The Smallpox Epidemic of 1782-83 Among the Hudson Bay Lowland Cree

"God was Angry with Their Country": The Smallpox Epidemic of 1782-83 among the Hudson Bay Lowland Cree VICTOR L YTWYN Historical and Geographical /Consulting Services ,The Hudson Bay Lowlands is a vast subarctic region ·of predominantly swampy, low-lying terrain (see Figure 1). The Aboriginal people who oc- , cupied the Hudson Bay Lowlands at the time of European contact !n the 17th century were known as "Winepeg Athinuwick" and "Muchiskewuck Athinu wick", meaning 'the people of the sea-coast' and 'the people of!he swampy ground' respectively (Graham 1969: 192). They were linked by language and culture to a much larger group of people living in the interior ofNorth America who were commonly called Cree. In this paper, for the purpose of clarity and continuity, the people of the Hudson Bay Lowlands will be called the Lowland Cree. In 1610, Henry Hudson led the first European voyage into Hudson Bay and made contact with aboriginal people in James Bay, probably in the vicinity of Point Comfort (Kenyon 1986:1 ). Other Europeans followed, including Thomas Button, who spent the winter of 1612-13 at the mouth ofthe Nelson River (Fox 1635), Jens Munk, who wintered at the mouth of the Churchill River in 1619-20 (Munk 1980), and Thomas James and Luke Fox, the former wintering on Charlton Island in James Bay (Fox 1635, James 1740). Although aboriginal people were contacted by some of the European explorers, none of the reports provide detailed accounts of the Lowland Cree population. Hence, it is impossible to assess the impact of these brief European contacts on the health of the Lowland Cree. The account of Thomas Button's voyage, however, provided an ominous report of sickness and death among many of his crew (Fox 1635: 118). Whatever disease afflicted Button's men had the potential to be transmitted to the Lowland Cree, but the report ofButton's expedition made no specific mention of encounters with aboriginal people. The oral traditions of the Lowland Cree regarding first contacts with Europeans do not speak of "GOD WAS ANGRY WITH THEIR COUNTRY" 143 siclmess, so it is likely that disease transmission either did not occur or that its impact was minimal. 1 Europeans established permanent trading posts in the eastern James Bay I area in 1668, and sustained contact with the Lowland Cree was made in 1670 'I with the advent of seasonal trading at the mouth of the Moose River. In 1674, Charles Bailey made an exploration of the western James Bay coast and A.kimiski Island. At the mouth of the Ekwan River, Bailey reported, "There had been a great Mortality among them, and several were starv' d to Death for want of Food; this Country being such a miserable Wilderness, that it affords not sufficient Sustenance for the wretched Inhabitants" (Oldmixon 1931 :392). Bailey's speculation that death resulted from starvation because of inadequate t'' food does not accord with subsequent historical accounts of abundant fish, waterfowl, caribou and other food resources in the region during the summer I months (Lytwyn 1993:230-4). Death by starvation in the summer season seems unlikely, so that Bailey's account may have been the first to report a disease epidemic among the Lowland Cree. Once again, however, the historical records do not permit an identification of the specific disease. The European fur traders who came to work at posts along the coast of · Hudson Bay were unanimously impressed with the general good health and physical strength of the Lowland Cree. For example, James Isham, who was employed by the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) at York Factorl and Churchill Fort, wrote in 1743 that "The Natives in these parts are of an incredible strong constitution both men and women" (Isham 1949:96). In 1768, HBC ChiefTrader Andrew Grahain, who was in charge of Severn House, similarly observed that "They are of a strong constitution both men and women" (HBCA, E.2/4:38). William Falconer, who was stationed at Severn House, wrote about 1766 that "They are of a middling stature and very proportionable, few deformed and scarce any of them fat" (Falconer 1766:20). In his book published in 1790, Edward Umfreville, who had been stationed at Severn House and York Factory from 1771 to 1783, wrote "Their constitutions are strong and healthy, and their disorders few" (Umfreville 1954: 19).3 The impression of a healthy, robust Lowland Cree population given by European writers in the mid-18th century was probably a reflection of the 1 See, for example, Ellis 1995:2-13; Wesley and Goodwin 1993:7-13. 2 The HBC post at the mouth of the Hayes River was called York Fort throughout most of the 18th century. However, since the name York Factory is more commonly known it will be used in this paper. 3 It is evident that both Graham and Umfreville plagiarized from !sham's work. Falconer, however, appears to have written his observations independently. FIGURE 1: MAP OF THE HUDSON BAY LOWLANDS REGION HUDSON BAY JAMES BAY () I) 200 400 "GOD WAS ANGRY WITH THEIR COUNTRY" 145 comparative state of their health with that of Europeans at the time. However, as indicated in the quotation from Umfreville noted above, "disorders", ·although few, were not absent. Graham and Falconer listed the diseases as "the flux" (dysentery), "consumption, and pain in the breast" or "Country distemper" (probably tuberculosis), the "King's Evil" (scrofula), and venereal disease. Significantly, none of the HBC fur traders noted above reported the presence or past history of highly infectious and deadly diseases such as measles, whooping cough or smallpox. Both Graham and Falconer noted the absence of smallpox among the Lowland Cree. Graham wrote "the smallpox is unknown to them" (HBCA, E.2/4:39), andFalconernoted that "The small pox was never known amongst them" (Falconer 1766:34). The statements by Graham and Falconer that smallpox had never been present among the Lowland Cree is contrary to the speculations of scholars of historical demography and epidemiology. For example, Henry F. Dobyns postulated that smallpox introduced into Mexico by Spaniards in the period 1520-24 became a pandemic spreading throughout North America and affecting "all or very nearly all Native Americans" (Dobyns 1983:13). Dobyns also speculated that wave after wave of smallpox epidemics subsequently swept across parts ofNorth America, including one in 1738-39 that was said to have reached Hudson Bay (Dobyns 1983:15). Jody Decker (1989:59) agreed with Dobyns, and suggested that an earlier smallpox epidemic also affected the Lowland Cree around York Factory in 1721. The records of the HBC traders in the 18th century do not provide much support for the presence of smallpox in the Hudson Bay Lowlands before 1782. The report of smallpox at York Factory in 1721 came from the pen of HBC Chief Factor Henry Kelsey; however, it is apparent from his description that smallpox was not the cause of the illness that w;as first reported in the fall of 1721 among the family of a Lowland Cree leader known as "0ld Captain". On 23 September 1720, Kelsey wrote "the Capt' s. son in law from the N. side of Port Nelson [arrived] saying the Capt. & most of his family very sick and desire to be fetcht hither till they recover" (HBCA, B.239/a/6:3). They were cared for near York Factory throughout the winter, but on 28 December 1820 Kelsey reported that the old leader was "very bad and vomits blood continu ally" (HBCA, B.239/a/6:9d). On 23 March 1721, six months after the sickness was first reported, Kelsey concluded that the di~ease afflicting the Old Captain and his family was smallpox. He wrote that "2 of the Captain's family came here for food and say he and some others are very ill, altho most of the Indians 146 VICTOR LYTWYN that have lain here all Winter have had the Small Pox which I never saw among the home Indians before" (HBCA, B.239/a/6:15). On 14 April 1721, Kelsey was visited by a member of the Old Captain's group who came with an unusual request. Kelsey made note of it as follows: "one Indian came from the Capt. And saies he is like to Dye and sent for a Watch to look art, one of my wearing Coates and a Blanket for a Winding shett [sheet] if he dies. I insert this to left your Honours [the HBC governing committee in London] see the superstitious humours of these people" (HBCA, B.239/a/6:17). The Old Captain appeared at York Factory on 1 May 1721, leading a group of 60 Lowland Cree. Kelsey noted that "he is in a very bad condition and thinks of Dying" (HBCA, B.239/a/6:18d). His ill health gradually became worse and, on 26 November 1721, Kelsey reported that "the Captain is overspread with a leperousy and that his leggs and arms are wasted very much" (HBCA, B.239/a/7:7d). Finally, on 29 January 1722, the Old Captain died near York Factory (HBCA, B.239/a/7: 7d). Given the various descriptions made by Kelsey, it is very unlikely that the lingering illness that led to the death of the Old Captain was smallpox.4 Some symptoms, such as the vomiting of blood, may have led Kelsey to believe smallpox was the cause, but the haemorrhagic form of smallpox would have surely resulted in death within days or weeks. In addition, if smallpox was indeed active in the York Factory area, it would have likely resulted in more deaths in the family or extended kin group of the Old Captain.

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