Revisiting Wasson's Soma: Exploring the Effects of Preparation On
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From Sacred Plants to Psychotherapy
From Sacred Plants to Psychotherapy: The History and Re-Emergence of Psychedelics in Medicine By Dr. Ben Sessa ‘The rejection of any source of evidence is always treason to that ultimate rationalism which urges forward science and philosophy alike’ - Alfred North Whitehead Introduction: What exactly is it that fascinates people about the psychedelic drugs? And how can we best define them? 1. Most psychiatrists will define psychedelics as those drugs that cause an acute confusional state. They bring about profound alterations in consciousness and may induce perceptual distortions as part of an organic psychosis. 2. Another definition for these substances may come from the cross-cultural dimension. In this context psychedelic drugs may be recognised as ceremonial religious tools, used by some non-Western cultures in order to communicate with the spiritual world. 3. For many lay people the psychedelic drugs are little more than illegal and dangerous drugs of abuse – addictive compounds, not to be distinguished from cocaine and heroin, which are only understood to be destructive - the cause of an individual, if not society’s, destruction. 4. But two final definitions for psychedelic drugs – and those that I would like the reader to have considered by the end of this article – is that the class of drugs defined as psychedelic, can be: a) Useful and safe medical treatments. Tools that as adjuncts to psychotherapy can be used to alleviate the symptoms and course of many mental illnesses, and 1 b) Vital research tools with which to better our understanding of the brain and the nature of consciousness. Classifying psychedelic drugs: 1,2 The drugs that are often described as the ‘classical’ psychedelics include LSD-25 (Lysergic Diethylamide), Mescaline (3,4,5- trimethoxyphenylathylamine), Psilocybin (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) and DMT (dimethyltryptamine). -
Toxicological and Pharmacological Profile of Amanita Muscaria (L.) Lam
Pharmacia 67(4): 317–323 DOI 10.3897/pharmacia.67.e56112 Review Article Toxicological and pharmacological profile of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. – a new rising opportunity for biomedicine Maria Voynova1, Aleksandar Shkondrov2, Magdalena Kondeva-Burdina1, Ilina Krasteva2 1 Laboratory of Drug metabolism and drug toxicity, Department “Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Toxicology”, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria 2 Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Sofia, Bulgaria Corresponding author: Magdalena Kondeva-Burdina ([email protected]) Received 2 July 2020 ♦ Accepted 19 August 2020 ♦ Published 26 November 2020 Citation: Voynova M, Shkondrov A, Kondeva-Burdina M, Krasteva I (2020) Toxicological and pharmacological profile of Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. – a new rising opportunity for biomedicine. Pharmacia 67(4): 317–323. https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.67. e56112 Abstract Amanita muscaria, commonly known as fly agaric, is a basidiomycete. Its main psychoactive constituents are ibotenic acid and mus- cimol, both involved in ‘pantherina-muscaria’ poisoning syndrome. The rising pharmacological and toxicological interest based on lots of contradictive opinions concerning the use of Amanita muscaria extracts’ neuroprotective role against some neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, its potent role in the treatment of cerebral ischaemia and other socially significant health conditions gave the basis for this review. Facts about Amanita muscaria’s morphology, chemical content, toxicological and pharmacological characteristics and usage from ancient times to present-day’s opportunities in modern medicine are presented. Keywords Amanita muscaria, muscimol, ibotenic acid Introduction rica, the genus had an ancestral origin in the Siberian-Be- ringian region in the Tertiary period (Geml et al. -
Amanita Muscaria (Fly Agaric)
J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2018; 48: 85–91 | doi: 10.4997/JRCPE.2018.119 PAPER Amanita muscaria (fly agaric): from a shamanistic hallucinogen to the search for acetylcholine HistoryMR Lee1, E Dukan2, I Milne3 & Humanities The mushroom Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) is widely distributed Correspondence to: throughout continental Europe and the UK. Its common name suggests MR Lee Abstract that it had been used to kill flies, until superseded by arsenic. The bioactive 112 Polwarth Terrace compounds occurring in the mushroom remained a mystery for long Merchiston periods of time, but eventually four hallucinogens were isolated from the Edinburgh EH11 1NN fungus: muscarine, muscimol, muscazone and ibotenic acid. UK The shamans of Eastern Siberia used the mushroom as an inebriant and a hallucinogen. In 1912, Henry Dale suggested that muscarine (or a closely related substance) was the transmitter at the parasympathetic nerve endings, where it would produce lacrimation, salivation, sweating, bronchoconstriction and increased intestinal motility. He and Otto Loewi eventually isolated the transmitter and showed that it was not muscarine but acetylcholine. The receptor is now known variously as cholinergic or muscarinic. From this basic knowledge, drugs such as pilocarpine (cholinergic) and ipratropium (anticholinergic) have been shown to be of value in glaucoma and diseases of the lungs, respectively. Keywords acetylcholine, atropine, choline, Dale, hyoscine, ipratropium, Loewi, muscarine, pilocarpine, physostigmine Declaration of interests No conflicts of interest declared Introduction recorded by the Swedish-American ethnologist Waldemar Jochelson, who lived with the tribes in the early part of the Amanita muscaria is probably the most easily recognised 20th century. His version of the tale reads as follows: mushroom in the British Isles with its scarlet cap spotted 1 with conical white fl eecy scales. -
Amanita Muscaria: Ecology, Chemistry, Myths
Entry Amanita muscaria: Ecology, Chemistry, Myths Quentin Carboué * and Michel Lopez URD Agro-Biotechnologies Industrielles (ABI), CEBB, AgroParisTech, 51110 Pomacle, France; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Definition: Amanita muscaria is the most emblematic mushroom in the popular representation. It is an ectomycorrhizal fungus endemic to the cold ecosystems of the northern hemisphere. The basidiocarp contains isoxazoles compounds that have specific actions on the central nervous system, including hallucinations. For this reason, it is considered an important entheogenic mushroom in different cultures whose remnants are still visible in some modern-day European traditions. In Siberian civilizations, it has been consumed for religious and recreational purposes for millennia, as it was the only inebriant in this region. Keywords: Amanita muscaria; ibotenic acid; muscimol; muscarine; ethnomycology 1. Introduction Thanks to its peculiar red cap with white spots, Amanita muscaria (L.) Lam. is the most iconic mushroom in modern-day popular culture. In many languages, its vernacular names are fly agaric and fly amanita. Indeed, steeped in a bowl of milk, it was used to Citation: Carboué, Q.; Lopez, M. catch flies in houses for centuries in Europe due to its ability to attract and intoxicate flies. Amanita muscaria: Ecology, Chemistry, Although considered poisonous when ingested fresh, this mushroom has been consumed Myths. Encyclopedia 2021, 1, 905–914. as edible in many different places, such as Italy and Mexico [1]. Many traditional recipes https://doi.org/10.3390/ involving boiling the mushroom—the water containing most of the water-soluble toxic encyclopedia1030069 compounds is then discarded—are available. In Japan, the mushroom is dried, soaked in brine for 12 weeks, and rinsed in successive washings before being eaten [2]. -
Diagnosis and Treatment of Amanita Phalloides-Type Mushroom Poison- Ing-Use of Thioctic Acid
Refer to: Becker CE, Tong TG, Boerner U, et al: Diagnosis and treatment of Amanita phalloides-type mushroom poison- ing-Use of thioctic acid. West J Med 125:100-109, Aug 1976 Diagnosis and Treatment of Amanita Phalloides-Type Mushroom Poisoning Use of Thioctic Acid CHARLES E. BECKER, MD; THEODORE G. TONG, PharmD; UDO BOERNER, DSc; ROBERT L. ROE, MD; ROBERT A. T. SCOTT, MD, and MICHAEL B. MacQUARRIE, MD, San Francisco; and FREDERIC BARTTER, MD, Bethesda The number of cases of mushroom poisoning is increasing as a result of the increasing popularity of "wild" mushroom consumption. Amanitin and phal- loidin cytotoxins found in some Amanita and Galerina species produce the most severe and frequent life-threatening symptoms of Amanita phalloides- type poisoning. Delay in onset of symptoms, individual susceptibility variation and lack of rapid and reliable identification have contributed to the significant morbidity and mortality of this type of poisoning. A rapid chromatographic assay for identifying the potent cytotoxins and apparently successful management using thioctic acid of two cases of A. phal- loides-type mushroom poisoning are reported. All known cases of A. phal- loides-type mushroom poisoning treated with thioctic acid in the United States are summarized. THE GATHERING AND EATING of wild mushrooms lieve that poisonous varieties can be identified is a popular pastime in the United States, partly easily2'3 and many have the erroneous notion that owing to increased interest in "organic" foods and some toxic species can be rendered harmless by in the hallucinogenic substances found in certain cooking in a particular manner. As a result, even species. -
Positron Emission Tomography Studies of Potential Mechanisms Underlying Phencyclidine-Induced Alterations in Striatal Dopamine
Neuropsychopharmacology (2003) 28, 2192–2198 & 2003 Nature Publishing Group All rights reserved 0893-133X/03 $25.00 www.neuropsychopharmacology.org Positron Emission Tomography Studies of Potential Mechanisms Underlying Phencyclidine-Induced Alterations in Striatal Dopamine ,1,2 2 1,2 Wynne K Schiffer* , Jean Logan and Stephen L Dewey 1SUNY Stony Brook, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook, NY, USA; 2Brookhaven National Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Upton, NY, USA 11 Positron emission tomography (PET), in combination with C-raclopride, was used to examine the effects of phencyclidine (PCP) on dopamine (DA) in the primate striatum. In addition, we explored the hypotheses that GABAergic pathways as well as molecular targets beyond the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex (ie dopamine transporter proteins, DAT) contribute to PCP’s effects. In 11 the first series of experiments, C-raclopride was administered at baseline and 30 min following intravenous PCP administration. In the second series of studies, g-vinyl GABA (GVG) was used to assess whether enhanced GABAergic tone altered NMDA antagonist- induced changes in DA. Animals received an initial PET scan followed by pretreatment with GVG (300 mg/kg), then PCP 30 min prior to 11 a second scan. Finally, we explored the possible contributions of DAT blockade to PCP-induced increases in DA. By examining C- cocaine binding a paradigm in which PCP was coadministered with the radiotracer, we assessed the direct competition between these 11 two compounds for the DAT. At 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg, PCP decreased C-raclopride binding by 2.1, 14.9 7 2.2 and 8.18 7 1.1%, 11 respectively. -
Direct Analysis of Psilocin and Muscimol in Urine Samples Using Single Drop Microextraction Technique In-Line with Capillary Electrophoresis
molecules Article Direct Analysis of Psilocin and Muscimol in Urine Samples Using Single Drop Microextraction Technique In-Line with Capillary Electrophoresis Anna Poliwoda * , Katarzyna Zieli ´nskaand Piotr P. Wieczorek Faculty of Chemistry, University of Opole, Oleska 48, 45-042 Opole, Poland * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-77452-7116 Academic Editors: Mihkel Koel and Marek Tobiszewski Received: 20 February 2020; Accepted: 25 March 2020; Published: 29 March 2020 Abstract: The fully automated system of single drop microextraction coupled with capillary electrophoresis (SDME-CE) was developed for in-line preconcentration and determination of muscimol (MUS) and psilocin (PSC) from urine samples. Those two analytes are characteristic active metabolites of Amanita and Psilocybe mushrooms, evoking visual and auditory hallucinations. Study analytes were selectively extracted from the donor phase (urine samples, pH 4) into the organic phase (a drop of octanol layer), and re-extracted to the acidic acceptor (background electrolyte, BGE), consisting of 25 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3). The optimized conditions for the extraction procedure of a 200 µL urine sample allowed us to obtain more than a 170-fold enrichment effect. The calibration curves 1 were linear in the range of 0.05–50 mg L− , with the correlation coefficients from 0.9911 to 0.9992. The limit of detections was determined by spiking blank urine samples with appropriate standards, 1 1 i.e., 0.004 mg L− for PSC and 0.016 mg L− for MUS, respectively. The limits of quantification varied 1 1 from 0.014 mg L− for PSC and 0.045 mg L− for MUS. -
Opiate Receptor Subtype Modulation of Dopaminergic Activity the Effects of Mu, Kappa and Sigma Opiates on the Development of Dopaminergic Supersensitivity
University of Rhode Island DigitalCommons@URI Open Access Dissertations 1986 OPIATE RECEPTOR SUBTYPE MODULATION OF DOPAMINERGIC ACTIVITY THE EFFECTS OF MU, KAPPA AND SIGMA OPIATES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOPAMINERGIC SUPERSENSITIVITY Robert W. Dunn University of Rhode Island Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss Recommended Citation Dunn, Robert W., "OPIATE RECEPTOR SUBTYPE MODULATION OF DOPAMINERGIC ACTIVITY THE EFFECTS OF MU, KAPPA AND SIGMA OPIATES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOPAMINERGIC SUPERSENSITIVITY" (1986). Open Access Dissertations. Paper 147. https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/oa_diss/147 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. OPIATE RECEPTOR SUBTYPE MODULATION OF DOPAMINERGIC ACTIVITY THE EFFECTS OF MU, KAPPA AND SIGMA OPIATES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOPAMINERGIC SUPERSENSITIVITY BY ROBERT W. DUNN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND 1986 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DISSERTATION OF ROBERT W. DUNN Approved: Dissertation Chairman ~~~~----....-..~~.......... -----~----~~~- Dean of the Graduate School UNIVERSITY OF RHODE ISLAND 1986 ABSTRACT The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of mu (µ), kappa (K) and sigma (o) agents namely, morphine (µ), ethylketo cyclazocine ( K), SKF 10,047 ( o), pentazocine (K, o), cyclazocine (K, o) and the mu antagonists, naloxone and naltrexone on dopamine mediated behaviors and the development of haloperidol-induced dopaminergic supersensitivity (DA-SS) in the mouse. Three behavioral paradigms were utilized which are predictive of mesolimbic and/or striatal dopaminergic effects: locomotor activity (mesol imbic); apomorphine-induced stereotyped behavior (striatal) and apomorphine induced climbing behavior (mesolimbic/striatal). -
Phencyclidine: an Update
Phencyclidine: An Update U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES • Public Health Service • Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration Phencyclidine: An Update Editor: Doris H. Clouet, Ph.D. Division of Preclinical Research National Institute on Drug Abuse and New York State Division of Substance Abuse Services NIDA Research Monograph 64 1986 DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES Public Health Service Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administratlon National Institute on Drug Abuse 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, Maryland 20657 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, DC 20402 NIDA Research Monographs are prepared by the research divisions of the National lnstitute on Drug Abuse and published by its Office of Science The primary objective of the series is to provide critical reviews of research problem areas and techniques, the content of state-of-the-art conferences, and integrative research reviews. its dual publication emphasis is rapid and targeted dissemination to the scientific and professional community. Editorial Advisors MARTIN W. ADLER, Ph.D. SIDNEY COHEN, M.D. Temple University School of Medicine Los Angeles, California Philadelphia, Pennsylvania SYDNEY ARCHER, Ph.D. MARY L. JACOBSON Rensselaer Polytechnic lnstitute National Federation of Parents for Troy, New York Drug Free Youth RICHARD E. BELLEVILLE, Ph.D. Omaha, Nebraska NB Associates, Health Sciences Rockville, Maryland REESE T. JONES, M.D. KARST J. BESTEMAN Langley Porter Neuropsychiatric lnstitute Alcohol and Drug Problems Association San Francisco, California of North America Washington, D.C. DENISE KANDEL, Ph.D GILBERT J. BOTV N, Ph.D. College of Physicians and Surgeons of Cornell University Medical College Columbia University New York, New York New York, New York JOSEPH V. -
Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com Ce4less.Com
Hallucinogens And Dissociative Drug Use And Addiction Introduction Hallucinogens are a diverse group of drugs that cause alterations in perception, thought, or mood. This heterogeneous group has compounds with different chemical structures, different mechanisms of action, and different adverse effects. Despite their description, most hallucinogens do not consistently cause hallucinations. The drugs are more likely to cause changes in mood or in thought than actual hallucinations. Hallucinogenic substances that form naturally have been used worldwide for millennia to induce altered states for religious or spiritual purposes. While these practices still exist, the more common use of hallucinogens today involves the recreational use of synthetic hallucinogens. Hallucinogen And Dissociative Drug Toxicity Hallucinogens comprise a collection of compounds that are used to induce hallucinations or alterations of consciousness. Hallucinogens are drugs that cause alteration of visual, auditory, or tactile perceptions; they are also referred to as a class of drugs that cause alteration of thought and emotion. Hallucinogens disrupt a person’s ability to think and communicate effectively. Hallucinations are defined as false sensations that have no basis in reality: The sensory experience is not actually there. The term “hallucinogen” is slightly misleading because hallucinogens do not consistently cause hallucinations. 1 ce4less.com ce4less.com ce4less.com ce4less.com ce4less.com ce4less.com ce4less.com How hallucinogens cause alterations in a person’s sensory experience is not entirely understood. Hallucinogens work, at least in part, by disrupting communication between neurotransmitter systems throughout the body including those that regulate sleep, hunger, sexual behavior and muscle control. Patients under the influence of hallucinogens may show a wide range of unusual and often sudden, volatile behaviors with the potential to rapidly fluctuate from a relaxed, euphoric state to one of extreme agitation and aggression. -
A Brief Legal History of Marihuana
A BRIEF LEGAL HISTORY OF MARIHUANA \ By MICHAEL R. ALDRICH, Ph.D. A "DO IT NOW" PUBLICATION A BRIEF LEGAL HISTORY OF MARIHUANA MichaelR.Aldrich~~ '2 .~~ AMORPHIA, Inc ~ The legal history of cannabis begins before the dawn of writing, as part of the world's oldest religion for which we still have the scriptures. This shamanistic, sacrificial religion was practiced from Turkestan to Mongolia by fierce nomad tribes including the Aryans who brought it over the Hindu Kush into India during the second mil!enium Before Christ. It~ rituals were preserved orally by chanting mantras forward, backward, skipping every other line, etc., until around 1500 B.C., the ceremonie~ were written and became the four Vedas, the oldest completely preserve<! religious texts on earth. Marihuana is m~ntioned in the Atharva-Veda, compiled between 1400 and 1000 B.C., in a Hymn for Freedom from Distress which addresses the whole pan the on of Vedic gods and includes the verse, Five kingdoms of plants, with Soma as their chief, we address: Soma, darbha, bhangas, saha, kusa grass; may they free us from distress. 1 Soma is now thought to be Amanita Muscaria mushroom; we are not sure exactly which plants are meant by darbha, saha, or kusa; but bhangas is clearly marihuana, and hemp has been known as Bhang in India ever since. From this prehistoric invocation we learn that marihuana's earliest use was magical (both medical and religious) in a ceremony "for freedom from distress" or "relief of anxiety," which implies that its psychoactive power& were known to the Vedic worshippers. -
Toxic Fungi of Western North America
Toxic Fungi of Western North America by Thomas J. Duffy, MD Published by MykoWeb (www.mykoweb.com) March, 2008 (Web) August, 2008 (PDF) 2 Toxic Fungi of Western North America Copyright © 2008 by Thomas J. Duffy & Michael G. Wood Toxic Fungi of Western North America 3 Contents Introductory Material ........................................................................................... 7 Dedication ............................................................................................................... 7 Preface .................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. 7 An Introduction to Mushrooms & Mushroom Poisoning .............................. 9 Introduction and collection of specimens .............................................................. 9 General overview of mushroom poisonings ......................................................... 10 Ecology and general anatomy of fungi ................................................................ 11 Description and habitat of Amanita phalloides and Amanita ocreata .............. 14 History of Amanita ocreata and Amanita phalloides in the West ..................... 18 The classical history of Amanita phalloides and related species ....................... 20 Mushroom poisoning case registry ...................................................................... 21 “Look-Alike” mushrooms .....................................................................................