypothesis and find results supporting my theory. I also find cross- national evidence for an untested assumption in the literature that these attacks positively associate with greater media self-censorship. Taken together, the results point to a ceiling iv effect of judicial independence's protection of journalists in media systems as countries move toward greater democracy. The study takes a more nuanced approach to studying democracy by recognizing countries may possess or develop different democratic components like electoral democracy and judicial independence at different levels. Finally, I turn to the institutional conditions that determine journalist killings. Previous research argues (counterintuitively) that journalist killings are more likely to occur in democracies rather than non-democracies. While these findings provide an important first step in exploring regime type's effect on journalist killings, the study assumes no variation in how long countries have remained a regime type. In this study, I argue that as regime types endure in a country, the likelihood of seeing journalists killed there will decrease. Using regression and survival analysis on a sample of journalists killed for their professional work in countries worldwide from 1992 to 2014, I find evidence that as regime type endures, journalist killings decrease, on average. When I stratify the sample by regime type, I find this effect holds in autocracies, anocracies, but not democracies. Further, the findings show a null result regarding the effect of democracy level on journalist killings once I account for regime-type durability, though in the stratified samples I find higher democracy levels negatively associate with journalist killings in democracies. The results provide a broader picture of the working dynamics between regime type and journalists’ safety in a country's media system. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS What people become and accomplish in their lives (or don’t become and fail to accomplish) are almost certainly determined by the place from which they came. Either because that place inspired them or because there were things there they wanted to be nothing like. Where I’m from, the Westbank of the Greater New Orleans area in Belle Chasse, Louisiana, had plenty of both. All of who I am and what I will become is firmly rooted in the muddy banks of the Mississippi and the culture and people of South Louisiana, for better or worse. This dissertation would not exist without a solid foundation upon which to stand. There are a few choice people who make up fundamental parts of my foundation besides my little part of Plaquemines Parish (which ironically won’t be around in 100 years, thank you coastal erosion). This includes first and foremost my parents, Roger and Kathy Solis a.k.a. Rog and Kath. As a matter of fact, I literally would not be here to write this dissertation without them. Their love and support remains a bedrock, and they’re funny too (don’t let them tell you they’re boring!). My two big sisters Stacie Simonton and Kelly Andras are another important part of that foundation. I can’t thank you two enough for always being there when I need advice or to shed light when all I see is darkness. They also married two great men that I consider my brothers, Chad Simonton and Chris Andras, that have also been supportive on this journey. And I can’t forget the four seasons, my nieces: Sydney, Presley, Kelsey, and Adelynn. Finally, I want to thank my grandparents, though y’all passed on before I got to know y’all well, I know your work ethic and sense of responsibility have made its way down to me: Byron and Ella Saigeon, and Walker and Marie Solis. Oh, and for sure, Coach Augie my high school cross- country coach. Even though I ran a 25-minute 3 mile during a race, you never gave up on me. Thanks for sharing your knowledge. Next, I want to acknowledge Kirby Goidel and Elizabeth A. Stein for seeing something in me when I was a rough-around-the-edges Westbank kid and encouraging me to pursue my work and get my PhD. I’d also like to thank my dissertation committee, Ryan Kennedy (chair), Lydia B. Tiede, and Eduardo Alemán for their thoughtful comments and feedback on my work. I especially want to thank Patrick Shea and Justin Kirkland for their guidance and advice throughout my time completing this degree. Next, I want to thank my colleagues from the program that were there when I needed advice on a paper or an ear to vent to or contributed to my professional development in some way: Scott Joseph Hofer, MA (a.k.a. Big Stretch the SoDak Maniac), Kim Manh (I told you we’d ride off into the Sunset one day), Leonard Antenangeli (hope I spelled that right, meu peixe), Yeaji Kim (who helped me adjust to the States after my life in Finland), Luke Williams (the OG that we all looked up to, thanks for showing us the way), Susan Archury (“Wow, y’all are speaking THREE different languages right here at this table”), Freke Ette (thanks for opening my eyes to Miles Davis and Yemi Adale, Geaux Tigers), Markie McBryer (who throws top notch cereal parties, Lucky Charms everywhere), Matthew Ward (what’s good for the goose is good for the Michigander), Philip Waggoner (and his twin, because how else can he do so much?!), as well as Danie Mascarenhas (original 1st semester Thursday night Den crew), Kenicia Wright, Rodrigo Nunez-Donoso, Cong Huang, Imantas Bernotas, Adam Ozer, Doug Murdoch (who just vi barely made the list), Luai Allarakia, Abdullah Aydogan (who taught us about do-files), and Zachary Turpin (not exactly poli sci, but an illustrious scholar none-the-less). I also want to thank my good friends who always check-in to see how I’m doing and whatnot: Thomas and Julia Miller, Andrew Bullock, Joia, Frank’stein, and Chibata. I also want to thank Mestrando Cocada (soon to be Mestre!) and Rosa for introducing me to capoeira. I’m not sure how I would have stayed sane over the last 5 years without knowing how to ginga. I also want to thank the rest of the Arte Reviver fam for their unwavering support. Aqui na minha casa, não falta dendê! Finally, I thank Contra-Mestre Gringo and Capoeira Luanda for giving me a place to train while I was in Houston, só alegria! In closing, let me acknowledge these names or I’d never forgive myself: José-Manuel Thomas Arthur Chao, Vincenzo Luvineri, Jayson Garrett, and (of course) the indelible Calvin Cordozar Broadus, Jr. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………….1 Dissertation Outline………………………………………………………………5 Chapter 2: MEASURING MEDIA FREEDOM………………………………………8 Media Freedom and Its Indicators…………..…………………………...............10 An Item Response Theory

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