CMI INSIGHT

October 2013 No 2 The Egyptian military in politics and the economy: Recent history and current transition status The Egyptian military has been playing a decisive role in national politics since the eruption of the 2011 uprisings. The Supreme Council of Armed Forces (SCAF) governed the country from February 2011 until June 2012. They worked closely with the elected civilian President Morsi of the Muslim Brothers. In June 2013, supported by mass protests and in collaboration with youth movements, the military overthrew president Morsi. The future of the democratic transition in Egypt is closely linked to General Abd al- Fattah al-Sisi, the current Minister of Defence. He was instrumental in forming the current transitional government, and hold key roles in drafting the new constitution and organizing subsequent elections. This CMI Insight explores recent historical episodes that inform the extensive political leverage that the military enjoys in Egyptian politics.

ARMY, POLITICS, AND BUSINESS (1980- 2011) Dr. Zeinab Abul-Magd The militarisation of the Egyptian state and Guest researcher economy began six decades ago. In 1952, a military coup led by a group of young

Farouk, and kicked out the British. This officers brought down the monarch, King the charismatic and popular Gamal Abd coup installed the first military president,

al-Nasser (1954-1970), who formed an Egyptian military in Tahrir Square. Photo: Nefissa administrativeArab socialist regimeand economic in which positions. military1 Naguib. officers occupied the most important Mubarak in the course of thirty years, passed

Two other military presidents succeeded after Egypt signed the Camp David peace attemptedNasser: Anwar to “demilitarise” Sadat (1970-1981) the Egyptian and through three different phases. In the 1980s, Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011. Sadat Thetreaty Ministry of 1979 of Defence with Israel,created thean economic military makingstate by thesignificantly army focus reducing more onthe affairs number of switched its attention to economic activities. of army2 Mubarak officers brought in government back the positions, military publicarm called infrastructure the “National projects Service and produced Products leaderswar. to create economic enterprises and Organisation” (NSPO), which contributed to occupyinfluence high-level on Egyptian administrative society allowing positions its in the government.3 cheap civil goods for the middle and lower classes. The second phase was in the 1990s. The militarised state that evolved under IMFMubarak and World applied Bank’s a full-fledgedrequirements, economic and the liberalisation plan in accordance with the

This CMI Insight is a publication from the project Everyday Maneuvers: Military - Civilian Relations in Latin-America and the Middle East. The project explores the historical, cultural and political ties between military actors and civilians. CMI insight October 2013 No 2 The egyptian military in politics and the economy: Recent history and current transition status

military expanded their production of civil goods and of the commercial transportation system. The position of

unauditedservices. The special military autonomous established status new companies,in competition built the head of the Suez Canal was always reserved for the new factories, cultivated vast farms that had untaxed, maritimeretired military and land chief transport of staff. public The heads sector of companies. the Red Sea6 ports were retired generals, as were the managers of the with the expanding private sector and the privatised Despite Mubarak’s attempts to co-opt the military through especiallypublic sector. retired Finally, generals the thirdand colonels, phase was occupied during high the administrativelast ten years ofpositions Mubarak’s in reign,the bureaucracy when army and officers, the of Gamal Mubarak’s economic “Washington Consensus” reforms.privileges They to retired silently officers, resented they his still privatisation did not approve plans. military businesses. Mubarak gave public sector and further expanded theirA distinct profitable class of military Two 2008 Wikileaks cables emerged tothe get officers them to such accept administrative the planned administrators and managers Defence,which indicated and the thatEgyptian Field Marshalmilitary successionand economic of his son, influence Gamal Mubarak, in order Tantawi, the former Minister of 4 grew in the bureaucracy, the liberalisation because it undermined were largely critical of the economic whoUnder has Mubarak no military three background. major military public sector, and the military state control. Margaret Scobey, a enterprises, and they received non-military manufacturing and former US ambassador to Egypt servicesbodies were engaged in profitable their pensions from military threatstated, to “The its militaryeconomic views position, the andG.O.E.’s therefore privatization generally efforts opposes as a : the National Service sources in addition to high economic reforms. We see the Products Organization (NSPO), the military’s role in the economy as Ministry of Military Production salaries from the government. specialises(MOMP), and in civilianthe Arab manufacturing, Organization market reform by increasing direct for Industrialization (AOI). NSPO a force that generally stifles free plants. 40% of their production is geared to civilian skepticism regarding the neoliberal reforms is probably farming and services. MOMP owns eight manufacturing duegovernment to the potential involvement privatisation in the of markets.” the military’s Tantawi’s vast of their production goes to civilian markets. The three economic empire.7 markets. AOI owns eleven factories and companies. 70% chemicals, luxury jeeps, butane gas cylinders, kitchen Under Mubarak, the military enjoyed great leverage in stoves,bodies home produce appliances, a wide varietygas pipelines, of goods: infant steel, incubators, cement, politics through its maintenance of a close relationship

mineral water, pasta, olive oil and other foodstuffs. The militarywith the receivesUS and its$1.3 military-industrial billion dollars in complex.annual aid As frompart army owns a large number of gas stations, hotels, of the 1979 peace agreement with Israel, the Egyptian acrosswedding the halls,country. supermarkets,5 parking lots, domestic Financing (FMF) programme). This includes training of cleaning offices, transportation and shipping companies the U.S. (under the umbrella of the Foreign Military

andEgyptian M1A1 officers Abraham in U.S. tanks. war colleges,The aid programmeand sales of weapons fostered At the government level, large numbers of retired officers to Egypt, such as F-16 fighter jets, Apache helicopters, andwere politically appointed appease to high-ranking them. A positionsdistinct class in many of military places in the state bureaucracy, as a way to financially reward close relationships between Egyptian8 generals and their the public sector, and the military enterprises, and counterparts in the Pentagon. theyadministrators received their and managerspensions from grew military in the bureaucracy, sources in THE MILITARY-ISLAMIST ALLIANCE (FEBRUARY addition to high salaries from the government. Retired 2011- JUNE 2013) In February of 2011, after an eighteen-day sit-in, the areas in the north and south of the country, but they army generals and colonels were hired in numerous of Mubarak and the abortion of his son’s succession protesters in Tahrir Square celebrated the deposition preferred positions where authority and capital merged. immediately offered to run the country for a short six keyFor example,locations, on such the eve as oftourist-oriented 2011, 18 out of 27provinces provincial in monthplan. The transitional Supreme Councilperiod. ofIn the response, Armed Forcesthe Egyptian (SCAF) governors were retired army generals. These included masses chanted: “The army and the people are one hand,”

DeltaUpper areas.Egypt, They all three also provincesserved as of governors’ the Suez Canal,chiefs-of- the two Sinai provinces, sometimes Alexandria, and major and state-owned media played the 1960s nationalentrenched songs itsof Nasser’scontrol era.over SCAF essential stayed state in power institutions, for a full includingyear and staff, directors of small towns, and heads of both wealthy thehalf media,until June the 2012. bureaucracy, During this the period, security SCAF apparatus, and naturaland poor gas districts and oil companies. in Cairo. The They state-owned also controlled oil sector parts was highly militarised, as retired generals ran many the judiciary. SCAF placed a large number of retired 2 The egyptian military in politics and the economy:Recent history and current transition status CMI insight October 2013 No 2

businesses. began Muslimofficers inBrotherhood government and positions, other Islamistand expanded organisations. military Brotherhood won the presidential elections, he was the SCAF also established close alliance with the firstforces. civilian He saluted president the Egyptian of Egypt military since Nasser. and added, He “Only in the parliamentary and presidential elections, and his first national address by deeply thanking the armed14 theThrough military such maintained alliances, theand Islamistsprotected won the political the majority and Days economic privileges that it had inherited from Mubarak’s Goda supplement knows how to much the loveConstitutional I have in my Declaration heart [for it].”that era. deprivedbefore Morsi he wasof any declared substantial the winner, authority SCAF over issued the armed forces. Morsi maintained the privileged status of the army in the state administration, by hiring ministers, governors, and other top administrators from army The former Minister of Defence, Field Marshall Tantawi, theand supremethe former council. chief of From staff, FebruarySami ‘Anan, 2011 were until the mostJune powerful two figures among the generals who sat on officers. In August 2012, he sacked Tantawi and replaced authorities. They him with General al-Sisi, after a grave incident in Sinai 2012, SCAF held both the presidential and the legislative where armed groups killed a number of army soldiers. In of retired army appointedgenerals andtwo weakcolonels prime in ministers,the state response to his appointment, al_Sisi started to cooperate who signed letters of appointment for a large number Brotherhood.closely with the Morsi government. Rumours quickly spread, that al-Sisi was a closet member of the Muslim bureaucracy and the public sector. SCAF also issued The Constitution: In order to please the army even further, civiliana law givingcourts, allegedDecree No. corrupt 45 of army2011. 9 officers, In addition, including the Muslim Brotherhood maintained the privileged, retiredopened an officers, industrial immunity chemical from complex prosecution south of also Cairo in autonomous status of the military in the constitution that produced fertilisers, and a cement factory in NorthSCAF 10 referendum in December 2012. The Brotherhood’s constitutionthat they drafted gave the and military had ratifieda semi-independent through a publicstatus theSinai. outskirts These of came Cairo. just11 a few years after a steel factory in northern Egypt, and the purchase of a railway factory on kept the military budget, even the revenues from civilian businesses,over its own above affairs. state Article oversight No. 197 and of publicthis constitution, scrutiny. It has been close in elections, the constitution and in placed the authority to oversee the military budget in the business.The alliance between SCAF and the Muslim Brotherhood hands of the National Defence Council, a governmental body that consisted mostly of internally nominated Elections: Islamists had enjoyed a conspicuous marriage

military officers. Parliament was obliged to consult the discourseof convenience and organised with SCAF several based onelections. power-sharing. The Egyptian After council on any future laws relevant to the armed forces, assuming power, SCAF voluntarily adopted a democratic before they were15 issued. Article No. 195 guaranteed that the Minister of Defence should always be chosen from people went four times to the ballot boxes to vote under Business:ranking officers. Morsi and the Brotherhood’s government SCAF: in a referendum on a constitutional declaration granted the military extensive advantages that drafted by a committee chosen by SCAF that included overstepped sound civil-military relations.16 The Muslim presidentialMuslim Brotherhood election. On leaders every occasion, and was the headed ballot byboxes an Islamist judge; in two parliamentary elections; and in one the military expand its unaudited, untaxed business empire.Brotherhoods’ The Council’s legislature, Committee the al-Shura of Human Council, Development helped results were in favor of the Islamists, particularly the Muslim Brotherhood and the Salafis (the latter are closer 17 The in ideology to the Wahhabi school of Islamic law that transferred the property rights of a state-owned car prevails in Saudi Arabia). In March 2011, the Islamists otherfactory ministries to the Ministry in the cabinet of Military ordered Production. thousands of were very helpful using religious slogans to mobilise same ministry invested in assembling tablets, while The ofthe themasses Armed to vote Forces in favour protected of the theSCAF’s voting constitutional sites, but 18 declaration, and SCAF repaid the favour. The soldiers these tablets without competitive19 and to public establish tenders. a medical through the use of religious slogans and distribution of military was also permitted to acquire more land to20 they allowed the Islamists to violate electoral rules build new shopping malls, school to staff its profitable hospitals treating civilians. thatpublications monitored with elections religious also symbols, recorded both cases inside of buyingand at In addition, the budgets of the military’s many financial the doors of voting stations. Civil society organizations enterprises remained secret. The Head of the State’s21 the distribution of food.12 In the presidential elections, Central Auditing Organization has confirmed that he has thevotes violations of rural of and the urban Muslim lower-class Brothers to citizens support through Morsi COUPno access OR toREVOLUTION? the accounts of (JUNE-JULY military-owned 2013) businesses. continued, and the army once again turned a blind eye.13 While most international media and analysts perceived the events of June and July 2013 as a “military coup,” most Egyptians called it “our revolution.” After massive

In June 2012, when Mohamed Morsi of the Muslim 3 CMI insight October 2013 No 2 The egyptian military in politics and the economy: Recent history and current transition status

the discontented masses by committing several massacres 30 June 2013,22 most Egyptians expected the army to in various neighbourhoods in Greater Cairo, such as in doprotests its national with tens security of millions duty marching and save acrossthe country the country from economic ruin. The military responded to the people’s killed.Bayn al-Sarayat31 and al-Manyal, and in many provincial areas, where dozens of unarmed civilians were brutally demands, and formed a collation with several political Al-Sisi opted to employ counter-terrorism tactics Theparties Egyptian and public military figures decided to depose to oust Morsi Morsi, on 3despite July.2013. the Foragainst many the EgyptiansBrotherhood of afterwards.different generations, the dark

During Morsi’s regime, the Muslim Brotherhood granted in the country are still vivid and alive in their minds. thefact militarythat his exceptionaldeposition workedpolitical against and economic its own privilegesinterests. Duringmemories this of period, the 1990s the and military the widespread played a marginal armed violence role in

and even included them in the constitution. General al-Sisi overarresting this duty. Jihadists The January who were 2011 charged uprisings with fundamentally committing was content with the privileges. He invited23 Morsi to many violent attacks. It was other security forces who took military ceremonies, to the graduation of new officers and of performing such tasks. Thus, the military, already politicsto openings and ofinvest new itsmilitary efforts projects. into protecting Al-Sisi theasserted country on humiliatedweakened thoseby Jihadists security forceskidnapping and left their them soldiers incapable in internallyseveral occasions and externally. that the24 Thus, army for would the notmilitary interfere to side in

Sinai, felt obliged to take responsibility this time. In a with youth and opposition groups that had long chanted tospeech “scare only and one terrorise” week before the Egyptian the 30 June people. uprisings, al-Sisi against such privileges, was risky and could have resulted asserted that the army would not tolerate those who try suspendedin significant parts future to losses. punish The the military Egyptian also riskedmilitary losing for oustingUS aid, ofMorsi. which25 the Obama administration has recently onIn the internal, process ofregional ousting or Morsi,international al-Sisi fronts. made On careful the the Muslim Brotherhood However, theas anEgyptian international military terroristdecided calculations to make sure he would not lose support to take these risks because internally, they classified threatened national security. internal front, he received the overwhelming32 He also support received of organization whose participation in the power structure supportthe masses, from who various had feared political the return parties of terrorism. that are These not concernedmasses now by comparethe military’s him businesses to Nasser. and their elevated thousands of Islamists from different factions in Cairo Two weeks before his ousting, Morsi gathered tens of support and billions of dollars from Arabian Gulf regimes Without military approval, Morsi announced that the thatstatus. resented At the the regional Muslim level,Brotherhoods’ al-Sisi received regional extensiveschemes, Stadium in order to declare international Jihad in Syria.

rebels.“Egyptian26 people and army” together were going to help Egypt,including it did Saudi not Arabia,use the term UAE, “military and Qatar. coup” Internationally, to describe free Syria from its tyrannical regime by supporting the although the US suspended part of its military aid to Within this large meeting, many extremist Sunni to have plans to cut aid to Egypt altogether. clerics made highly sectarian statements with 27 Morsi’s In his the military intervention. President Obama does not seem consent, and this was followed a few days later by the THE ARMY AND THE TRANSITION TO DEMOCRACY massacre of eight Shi‘is in a village near Cairo. meeting with US Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel in otherCairo countrieslast April, in al-Sisi the region. expressed deep concern that the fullSince administrative the ousting role of Morsi, it played the after Egyptian January military 2011 - and has severity of the situation in 28 Syria might spill over into partially withdrawn from politics - in comparison with the Democratic transition in Egypt is taking place according has mainly focused on security matters, especially in Sinai. MorsiThree weeksinterfered before to thestop stadium a planned incident, military armed operation cells on youth groups, and Muslim and Christian religious leaders againstthe Sinai the Peninsula kidnappers. kidnapped The sevenkidnappers Egyptian eventually soldiers. to a road map that General al-Sisi, civilian political parties,

29 After the end of this crisis, many former drew up in early July. The road map includes the drafting releasedmilitary generalsthe soldiers asserted and escaped that the without Muslim being Brotherhood arrested of a new constitution, to be followed by presidential or identified. undertakenand parliamentary by a committee elections withinof 50 members; a few months. only Theone the criminals’ escape from security forces. The former process of drafting a new constitution is currently being foundersponsored of the the Sinai military Jihadists counter-terrorism and that they had unit, facilitated Team transition is taking place under heavy security measures inof the whom face isof the an armyBrotherhood’s general. retaliations However, the in response democratic to responsible for many other incidents of kidnapping the ousting Morsi. When rumours started to spread about soldiers777, claimed on the thatpeninsula. the Brotherhood30 and Hamas were he has no such plans and that his focus is only the security On the eve of and after the 30 June protests, armed ofal-Sisi the country.running33 for president, he made a declaration that members of the Muslim Brotherhood retaliated against

4 The egyptian military in politics and the economy:Recent history and current transition status CMI insight October 2013 No 2

In July and early August, the Muslim Brotherhood Muslim Brotherhoods constitution, or possibly drafting in other provinces in order to demand the return of Morsi liberal, leftist, and Islamist political parties, in addition andorganized the restoration two large of sit-ins the suspended in Cairo, and constitution. a smaller These sit-in toa newrepresentatives one, includes of trade representatives unions, youth from movements, several demonstrators launched several violent attacks against civilianssit-ins were and armed, state buildings. as many Membersforeign observers of the Brotherhood noted. The rarelywomen, speaks Nubians, in discussions.Copts and Bedouins. The committee’s There is onlydebates one army general on the committee, and he is low-key and continuitykilled many of unarmed these armed citizens sit-ins in several that launched parts of Greaterviolent reflect a considerable degree of liberal thinking and attacksCairo, and across clashed Cairo with became the military a severe in bloody threat battles.to people’s The protection of rights of religious minorities and women. lives and national security. For example, it has indicated that it will amend Article No. 3 in the previous constitution that acknowledged In retaliation for their sit-ins being dispersed by the police, provisionsthe rights only of the of articleSunni Muslims,to include Christians, the rights and of allJews non- to the Muslim Brotherhood destroyed and burned several resort to their respective religious laws, and extended the churches of the Coptic Christian minorities. These revisions have minority in Upper Egypt, burned For many EgyptiansMuslims, inof the hope of empowering Eygpt´s religious shops, injured and killed civilians, and committee. attacked police stations. According different generations, the alsobeen amend rejected38 Article by theNo. Salafis11, to make on the it to an Amnesty International Report, clear that the government The committee is obliged will the Muslim Brotherhood brutally dark memories of the 1990s tortured civilians in the sit-ins.34 More and men in all realms and guarantee importantly, the Jihadist allies of and the widespread armed to achieve equality between women 39 violence in the country are elected councils. In addition, the their attacks against army soldiers fair representation of women in all andthe Brotherhoodpolice stations in in Sinai the intensifiedpeninsula. still vivid and alive in their the authority of the elected president, As a result, the interim government committee indicated that it will limit minds. in the Egyptian political system, and state of emergency in the country for a toin ordergrant thenot cabinetto produce of ministers new despots and month;imposed they a curfew have recently and proclaimed extended this a period. The state 40 The committee is arrested key leaders of the Brotherhood and accused them the parliament wider authorities. expected to finish its work within three months and then arrestedof inciting on violence the basis and of accusationskilling unarmed of criminal protesters behaviour when hold a referendum for or against the document, after which Morsi was in power. The leaders of the Brotherhood were otherpresidential civilian and candidates parliamentary have electionsmade public will statements take place. After al-Sisi asserted that he does not plan to run for election, presidentrather than Mubarak through under the emergency house arrest, law. after The military,he had beenhowever, released did usefrom the prison state because of emergency the Morsi-appointed to put former Furthermore,about running theand interiminitiated governmenttheir campaigns. has Presidentialintroduced candidates include Hamdin Sabbabhi and Khalid Ali. convict Mubarak last year.35 The state placed Mubarak in prosecutor general did not present sufficient evidence to andnew laws2013 andpopular measures uprisings. to ensure In responsesocial justice to pressureand fare fromwages, labour which movements were among and the government main demands employees, of the 2011 the confinement in a military hospital in south Cairo. 41 terrorism,Within this and climate, by the General end ofal-Sisi July, asked millions the nationof peoples in a cabinet of ministers has recently made the long-awaited televised speech to authorise him to fight violence and Althoughdecision to the raise military the minimum abstains wage from infull the political public sector.control, him this authorisation. Given such popular support, the it still maintains partial political domination. Many of showed up in mass marches across the country to grant the recently appointed governors of Egyptian provinces 36 in the north and the south of the country are retired notmilitary appear started in media extended or address military the nation operations and generally in Sinai army generals. More importantly, the problem of the against Jihadists and al-Qaeda members. Al-Sisi did military’s economic hegemony is still pressing. The refrained from public appearances. Some civilians articles in the Muslim Brotherhood’s 2012 constitution havelaunched such campaignspolitical intentions. asking General37 al-Sisi to run for the new draft of the constitution is very likely to restore the presidency, but the military asserted that al-Sisi does not Promising prospects from democratic placethat granted military the business military under financial state autonomy and parliamentary exemption transition oversight.from public In scrutiny. addition, The reforms new Egyptian are needed constitution in the Egyptian must The prospects for a transition to democracy in Egypt are promising, despite security struggles against violent distort the market through their privileges and lack of clashes. The current committee that is amending the transparency.economy to ensure that military businesses will not

5 Notes 26. ; 1. Economic domination of the military during Nasser’s years see: Anouar Abdel-Malek, Egypt: Military Society; the Army Regime, the See11c9f9633797 http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/1848161 http://tahrirnews. com/news/view.aspx?cdate=25062013&id=e1442de1-2572-4856-85b0- Left, and Social Change under Nasser 27. (New York: Random House, 2. International See http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014241278873244252045785 1968). http://gate.ahram.org.eg/UI/Front/Inner. Journal of Middle East Studies, 97981624524800.html 210.C.f.: Cooper, “Demilitarization of Egyptian Cabinet,” 28. See Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1982), pp. 204- 29. / 3. Mubarak’s Egypt: Fragmentation of the Political aspx?NewsContentID=377716 30. ; Order See http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/arab-and-world/egypt Robert Springborg, com/node/100225 4. Cairo Review, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), pp. 95-133. See http://www.elmogaz.com/node/100225 http://www.elmogaz. 2012. 31. Zeinab Abul-Magd, “Understanding SCAF,” Summer 5. See http://tahrirnews.com/news/view. 32. Market,” Sada aspx?cdate=30072013&id=3e926424-3910-40a0-99a0-910730d7a16b 2012.Zeinab Abul-Magd, “The Generals’ Secret: Egypt’s Ambivalent 33. , Carnegie Endowment, Washington DC, February See http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/2044146 6. Zeinab Abul-Magd, “The Egyptian Republic of Retired Generals,” See http://www.amnesty.org/en/news/egypt-evidence-points-torture- Foreign Policy 34. carried-out-morsi-supporters-2013-08-02 7. Egypt’s Command Economy, 35. , 8 May 2012. See http://www.albawabhnews.com/news/117999 36. Sarahegypts_command_economy.html Topol, . Also seeSlate, Alex 15 Blumberg, December 2010.“Why See http://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/323030 37. Egypt’shttp://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/dispatches/2010/12/ Military Cares about Home Appliances,” NPR, 4 February See http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/1963201 2011. See http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/2134761 . 39. http://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2011/02/10/133501837/ 38. See http://www1.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=1255902&SecID=97 Mubarak’s Egypt: Fragmentation of the why-egypts-military-cares-about-home-appliances See http://www.aawsat.com/details.asp?section=1&article=742985&iss Political Order 40. 8. See Robert Springborg, ueno=12706#.Uj2L4ihGL2A , pp. 195-133. See this collection of documents on See http://www1.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=1256345&SecID=319 the minister of defenseAl-Malaff in theal-Watha’iqi 1980s, Field lil-Mushir Marshall Muhammad Abd al-Halim ‘Abd a-HalimAbu Ghazala, Abu Ghazala, and his (Cairo:immediate al-Ahram military Institution and economic Archives, relations ?), part 1,2with &3. US officials: 9. masress.com/elakhbar/51404; See http://www.masress.com/alahaly/6219; http://www. http://www3.youm7.com/News. 10. ; asp?NewsID=665946 See http://www.ahram.org.eg/Archive/2005/12/7/FRON7.HTM 11. http://www.aoi.com.eg/aoiarab/aoi/semaf/Flash/HomeA.htm aspxSee http://www.almasryalyoum.com/node/583156; http://www. masrawy.com/elections/news/general/2011/november/29/4632167. 12.

See http://elbadil.com/?p=47299 , http://www.almasryalyoum.com/ 13. node/865166 14. For the full text of the constitution see: See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzs7R3lUeUQ http://www.almasryalyoum. 15. com/node/1283056 Atlantic Council CMI (Chr. Michelsen Institute) Empires:See: Zeinab the Abul-Magd, Brotherhood “Chuck versus Hagel the Army,”in Egypt’s 5 October Economic 2012. Chaos,” Phone: +47 47 93 80 00 , 29 April 2013; “Egypt’s Politics of Hidden Business 16. Fax: +47 55 31 03 13 almasryalyoum.com/node/1651361 E-mail: [email protected] See http://www.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=940038; http://www. 17. CMI is an independent development research institute See http://www.fj-p.com/article.php?id=57710 in Bergen, Norway. CMI generates and communicates 19. http://dostor.org/ 18. See http://egyptianpeople.com/default_news.php?id=37703 research-based knowledge relevant for fighting poverty, 20. See advancing human rights, and promoting sustainable 21. social development. CMI’s research focuses on local and See http://www.el-balad.com/303191 global challenges and opportunities facing low and middle See http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/world/middleeast/ 22. income countries and their citizens. Our geographic egypt.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 orientation in towards Africa, Asia, the Middle East and See for example: http://fj-p.com/article.php?id=6199 http://www1. 23. Latin America. youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=1045613 24. See http://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/85255 Jadaliyya, July 25 2013 See: Zeinab Abul-Magd, “US Military Aid to Egypt Lost Value,” Editor: Ingvild Hestad. Copy editor: Lisa Arnestad . http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/ 25. index/13186/us-military-aid-to-egypt-lost-value- See http://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/201606