AMANITA MUSCARIA: Mycopharmacological Outline and Personal Experiences

Home , Amanita citrina, Amanita muscaria, Amanita pantherina, Amanita regalis, Amanita strobiliformis, Muscazone

• -_._------.....•.----::

by Francesco Festi and Antonio Bianchi

Amanita muscaria, also known as Fly Agaric, is a yellow-to-orange capped wild mushroom. It grows in symbir-, is with arboreal trees such as Birch, Pine or Fir, in both Europe and the Americas. Its history has it associated with both shamanic and magical practices for at least the last 2,000 years, and it is probably the Soma intoxicant spoken of in the Indian Rig-Vedas. The following piece details both the generic as well as the esoteric history and pharmacological pro- files of the Amanita muscaria. It also introduces research which J shows that psychoactivity related to this species is seasonally- determinant. This determinant can mean the difference between poisoning and pleasant, healing applications, which include psychedelic experiences. Connections between the physiology of sleep and the plant's inner chemistry is also outlined.

if" This study is divided into two parts, reflecting two comple- l"" ~ ,j. mentary but different approaches to the same topic. The first (" "~l>;,;,~ ~ study, presented by Francesco Festi, presents a critical over- .~ view of the ~-:<'-.:=l.=';i.:31. ethnobotanical, chemical and pharmacological d~:.:: -.c. ~_~.::-_ .:::e :-efe:-::-e j to the Amanita muscaria (through 198'5 In :he se.:,='~_·: :;-.r:. also Italian author and mycologist Antc nio Bianchi reports on personal experiences with the Amar.i:a muscaria taken from European samples. The following experimental data - far from constituting any final answers - are only a proposal and (hopefully) an excitement for further investigations.

Part One: Mycological, Chemical and Neuropharmacological Aspects h 1) Mycological Outline =,st .:; Amanita muscaria (L. ex Fr.) Pers. ex Hooker - The Fly Agaric - is one of the oldest classifications of fungi known.

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It has consistently appeared in all the naturalistic fields throughout history. Linnaeus identified it as Agaricus muscar- Bresins: ius and originally introduced it into the genus. He included it Amm along with other gill fungi he classified and which were classi- latitude: fied by most Northern European botanists. These same bota- mounta nists were traditionally rnycophobic. This, unfortunately, led (in a di to the bypassing of other important mushrooms and fungi in and Au their studies. and a C( The generic name, coined by Persoon, derives from the species Greek amanitai, means "fungi without any details" (or from trees. T Amanos, a mountain place between Cicilia and Syria). The tion (a I specific epithet re-proposes a connection for which we will cies of. spend some words later. One will be able to recognize these in the ecol the popular names of the fungus: Fliegenpilz or Strict Fliegenschwamrnin German; Mukhornor in Russian; Amanite Riel., A tue-Mouche in French, and The Fly Agaric in English. ever, P The typus of the species has a cap of between 5-25 em. It is fungi. at first globe-shaped (in the embryonic stage it is bred from the A. amer cloth of the universal veil in typical egg-shape that is charac- ent fror teristic of the genus Amanita}. It retains this shape more coming bro- pletely until reaching an applanate or lightly depressed area orange' around the center form, with the margin more or less streaked. Anot The skin of the cap is peelable, bright red or leaning to orange here is (sometimes with yellow colors, especially near the margin). It contain is shiny and viscous when moist, strewn with white (or whit- Iowinz ish) warts (sometimes absent in mature specimens because of hallucir washing away). The flesh is white into the cap and stripe, but inance ( yellow or yellowish in the stripe just under the cuticle, having menr a.I no special taste or smell to humans. After drying it puts on a occur darker color (from dark cream to pale brown) and an acrid, 1977: I nauseating taste. The stalk is white, cylindrical and discontinu- Salzn:~ ous (easily discernable from the cap), with a bulbous base and Flamrre a volva typically fragmented in warts arranged in a concentric circle; white (to whitish), broad and membranaceous, in a more at firs. or less streaked ring.

The spore print is white, with the spore 9-11 X 6-9 microns, . - elliptical-ovate, smooth and not amyloid (Rieken, 1915; :5 ;,-::;;.~ Gilbert, 1918; Bresadola, 1927-41; Kuhner & Romagnesi, 1953; Moser, 1967; Wasson, 1967b; Cetto, 1970-87; Heim, 1969, 1978; Flammer and Horak, 1983; Roth, et al., 1984;

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-~":;:!;,.'li\~.;tjliii!ii__i·.~ 2.' __ .L••• 21£IIi2lfi!irt"~·;;c--· -- Ii:r,: .c : ar- Bresinsky and Besl Regensburg, 1985, and many others). ir.cluded it Amanita muscaria is a typical species of the septentrional .ere classi- latitudes. At lesser latitudes it is present particularly in the same bota- mountain areas. It is broadly spread throughout Europe, North r ztcly, led (in a different form) and Central America, North Africa, Asia and Australia. The Amanita has a preference for acidic soil, ~=rungi ill and a condition for sprouting includes the presence of arboreal . :Tom the species such as Pine, Fir or, infrequently, Larch and other trees. This inter-plant bond comes from the mycorrhizic rela- L or from tion (a commensalistic symbiosis shared with many other spe- .-:!2. .i • The :h we will cies of fungi. This is very important, among other things, for z;; these in the ecology) between trees and fungi. -enpilz or Strictly tied to muscaria are other similar species (A. emilii Riel., A. aureola Kalch., A. regalis Fries, etc.) These, how- 1: /~manite t, ever, probably don't go beyond the subspecific rankings of L. 5 em. It is fungi. Probably the most interesting in this context would be d from the A. americana Heim, typical of Canada and the U.S. It's differ- is charac- ent from A. muscaria with its slender stalk with fibril becom- nore coming brown at the end and the lighter cap (being pale to yellow- essed area orange (ibid). streaked. Another species of genus Amanita also worth remembering . to orange here is A. pantherina (DC ex Fr.) Secr., which is certain to iargin). It contain the same psychotropic agents as A. muscaria [see fol- : (or whit- lowing references]. A. pantherina produces a more toxic than Jecause of hallucinogenic syndrome, however. when ingested. A predom- stripe, but inance of nonspecific confusional e:=:'e.cts, psychomotor excite- :le, having ment and serious anxious (or anxiery-laden) states generally nuts on a occur [John, 1935; Bosman, et i... 1965; Gerault & Girre, :-m acrid, 1977; Lincoff & Mitchel, 197'7: Heim, 1978; Rumack and liscontinu- Salzman, 1978; Flammer, 1980: Gelfand and Harris, 1982; ~base and Flammer & Horak, 1983; Roth et al., 1984; Bresinsky & Besl concentric Regensburg, 1985]. A. pantherina has a cap of 6-12 ern. wide i L"l a more at first, then globe-shaped. It is then slightly flattened or I, depressed near the center. The colors are from chestnut brown • .nicrons, to gray-olive green, with a striated margin and a cuticle which is peelable. This is strewn with white or greyish warts which =-.. 1915; -:rnagnesi, are easily removed through washing. The stalk is discontinu- -:-:Heim, ous at 6-15 ern. X 2-20 mm. It is white, stuffed and then hol- ";., 1984; low. It is fibrillose or glabrous, bulbose at the base where it is ornamented with a volva of 2-3 membranaceous girdles which

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·~-----"i.)•.{.'o.M.~.!i,'.Lt•.• i••>.11IIII...) •••• -..- I ------__ •••••• ~~=---===

are superimposed. These are white and narrow, with annules arion -- u slightly (or not at all) streaked. The flesh has a sweetish taste tions witl without special smell (to humans). This is white or brownish more wid so far as the subcuticule layers. The gills are free or just Let's SJ adnexed. These are white or mealy at the margin. The spore ered the print is white, the spores measuring 8-12 X 7.8 microns. They other plar are elliptical-ovate, smooth and not amyloid (see the references region of for Amanita muscaria, etc.) . It grows with conifers trees, in order to r also inch the wood, in Europe, North America, North Africa and Asia.! period the transferre with the 1 2. A Short Ethnomycological Account ried on to this centu A review of the anthropological and historical data on the Fly fomentar, agaric is impossible herein due to the tremendous bulk of work A few on this very subject. Nevertheless, it is possible to try to build a Bcrinz St hypothesis which connects traditions and the roles of hallucin- who \~·ouj ogenic fungi in man's history. This starts from the fascinating original e: proposals of R. G. Wasson [Wasson & Wasson, 1957; Wasson, the origin 1967a, 1967b, 1978] and those who, simultaneously also con- They did tributed to the growth of the subject of ethnomycology [La with use; s Barre, 1970; Harner, 1973; Furst, 1976; Ott, 1976; Schultes & societies ': Hofmann, 1979, and many others]. fungi) tha One can begin by supposing that primitive man, in his activ- in the Am ities as food gatherer, had discovered plants (and fungi) with In Eura useful properties but not directly connected with hunger and India. r::e' eating and alimentary use.2 It's likely that, in this way, man later Ix-,::': had his first contacts with hallucinogenic plants. Mushrooms, and the P; no doubt, had a very particular role herein. to the .B~. The fact that they apparently are born "from nothing" with not irr.t ; S rapid development, the beautiful strangeness of their shapes, Genei.: :: and all the other characteristics which distinguish them from .the Bi.:',::: other plants surely struck the hunter-gatherer man. This surely sacred ~.L led him to discover the mushroom's amazing properties. The _~ls='. :: structure of the Mesolithic-Neolithic society -- surely one of the shamanic type 3 -- had no doubt a catalyptic effect in developing these theme characteristics. Such societal characteristics represent(ed) the ideal support for consciousness alter-

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. ~. "' ".~~.,. .:jan - including hallucinogenic plant use. This made connec- I : -- - . tions with an animistic conception of the world stronger and more widespread. Let's suppose proto-Indoeuropean man had already discovered the psychotropic properties of Amanita muscaria (and other plants) while these people were still living in the original region of the plants. This supposition is under discussion in order to revise the hypothesis accepted so far. This probably also included the lowlands of central Siberia. During this period the linguistic roots connected with the A. muscaria were transferred cross-culturally to the proto-Uralic people, maybe with the use(s) of the mushroom itself (which later were car-

ried on to the Siberian peoples, at least until the beginnings of ~'.···.' .. •··.· .. '.I this century). Along with Amanita might have come Fornes n -'...."" F7\' •.•.•• .Jo...... 10 •• [omentarius, used as tinder for fire . .,' ~=:work A few millenia before this, man's migrations through the .c build a Bering Straits had come to an end. These were the peoples hallucin- who would eventually originate the American peoples. These sc.r.anng original explorers took with them the traditions connected with ~,-~son, the original uses of cultural plannning, the shamanism, etc. They did not, however, openly carry the traditions connected with use(s) of hallucinogens. It was because of the presence of societies originally based on the shamanic structure (including fungi) that the use of hallucinogens developed and continued h.s acriv- in the Americas. O;}.1 with In Eurasia, when the Indoeurooeans moved towards Iran and i(. zer and India, they took with them the c.ilr of L1e sacred fungus. This later became the Indian Soma (the C-od-plant of the Rig-Veda) and the Persian Haoma. Also carried were the fungi's relation to the Birch tree, sealed by the ancient shamanic religion. It's not impossible that the Tree of D ivine Knowledge named in Genesis in the Bible was an echo of the original Tree of Life (the Birch). The serpent might have been a metaphor for the sacred Mushroom, bestower of divine knowledge and wisdom. Also, the Indo-European fringe which spread over Europe took with them at least a part of the religious-social structure, characterizing the life in their original lands. The fusion -:-::ect ill between their animistic totemism and those of the preexisting : charac- peoples produced a religion with a shamanistic background. ess alter- The train of elements include the following which are most

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interesting: the ritual ingestion of the Amanita muscaria (and of ideas. maybe other psychotropic vegetables), the deep spiritual ties with their with nature, the consequent worship of nature spirits (among the fungis which were terrestrial ones, such as the toad and the serpent), with the IT and the magic interpretation of many events. The links staying ali between the many natural-supernatural fusion penetrated into plicable, . the life of these ancient Europeans, cementing deep connec- nections to tions with their" cultural unconscious." and the t A particular element of this social structure, also present in explained the Siberian and Mexican peoples, was the taboo that only the This di; shaman (or the one who took his place as mediator with the ::'la propo s divine world) could use with impunity the sacred elements. :..ng \<;ay ,,- All the other peoples were prevented from doing this because .:.utho r. E:;; of the dread of the supernatural. In other religions this tie also involved the name of the sacred plant, and in this way some metaphorical, but self-referential, epithets could have been originated. These words contained reference to some more or less obvious characteristics of the fungus. These included fusion with other animals such as the fly, other insects, the serpent or toads, etc. ..-~------Among the characteristics of the West (as opposed to the _ ..----.L...• -.~ __ " rest of the globe -like America, where shamanism has per- sisted to the present) was the speed of socio-economic development and the relatively sudden changes in lifestyle. This - ---- _ .. __ .- - .,-.-,._"- historical evolution contained a base mode of property owner- ship and rigid role divisions, and class distinctions. The old religions, no longer functional to the powers-that-be, were replaced by new models of worship. These were modeled with ritual symbolism rather than direct share of the divine world. - _ ..,_. ,- , .. ,~ , As a consequence, the ancient usages of the psychoactive - ._ .._..-'....-"-*- - -. . .• - -•.... - ..•. plants able to modify consciousness was hampered and in some cases forsaken. This is the core of Wasson's hypothesis.

He supposed that not all the Gods of these old religions were -- '-::::.."' ' .. '- _.'-- completely obscured when new religions (and new Gods) took - over. In the traditions fused with Amanita muscaria use, a connection with these natural, totemic forces remained. These :4 remained alive, above and beyond the new taboos. These ele- .::t: ments were, at first, only connected to the sacred uses of the mushroom, however. As time went on, this melting together ,~

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ariel (and of ideas, both terrifying and divine, lost all the connections ritual ties with their original source. It soon spread on to the whole of s .among the fungis' world (and also to the original entities connected serpent), with the mushroom). Only the fear truly retained its potency, lIle links staying alive through our unconscious as maleficient and inex- rated into plicable. In this way we might understand our culture's con- } connec- nections between the evil or harmful and the fly, the serpent and the toad. Mycophobia and its corollaries are thusly ~Iesent in explained. [ only the This dichotomic division between mycophilia and mycopho- , with the bia proposed by Wasson seems to complete itself in a convinc- Iernents. ing way with the hypothesis of J. Ott (1976). According to this s because author, the malefic character attributed to the mushroom - the is tie also survivor of the old animistic religion - was not the result of -.::.y some the survival of the taboo. Rather it was derived from the events a:e been linked to the establishment of a new cult. In fact, when a new e 1-:ore or religion replaces preexisting ones, consequences occur. One is ir cluded the change of the social orders which restrict or hamper the previous cults (usually by any means possible). In this way, things not willing to adapt to the nev creed become, by neces- red to the sity, malefic or demonic. 1 has per- In our opinion, therefore. 3.:',: li:er taking for granted the me devel- close bonds between sharnanisrr; 2..-:.j L1euse of hallucinogenic ~'le. This mushrooms, different cultural a.U:-..::esrelating to fungi can be :y owner- explained. The old Speaking of the European peop.e s. and taking into account -be, were several variables, we propose: the substitutive dynamic leled with referred to the religions after its ir.;eption within shamanism; Ie world. its impacts on the preexisting cultural heritages; the more-or- rchoactive less distant age in which the passing from cults with shamanis- :d and in tic qualities to those of a dogmatic-fideistic kind occurred; the l Tothesis. K geographical proximity with people for whom this passing ~ ,. [ens were occurred; the geographical proximity for which this passing ds) took occurred in relatively recent times (for example, the Slavs); the kind of economic-social development and its bonds with the a connec- natural world . . These It's certainly true that checks on these matters would request ese ele- ethnological data newer and more precise than the ones we es of the possess. We think, however, that it is correct to attempt it, together with the serene objectivity that this subjet deserves.

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3. Chemistry and Pharmacology 3a Mise

Even from the point of view of the chemical and pharmaco- Muscarir logical research, the Amanita muscaria takes up a place which furfuryl-n distinguishes it from the many other hallucinogenic mush- muscaria. rooms. In fact, in the species of the Psilocybian group (up occurred until now including pans of the genus Psilocybe, Conocybe, Waser, 1~ Stropharia, Panaeolus . Gvmnopilus and Pluteus [Heim, 1978; Bresinskx Schultes and Hofmann. ~950: Bresinsky and Besl Regensburg, tion of tb 1985; Festi, 1985J I. C".~i~':}~.l:i\nof the psilocybin and inges- O.00039C tion experiments led t2 .r.e be.ief that this substance (or, more Heim, 19 exactly, to Psiiccin. its active metabolite) were responsible for much 10,;' all the hallucinogenic effects. For the Amanita muscaria it's with 1.33 not the same. rine on u- On different occasions several different compounds have 1967; BIe been isolated - each having psychotropic properties concur- is very 501< rent with the hallucinogenic properties of the Amanita in toto. brain ba.rr Apart from the large number of principal chemicals, the view of an ami of the whole is obscured by other factors. psycholc, Some reports actually seem to be the result of methodologi- fungi are . cal mistakes (e.g., the ones concerning tropane alkaloids and 1985J. Bufotenine). The substances at issue would be, in any case, too It is : minimal in the species mentioned in the tropane/Bufotenine Muscar.r: references to produce the described effects. enough ::: Other compounds, which certainly are of the metabolic store tory) efi~..: of the Amanita muscaria, have not been submitted, as yet, to the musr.- any pharmacological studies (Le.., the indolic substances iso- .\lU5C::;>-: ':-: lated by Eugster and others, etc.). Or they have turned out to be inactive at the quantities actually contained in the mush- Other 0'--" room itself (i.e .., the Muscarine). Though Ibotenic Acid and founc. ~:--, Muscimol, finally, are at the center of the present hypothesis 1,-",,- ~- (so far as the active principal of the Amanita), they don't quite explain all of the psychoactivity. In this context, in order to see our way clear through the mine of substances making up ·1 r : -. ~ .: , :.... -' .". ~ the Amanita muscaria, we prefer to consider all the different compounds within. Thus, we will be able to determine exactly what contributes to the psychoactive nature of the Amanita, what does not, and the relationship of everything to the main psychoactive constituent, Muscimol. Tropane- .-.

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3a Miscellaneous Chemical Compounds

LL'"1naCO- Muscarine: Muscarine (or 4-hydroxy-5-methyl-tetrahydro- ce which furfuryl-trimethyl-ammonium salt) was isolated from Amanita ,.;: mush- muscaria, from which the mushroom took its name. This rrup (up occurred in the nineteenth century [Salemink et al., 1963; c =ocybe, Waser, 1967; Eugster, 1968; Waser, 1958, 1961; Heim, 1978; rr.. 1978; Bresinsky and Besl Regensburg, 1985]. The actual concentra- ~e::1sburg, tion of this compound (on the average) is very low (0.0002- Ij inges- 0.0003% with reference to the fresh weight [Eugster, 1968; :CT, more Heim, 1978; Schultes and Hofmann, 1980], and in any case isible for much lower than in other species (i.e., Inocybe mixtilis Sacc, coria it's with 1.33% of dry weight). Although the activity of muscarine on the central nervous system is demonstrated+ [Waser, ods have 1967; Bloom, 1980], its resorption through the intestinal wall ~ concur- is very slow and it is almost completely blocked by the blood- l ;'n toto. brain barrier (the passage is possible only with the combination the view of an amino acid or Lecithin [Waser. 1967]). Furthermore, the psychological effects shown after poisoning with Muscarine iodologi- fungi are different from the effects of Amanita muscaria [Festi, loids and 1985]. case, too It is impossible to demonstrate any direct action of ufotenine Muscarine. Its low concentration in the mushroom itself is enough to leave it out of the origin cf psychic (or hallucina- otic store tory) effects. Only some of the somatic disturbances caused by as yet, to the mushroom's ingestion can be arrributed to the action of the nees iso- Muscarine, probably combined with Ll.e one of Muscimole. ed out to he mush- Other Quaternary Ammonium Bases: In the Fly Agaric was Acid and found, several times over, Choline. Acetylcholine, and buten- ypothesis (l)-yl-(4)-trimethylammonium and "muscaridine:" While the cn't quite first substance is psychotropically inactive and the second is larder to contained in very low quantity in the Amanita muscaria, the ~:;kingup last two (even those found with little concentration) are com- I different pletely lacking in pharmacological data [Waser, 1967; Eugster, '~ exactly 1968; Heim, 1978; Bresinsky and Besl Regensburg, 1985; _~1fU1nita, Festi, 1985]. t~le main Tropane Alkaloids and Bufotenine: In investigating a com-

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the p: pound named Pilzatropine by Kolbert in 1881 because of phar- [Schul' macological similarities, some authors (Lewis in 1955 and erthele Manikowsky & Niezdodzki in 1962) reported the presence of from A hyoscyamine, atropine and scopolamine in the Amanita muscaria, (Salemink et al., 1963, Tyler and Greger, 1964). This /3-N-B suggests a mistake due to substances with the same chromatographic behaviours as the tropane alkaloids. Futhermore, the Stizolo percentage of content reponed by Lewis would be, in any way, mUSCG7 too low to contribute to the psychoactive activity of the fungus Chiltor (Waser, 1965,1968.:, As welL so far as Bu.orenine goes. there is a report by 3b Muse Wieland and :"lotzel (1953) pertaining to Amanita muscaria, pantherina, and citrina. The presence of Bufotenine was then In the e: verified only for the species citrina, porphyria, and tomentella edge of Ar [Catalfolmo and Tyler, 1961; Tyler, 1961; Tyler and Greger, the isolatic 1964b; Hoffer and Osmond, 1967; Eugster, 1968; Andary et Swiss and al., 1978a, 1978b; Stijve, 1979; Perez-Silva and Aroche these woul Alfonso, 1983; Bresinsky and Besl Regensburg, 1985]. There the mushrc is probably a mistake due to contamination caused by carpophores of Amanita citrina. Bufotenine should be left out any- Mus ( way because it is not orally active [Fabing and Hawkins, isoxazc 1956; Hoffer and Osmond, 1967; Schultes and Hofmann, Eugstei 1980], and, according to some authors, not active at all. et al., Hofmai Other Compounds. We list here some substances isolated from the Amanita muscaria, to which accurate pharmacologi- Ibote cal data are missing. Only the first two (respectively based on isoxazo the narcotic-antagonist activity and the indolic structure), we Gagner 1966; I suppose could contribute to the psychoactivity of the 1968;l t , mushroom.

(-) R-4-hydroxy-pyrrolidone-(2): Isolated from butanolic Afusc extract of non-isoxazolic fractions during the isolation of acid [E Muscimol [Eugster, 1968; Theobald, et al., 1968; Matsumoto 1965; E et al., 1969; Schultes and Hofmann, 1980]. Schulte In the S' (-) 1,2,3 ,4-tetrahydro-l-methyl- f3-carboline-carboxylic cen tages :13 acid: Extracted from the same fractions [Eugster, 1968; were in the Matsumoto et al., 1969] and chemically related to the hallucinogenic ~carboline. Such are active compounds within

218 ~~~~psychotropic species of the genus Banisteriopsis .. ~Schultes and Hofmann, 1980]. Chilton and Ott [1976], nev- .•. - -.- -,,_._- ertheless, didn't find MTC in Amanita muscaria_ samples from America. r., ;..: ,,-:.'._-- ~. r::~s [3-N-Butyl-D-glucopyranosid [Matsumoto et al., 1969].

Stizolobic and Stizolobinic Acid, so far found in Amanita ,2...:'""'.- wav, muscaria, pantherina and corthunata [Chilton et al., 1974; be fungus Chilton and Ott, 1976]. repcrt by 3b Muscimol and Isoxazoles r.uscaria, was then In the early sixties a remarkable contribution to our knowl- »mentella edge of Amanita muscaria was brought forth. This dealt with j Greger, the isolation of three substances, independently carried on by \2-"jary et Swiss and Japanese authors and researchers. At least one of l Aroche these would turn out to be the main psychotropic agent within ;-, There the mushroom itself." ~:.2arpO- .=:It any- Muscimol or enol-betaine of 5-amino-methyl-3-hydroxy- Hawkins, isoxazole [Gagneux et al., 1965a; MUller and Eugster, 1965; .Iofrnann, Eugster, 1967, 1968: Eugster and Takemoto,1967; Theobald 1. et al., 1968; Brehm E: a:'.. ~972: Lund, 1979; Schultes and Hofmann, 1980; Stijve, 19~:~ ; isolated nacologi- Ibotenic Acid or the zwir.er.co of amino- (3-hydroxy- based on isoxazolil-(5)-acetic acid monor..drate [Eugster et al., 1965; Gagneux et al., 1956b; Good c: Jr, 1965; Sirakawa et al., rure), we 1966; Eugster, 1967; Eugstere; Takemoto, 1967; Eugster, ; of the 1968; Lund, 1979; Schultes & Hofmann, 1980].

nanolic Muscazone or (a)-amino -0. 3H)-oxazolonyi-(5)-acetic ~on of acid [Eugsteret al., 1965; Fritz et al., 1965; Good et al., . oto 1965; Eugster, 1967; Reiner & Eugster, 1967; Eugster, 1968; Schultes and Hofmann, 1980].

In the Swiss specimens, Ibotenic Acid was found in a per- centages ranging from 0.08 to 0.1%. Greater concentrations were in the ripe mushrooms grown in the summer. These con- within

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centrations focused in the cap more than the stalk, 7 Takemoto ied s: isolated it in small quantities also from Amanita pantherina and Amanita strobiliformis. This sample was from Japan Ibote [Eugster, 1968]. The compound easily transforms itself Muse through decarboxylation into the most active Muscimol. centro Because of this, some authors have preferred to give the cumu- perce lative percentage of the two compounds together. Benedict and others [1966] found this to be 0.17-0.18% (both for the Estin typus and for the varieties formosa and alba of American ori- aurur gin). In an American pantherina sample, this percentage was This ern. :: 0.46% [Benedict et ai.. 19~5: Chilton and Ott, 1976]. is c. i Muscazone, finallv. is fc'~n: :..:-a_:;' the species in very small muse quantities. Tne C2.t;? available to estimate how much these isola: compounds contribute to the psychoactive syndromes and psychological effects inducted by the Amanita muscaria are In su.: focused in two main research studies. The first one was car- the M!~~~: ried on by Waser [1967] with 20 mg. of Ibotenic Acid and 5, caria th., 10, and 15 mg. of Muscimol: the second from Theobald and activirv others [1968] with 7.5-10 mg. of Muscimol and 75 mg. of cologicz. Ibotenic Acid on ten (10) normal subjects. If we can consider compc;'; the result of these studies, the following emphasis is shown:

To the Isoxazoles, and in particular to Muscimol, it is possible to attribute most of the effects by the fungus in toto. 3.c Thi Almost all the somatic symptoms (for which we have seen the possible contribution of Muscarine) coincide, as do sev- E·. -"'-~- eral psychological symptoms. Regarding these last symp- with .::..:...:.:: toms: It's nevertheless noticeable that the lack of "structured" The-:,-=~: hallucinations occurs. Such are usually reported after usage of Amanita muscaria. This fact suggests that a collateral action exists with other compounds (some of these already considered) contained in the mushroom. They could act (in respect to the Isoxazoles) by strengthening, modifying or act- ing directly on the structure responsible for the psychotropic ==---':-:.~:,: :.: effects, or, perhaps, by modulating some of their pharmacological variables tied to the resorption or distribution. It , - . might be interesting, so far as this' idea, to study the inges- - tion,in controlled conditions, of Muscimol, Ibotenic Acid and Muscazone. These would be studied in varying propor- -~-,~-~, -:::111 tions or in combination. In this way, the Isoxazoles and -~.--- . .:;. . ~ -~- --.- ... those other more recently isolated substances could be stud- .------

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. ~:-- ied synergistically.

Ibotenic Acid is far less active than Muscimol (the activity of Muscazone is practically negligible). At the average con- r -, '....i.. .,, __ • centration found in the mushroom, it would produce barely perceptible effects.

Estimating content for an Amanita muscaria specimen of autumnal growth, Muscimol can be found at around 0.05%. This is based on an estimate of a mushroom with a cap 10-15 em. broad and which weighs approximately 60-70 g. There \'e~: srna.. is a good correspondence between an effective dose of the mushroom (1-10 caps of medium size) and the ones of the ?::,:;h these isolated compound. ;;5 and PS\- :s:aria are In summary, therefore, it seems correct to focus attention on i,e was car- the Muscimol. This is the only compound in the ).•manita mus- Lid and 5. caria that has proven not to be irrelevant so far as psychotropic ecbald and activity. Also, there is a plethora of solid psychopharma- "75 mg. of cological data and neurophysiological studies surrounding this Ll consider compound. shown:

i:is pos- 3.c The Pharmacology of Muscimol ;>; toto. iave seen s do sev- Even without considering all the pharmacological studies s; symp- with animals concerning (see the following: Waser, 1967; rt.ctured" Theobald et al., 1968; Scotti de Carolis et al., 1969; Biggio et ic:- usage al., 1977; Kulcsar et al., 1977; Jobert et al., 1979; Worms et cc.lateral al., 1979; Festi, 1985 and the references below), other interest- ~ :Jready ing aspects are worth considering. ~ act (in If we compare Muscimol with other psychotropic sub- :~ or act- stances, we can observe that its electroencephalographic :=.='tropic effects are considerably different from those induced by L-:::aco- indolic compounds (psilocybin, psilocin, LSD, etc.), These f:'::1. It usually produce effects characterized by EEG desynchroni- ~ -= .ages- "".: Acid zation. In rabbits, the EEG tracings (with Muscimol) are syn- . .=:-opor- chronized. It contains a dramatic reduction of the desynchro- - .cs and nizing response to acoustical or electrical stimulation of the midbrain reticular substance. This effect is elicited with 0.25 ~::-e stud- mg.rkg. i.v. With 1 mg./kg. the EEG awakening is totally

Continued after following page 221

/ '-"- 5 -

blocked. v (in the IT Diazepam 1 though sorr This IT HO~ e [Theobalc : N,,,./--CH- coo to be clc~-: ""0 i than bv ir.: i acervlch.: ~ EBNH~ YzO EEG p~::~ Ibotenic Acid Muscimole men: c: --=-.: 1969~' hr .'-.'. ,- - - ... _.-., - ~-, ---"-:: ~ .~.------HN~ e O-=c <,,,~ CHCOO ,,0" -..... - - •..• _ ~ o I '.' - - - - ...•... EBNH3

Muscazone

i,1" .. _ H0'l--l

A,,/...... /CH3

- ~- H,C/---0 CH, - N "'- CH, _ •_ • - _ .••. :.1.••

CH3 - ...•• -_ 1-._ Muscarine --:

The main active and toxic ingredients in the Amanita muscaria include I muscarine, muscimole(derived from ibotenic acid), bufotenine and !!II others. , • -•

222 F J

:-~ocked.With higher (2 mg./kg.) doses, characteristic spikes in the EEG) appear. A further injection of 1 mg./kg. of ~ iazepam makes the EEG tracing practically isoelectric, even :hough some spikes are still present. This EEG syndrome is also the same in rats and cats .Theobald et al., 1968; Scotti de Carolis et al., 1969]. It seems $ to be closer to readings caused by anticholinergic deliriants -", r-H2 N.,""", than by indolic hallucinogens. However, Physiostigmine (an I acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) produced a slight effect on the EEG pattern of Muscimol. This suggests a secondary involvement of the acetylcholinergic system [Scotti de Carolis et al., 1969]. Also interesting, but difficult to understand, are the EEG spikes which appear also after the administration of hallucinogens such as Dimethoxy-Metliyl-Amphetamine (DOM) [Florio et ai., 1969], Harmine, /l-8 and a-v-transtetra- hydrocannabinol (active principles of Cannabis indica) [Lipparini et al., 1969]. These spikes have turned out to be the most resistant to the depressant action of Diazepam. 8 As well, the relationships between Muscimol and desynchronized sleep appear interesting. In cats, doses (of Muscimol) 0.3 and 1 mg i.p. cause 20% and 40% reductions, respectively, in the whole length of paradoxical sleep. One mg./kg. i.p. increases by 30% the incidence of non-REM PGO (Ponto-Genilo-Occipital) waves [Kulesar et al., 1977].9 From a biochemical-pharmacological point of view, it was shown in 1968 that M uscimol had an antagonism towards GABA (y-aminobutyric acid - one of the main CNS neurotransmitter amino acids). This was determined right after Muscimol had first been isolated. Muscimol has been shown to be particularly effective on Bicuculline'[' -sensitive receptors. This was discovered by Johnston et al. (1968). In effect, i'1cfude Muscimol is chemically very close to GABA, both in its chem- is and ical conformation [Curtis et al., 1970; Kier and Truitt, 1970; Johnston, 1971; Brehm et al., 1972; Curtis and Johnston, 1974; Andrews and Johnston, 1979], and for the distributions of the charged molecule regions [Kier and Truitt, 1970]. It differs from the latter in its greater rigidity due to the Isoxazole ring

223 = ...... •.

[Snodgrass, 1983]. Dopami. Many studies with radioactive Muscimol have shown several and Bee binding sites (in the nervous system). It is very active in dis- 1982J is placing Bicuculline or GABA [Iverson, 1978; Mao and Costa, Bersin. c 1978; Andrew and Johnston, 1979; Wang et al., 1979; ciallyct Schaeffer, 1980; Snodgrass, 1983]. uniform Furthermore, as a GAB A-agonist, it stimulates the binding research of benzodiazepines and the reinforcement of its effects by pass thr: Diazepam may be explained with this stimulation. The slighter respecti. strengthening (of its effects) by barbiturates (Penthobarbital and others) is probably due to synergistic actions at the iono- phore level [Snodgrass. ~9S3:. c\fu5cimol is subject to meta- 3d P05. bolic degradation after systemic administration. However, none of its metabolites has GABAergic activity, or the ability It see to replace Muscimol itself at receptor sites. Further evidence ady: =. of this includes the fact that only the active agent itself - not bros ; ':: any transaminated molecule - correlates with Bicuculline- induced seizures as an antagonist. This has been correlated with the Muscimol concentrations in the brain [ibid.; Baraldi -:..::.-..:,-_ .. et ai., 1979; Maggi and Enna, 1979; Matthews et al., 1981]. ••••• -..;.. ••- - • !. In summary, we can say that the oral administration, as well as administration through other routes, activates most - ..:."-- - - . GABAergic receptors in the CNS [Johnston et al., 1968; Curtis _4 •••• __ ~ et al., 1970; Johnston, 1971; Curtis and Johnston, 1974; Kulesar et ai., 1977; Chan-Palay, 1978a, 1978b; Iversen, 1978; Johnston et al., 1978; Mao and Costa, 1978; Olpe and .- -- _. -- Koella, 1978; Snodgrass, 1978; Amt et al., 1979; Andrew and ; - - - -.:: ~ Johnston, 1979; Matsui and Kamioka, 1979; Waddington and Cross, 1979; Wang et al., 1979; Worms et al., 1979; DeFeudis, -::...-..:----, 1980; De Feudis et al.; Schaefer, 1980; Snodgrass, 1983; Festi, 1985]. However, the syndrome produced by Muscimoi can be slightly different from the one produced by other GABA- -.:. ~..-...:-

agonists. In particular, it causes myoclonic jerks and seizures. _.:L •• From this it is possible to suppose the restriction of inhibitory pathways [Menon and Vivovia, 1981; Snodgrass, 1983] could involve a non-uniform activity on some cerebral area or pro- -..... -~ cess [Snodgrass, 1983], Also, the administration of Muscimol induces metabolic modifications for other neurotransmitters. The level of 5- Hydroxytriptamine (Serotonin) [Konig-Bersin et al., 1970],

224 p • -

Dopamine [ibid.; Biggio et al., 1977; Iverson, 1978; Gundlach icwn several and Beart, 1980] and Acetylcholine [Scatton and Bartholini, crive in dis- 1982) is increased; while Noradrenaline is decreased [Kunig- D and Costa, Bersin, et al., 1970]. In some cases the concentration is espe- al., 1979; cially changed in particular zones. In others the changes are uniform in the whole brain. Several pharmacological the binding researches suggest. however, that these effects are indirect and s effects by pass through the GABAergic system rather than directly on the ,The slighter respective neurotransmitter systems. -rsnobarbital at the iono- ject to meta- 3d Possible Mode of Action of Muscimol , However, Dr the ability It seems clear, therefore, :j-_~: :.be main activity (maybe the her evidence only one) of Muscimol is :.~ C·_lliA-agonist. However, the itself - not broad distribution and the corr.;~~:;:..:of~: the GABAergic sys- Bicuculline- tem don't make it easy to interpre: ~~ :::.::25 its mechanisms of en correlated action. It may be possible to at=-_::.::=.1:::.::::':1. dizziness and nd.; Baraldi other vestibular symptoms to the ':::.'::'"B.-\-mimeticaction on al., 1981]. cerebrovestibular pathways. The ,::=~::easeof motor activity arion, as well and catalepsy can be tied to the inte::'~2e with the GABAergic tivates most control of dopaminergic (and prob.. ~~:, also acetylcholinergic) . 1968; Curtis neurons in the nigro-strio-pallidal C' ':- :-:-_:: lex. nston, 1974; Nevertheless, the matter is far mcce -jifficult when we try to ~b; Iversen, analyze typical psychic symptoms such as hallucinations, is; Olpe and mood changes, etc. This is because specific studies on these ; Andrew and topics are lacking. After discovering :~i.estrong GABA-agonist ~jington and activity of Muscimol, neurophysiologists and pharmacologists ~9: DeFeudis, preferred using it in classic researches on GABA itself rather s. 1983; Festi, than investigate its mechanisms as a psychotropic agent. The s: .mol can be hypothesis that we can produce on this possible mode of action ):::-"er GABA- are therefore necessarily reduced and partially speculative, 2:".j seizures. while awaiting further studies on this subject. r : f inhibitory It seems possible, however, to try an approach between the i. ~983] could available data on Muscimol and an attempt at an integrative ~ area or pro- hypothesis that one of us [Francesco Festi, 1985] has developed. This is in reference to the hallucinogens of the indole es metabolic group (psilocybin, psilocin, LSD, DMT, etc.) and other com- level of 5- pounds with similar neurophysiological actions (such as mes- ": al., 1970], caline). This proposal takes inspiration from the connections

225

r- t· - ly.'i~. between hallucinations and dreams (suggested by Jacobs and Trulson, 1979). This is founded on the similarity between have defi some physiological states tied to the oneiric process and to the inputs an action of indole hallucinogens. These parallel situations can be engrams gauged as follows (see Festi, 1985 for a review of the inhibition neuropharmacological data on this topic). some alte ence of ( Decrease or inhibition of the rate in the serotoninergic direct fac midbrain raphe neurons. The re: tions. 11 Increase of the c:~2h2.:"2:~rate iT1 the neurons of the near- system rt by reticular formations. tion) c: experienc Tendency to cortical and subcortical activation. Theha balance a Increase, as compared to the normal state of active wak- These cc ing, in the number of rapid-eye movements (REM) both superimp in humans and monkeys. erinz 01.'- adre'ilali::i : Therefore, taking as a reference frame the convincing 'more rr.; hypothesis of Hobson and McCarley [1982; McCarley and and rncs: Hobson, 1975; Hobson, 1977; McCarley, 1978] relating to the tions or.. oneiric mechanism, we can suppose certain actions. These are brain ,I, .:.:: that under the effects of hallucinogenic drugs, the brain is in an :::opic ~2~ anomalous situation so far as the "normal" consciousness states In ar.e : and the oneiric one. Disorganized information reaches the ':'200:;, :: encephalic structures, superimposed over the sensorial ones. These inputs can be either of bulbar origin (and thus, according to Hobson and McCarley's model, tied to eye movements) or due to false interpretation of exogenous information, maybe ~__-- .L..i..-•.--• .--.- _ for interference derived from the fall of serotoninergic inhibi- --:-- - -=- - -,;;. --: --=..- tion (or from the complementary facilitation of excitation) on ---"'---'- some elaborating or leading structures. The anomalous data can't be analyzed as normal sensations, because the temporal-spatial coordinates are lacking. Nor can they follow the oneiric iter, because the whole situation is different from desynchronized sleep and requires coordination , with motor activities, which are not blocked out and indeed are - - - --~ even more sensitive! However, like activities during dreams, . --". - ~- the proencephalon tries to make what Hobson and McCarley ::--= - -.~- .:.~-

226 acobs and r' between have defined as "the best of bad work." The disorganized and to the inputs are structured by deriving information from mnemonic ens can be engrams to which the access is facilitated either by dis- w of the inhibition by the "normal" pathways, or by the opening of some alternative ones. These also would be under the influence of our postulated serotoninergic inhibition resulting in rinergic direct facilitatory actions, etc. The results of such cortex processings are felt as hallucinations. The subcortical structures, and particularly the limbic le near- system (this also being activated by the fall of tonic inhibib- tion). could be responsible for the concurrent emotional expenences, The hallucinations, therefore. could be produced by a lack of balance among the connections of the neurotransmitter system.

:e wak- These connections""" \... .L •• _ '-'---L'OT'" ••.rJ'-'i"~"',- . ',_ r '- _. ":' ''--', '_ • '_ • ",# c--"'''''-'-'l'ble_ •••• _ .:- ',_ ••• _ for11 and . - bi c : ,,1-.,'- '"',---' ' ~"-- ~ ~,-, r ,'.-,-. I 'd ,f) both supenmpo~a e .ur "'L~L '_,--".:,L '_~L"~ ;-:,-=-_.~ ~-::::r' n conSI - ering only the interrelation berv een ~e=-=t=;-,:;-c and noradrenaline, it is possible that the action of this Ia..er system onvincing (more marked, e.g., for psilocin than for LSD, beinz the sec- arley and ond most powerful hallucinogen) counterbalances the altera- ing to the tions on the raphe nuclei (and surely on other parts of the These are brain), and modulates the strength of the described psycho- m ISIn an tropic agent. ess states In attempting to relate this model to aspects of the Muscimol aches the action, it is worth noting that there are pharmacological refer- ial ones. ences which point to Muscimol's ability to depress the rate of according serotoninergic raphe neurons. It has been demonstrated that ents) or there is a picrotoxin-sensitive inhibition of these neurons after n, maybe iontophoretic application of GABA. It seems, furthermore, ~c inhibi- that the afferent adrenergic pathways to the dorsal raphe are tation) on mediated by GABAergic interneurons [Gallager and Aghajanian, 1976; Wang et al., 1976; Aghajanian and Wang, ensations, 1978; Sulser, 1978; Aghajanian, 1982; Aghajanian, 1984; , Nor can Hamon, 1984]. Another very significant fact is that Muscimol, Ion is dif- in non-toxic doses, can produce interferences on physiological 'dination processes tied to oneiric events [Kulesar et al., 1977; vide deed are supra]. dreams, According to this hypothesis we can also assume that the fcCarley strengthening of action following the soporific effect of the r Amanita muscaria (reported so far as the Siberian peoples and I

227 that the mo sometimes also verified after auto-experience of ingestion the mushro [Waser, 1967; Wasson and Wasson, 1957; Doanlies and Volz, picked in t 1960; Wasson, 1967a, 1967b; Arietti and Tomasi, 1975; ning. In tf Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977; Heim, 1978; Rumack and Salzman, physical el 1978; Flammer, 1980; Schultes and Hofmann, 1980; Bresinsky "visionars.. and Besl Regensburg, 1985; see also below]) are due to a Obvious] greater interferencial power when the eNS is in the sleeping tion, attituc biochemical-physiological states. In fact, because this is the psychedelic natural background for "endogenous" dreams, the state of sleep "meditative may produce an amplifvin» action on the effectiveness of the Amanita rr compound. This possibly IT";}! act just on the structures active ested onlv during the oneiric process [Festi, 1985~. interaction However, the same mode of action for indole hallucinogens effect of tl': and Muscimol are not propos able, not even on a hypothetical be alone c;;. basis. 11 The active principle of Amanita certainly has broad absence 0: activity. This is as broad as the spreading of the GABAergic drug, and ::: system itself. It could have possible interferences on several lyzed the :...: levels. So far as this subject, it is worth considering also the importan: :. non-identity of the symptomatological complexes, the first sonal "iD5:~ being the practically opposite effects on EEG readings. e~~ctati;~ =-~ The future of our knowledge about Muscimol is indissolubly ot sharne.. tied to the development of the acquisition of information on the mushrcc:r .. GABAergic systems in man. The MuscimollGABA system .hree da -r; ~ : :-. the .,.-:,;,-, interactions must certainly give favorable results. This is in _-" \".. .1...i....l_. _ regard to the mechanisms of actions of psychoactive drugs, and The =::~:-.-: also in connection with our knowledge about higher nervous system processes in man.

--.::, -:------' ..•.. --- .•.. --- .... -. ------Part II. Personal Experience with Amanita muscaria. --~ .-~-.,---~ -=-

- ~ -- .....,.:.--.=;. Speaking about experience with Amanita muscaria is very _..... ------difficult because it depends on the mushroom, on the person who is undergoing the experience, and on the environment where the experience takes place. We have had a very small : - - - -.:. -:- number of experiments (six times) with a small group (five -. ------' people). At the beginning there were six but one withdrew --=-- -- __ ~- :-l after the first experience because it was too unpleasant for him. We have found, according to the data reported in many texts,

228 ? »

that the most important variable is the time of the season when f ingestion the mushroom is picked. The most powerful mushrooms were i and Volz, picked in the middle of August when the season was begin- usi. 1975; ning. In the mushroom picked in September the narcotic and d Salzman, physical effects were predominant whereas in August the ; Bresinsky "visionary" and psychedelic effects were more highlighted. ~ due to a Obviously the personality of the single person, his motiva- K sleeping tion, attitude, mood and past experience are important in all chis is the psychedelic experiences. In fact, people who are interested in 1:2 of sleep "meditative" or introspective experiences have found the T:2SS of the Amanita muscaria closer to this feeling, while people inter- nres active ested only in a "trip" ::uye found it "too unpleasant." Group interaction has been i="..:.:-d to be meaningless because the llucinogens effect of the drug is -.::r;. ~.:-.:>:ju22 and each person wants to )'pothetical be alone with h~~lS::i:', Pe:-:-~3.;5 tnis is determined by the , has broad absence of a guide, a person with some familiarity with the J.;BAergic drug, and this lack has been underlined by all. \Ve haven't ana- on several lyzed the importance of the expectations and beliefs but it's n z also the important that the experience closer to religious or transper- ;.- the first sonal "insight" has been experienced by people with stronger gs. expectations of a "religious vision" and with some knowledge adissolubly of "shamanic belief." Another very important aspect of this trion on the mushroom is diet (fasting before taking it): light food two or BA system three days before and a day of fasting help to reduce the nausea This is in in the first stage and to permit a "relaxed" course. drugs, and The experience with Amanita muscaria can be split into er nervous three stages: a first stage when the physical symptoms of nausea and vomiting predominate (vomiting is very rare while a strong sense of nausea is always present); a second stage when the narcotic effect predominates, and a third when there could :aria. be visions and hallucinations. The amount of the drug changes from 1-2 mushrooms in August to 4-5 mushrooms in the mid- ma IS very dle of September. This is because the August mushrooms are the person more powerful, so you have to increase the quantity. But even hvironment with the higher amount the experience is not the' same: in I\~rysmall September the physical symptom of nausea is more marked GUp (five and the narcotic and visionary experience is less. The most withdrew particular trait of the Amanita experience is the second stage. t for him. In this stage you can have different levels of narcotic effect, ~lilly texts, including sleep with normal or "particular" dreams. I'm speak- Continued after following page

229

'''',-H • -

SOMA AND THE RIG VEDAS ing about the ence you can ular sense of ••Like a stag, come here to drink! have five cas Drink Soma, as much as you like. of 45%. In Pissing it out day by day, 0 generous one, experiencing You have assumed. your most mighty force." sons in this s ously being; VIII 4.10 Rig Veda heard every happened in . "Soma. ~cc;::: c.ouc ::':lec. with life, that you can ~ Milked with mild and butter, versing with Navel of the Path; immortal Concept, remember ha: Which springs to life far from here suddenly a v In unison those charged with the task, psychologicaJ The blessed do honor to Soma. importance f( In flowing movements swollen men piss years. Soma." In the third IX 74.4 of consciousr Rig Veda the passage b spiritual insig "In the belly of India with my deej Intoxicating Soma is filtered." has been repc IX 80.3 spective with Rig Veda self remainin: The Vedic poets speak of three filters involved in sense of bein £ the preparation of Soma: Jination, wer~ experience oc 1)The filtering of sunlight into the mushroom, importan t aslfi bearing its magical powers from the heavens, encing reality 2) The woolen cloth through which the juices .ntrcspection. were strained, Sometimes 3) The human body. xrceptive ane :.11to the envir The Indian Rig Vedas sp~ak extensively about Soma, believed to be All the people the Amanita muscaria. There are over one hundred twenty hymns (o.utof :-onsciousne 55 , . one thousand) devoted to this sacrament (from The MagICal and Ritual expenence Use of Herbs by Richard A. Miller (Destiny, 1983). :.Je experience ! ;.,... :lSITnCmess :=.: ~~r::dof ima~c.:

230 - ••••

ing about the "particular" one because in the Amanita experience you can have highly colorful, bright dreams with a particular sense of "lucidity." This is not always experienced but we have five cases in two experiences (August) with a percentage of 45%. In these dreams you know you're dreaming and are experiencing a reality other than the waking one. Three per- sons in this stage have reported being sleeping and simultaneously being aware of the environment around them, to have heard every sound and to have remembered everything that happened in the room during the experience. It's in this stage that you can experience a particular "strange" sensation of con- versing with "something" inside yourself. Personally, I remember having asked about a personal problem of mine and suddenly a vivid image coming into my mind with a strong psychological insight. I remember this image with a sense of importance for an effect on the course of my life even after years. In the third stage we experience a more typical altered state of consciousness. One person in the first session reported in the passage between stage 1 and stage 2 a "profound sense of spiritual insight with a dreamlike feeling of a religious identity with my deep self." This is the only religious feeling which has been reported, More common were changes in body perspective with a feeling of being split in two, with a part of him- self remaining on t:-_·: left side of his body. Dizziness and a sense of being disorie ued. with some difficulty in motor coordination, were very com.ncn ill the third stage. In all cases this experience occurred in a j::-e2J11likestate, which is the most important aspect of stage 3: :.1 state in which a person is experiencing reality as an inner -"',,~~:j:- vi th a strong feeling of introspection. Sometimes there was a sense cf a change in objects with perceptive and sensorial distortion. a sense of bodily expansion into the environment or of an extraordinary sensory change. ~ to be All the people were fully aware of being in an unusual state of ~ (ovt of consciousness but the sense of ego was maintained throughout I Ritual the experience. The imagery increased at the height of the experience (interface between stages 1 and 2), with a greater distinctness and vividness: people experienced a particular kind of imagination where thoughts were immediately trans-

231

L " Co'

I' '" formed into images. This has happened to six people. During 3 Alre. the Amanita experience people complained of a lack of attention with a high involvement in inner images and sensations with sh: and great difficulty in directing concentration. No effects were reported on memory, which was unimpaired in all throughout 4 Well the experience. Nobody has reported feelings of irritation, tors tiec anger, shame, guilt or other negative feelings. Sexual feelings at post- and also sensations of love. JOY and bliss were absent. Some people remember a marked sense of detachment and no emo- 5 The tional involvement Control of the experience, thought and Solanac image was very reduced because of the absence of volition: 10-30 1 the person accepted this situation with detachment and absence Waser. of any criticism. I think that the most powerful quality of Amanita muscariais this sense of silent talking to oneself; the kind of internal dialogue where a person has the feeling of 6 It's important revelations about his life, a feeling which is main- named tained for a long time after the experience. More research into Drysdal this is needed, particularly with selected groups of people: I then she think this mushroom could have a lot to teach us about ourselves. 7 This rnushrc, stages ~ Notes Amani.: it as an, : 1 Even without entering into the subject, it's worth mentioning the other three species of the genus Amanita which are some- how connected to the hallucinogenic substances: A. tomentella Kromb., A. citrina (Scheff.) S.F. Gray (= A. mappa (Batsch. ex Fr.) Quulet) and A. porphyria (A. & S. ex Fr.) Seer. (= A. 9 T__ recutita (Fr.) Gillet). In this species were found bufotenine and other compounds such as the psychotropic dimethyl- -~---.- tryptamine (DMT) [Catalfolmo & Tyler, 1961; Tyler, 1961; ... --~.'"' ---~ Hofmann, 1964; Tyler and Groger, 1964; Eugster, 1968; Perez-Silva and Aroche Alfonso, 1983],

2 Traces of plants with known therapeutical value but without alimentary usefulness are found in caves and burial places more than 60,000 years old [Furst, 1976]. s:: s ----[ - -

232 - ••••

p.e During 3 Already Neanderthal men might have had a proto-religion s.:~of atten- with shaman characters [Furst, 1976]. i sensations effects were .~-Joughout 4 Well enough known to give the name to cholinergic recep- if irritation, tors tied to the effectors .and its parasympathomimetic activity :12 21 feelings at post-ganglionic levels: sent, Some .nd no emo- 5 The tropane alkalc.c s. typical of deliriants of the family thought and Solanaceae, are genera". .:,::j"e after ingestion of higher than of volition: 10-30 mg. of pure s~·:-~:..:.:-_,::e ~Hoffer and Osmond, 1967; and absence Waser, 1967; Scr.ul:e s .: ..: :-: ~~~_':"'-J1,1980]. 1 quality of oneself; the 6 . It's v,' Lorth1,_, -_:'~ --_~_:- --' -."-:. --"-= .-":_:- - ..'.,_~-. --"_-=..:-"T.~n • of a compound ' e feeling of \..,...-,-. . ,- ..-~ .- .,- -""'--.- ..,.. Bowden and ich is main- named _~!:..'::""'L~. __~'_"'l-"- _.!. ~_:: •.• :: -_..;._~ _ •••. e:search into Drysdale )965; Bowden et al. 1955: -L.J ','. :':1'~5e structure is then shown exactly alike muscimol. If people: I 'h us about 7 This difference of concentration for different parts of the mushroom, different picking seasons and different growing stages can give partial scientific support to the "rules" of Amanita muscaria gathering among the Siberian people using it as an inebriant [Wasson, 1967a, 1967b]. i mentioning .h are some- 8 A benzodiazepine which, as we will see below, potentiates i. tomentella the effects of muscimol and, in general, of GABA-agonists. r (Batsch, ex Seer. (= A. 9 In order to be exhaustive, we can say that the behavioral i bufotenine and EEG effects of ibotenic acid are practically the same as c dimethyl- muscimol, yet 5-10 times less powerful. f,•.;Ier, 1961'. , gster, 1968; 10 One among GABA-antagonists at the eNS level.

! l.,D~utwithout 11 On the other hand, the lack of neurobiological relationship rial places between hallucinogenic drugs of different psychotropic fami- lies demonstrates the baselessness of one among the hypothe- ses proposed in the early 1970s, which supposed a common I

233

; co, i. A&"'\1 final way for the actions of hallucinogens [Brawley and KROC Duffield, 1972; Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1979; Jacobs, 1984]. GAB_~ ill VI'; Pharr

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WIELAND, T. & W. MOTZEL, ~;53, -aber das Vorkonunen ionoamins tenic acid, von bufotenin im Gelben Knol.er.clatterpilz. Liebig. Ann. Chern., 581:10-16. n EFRON, .ess, New WORMS, P., H. DEPOORTERE & K. G. LLOYD, 1979. Neuropharmacological spectrum of muscimol. Life Sci., muscarins, 25:606-614. '~. 14:356- Special thanks to Mr. Thomas Lyttle for setting this manuscript in tones correct for English publication. Brief tranliterations v of mus- ~·_"ol.Rev., or renditions were included for the sake of clarity and linguistic conciseness.

249 Readers wishing to contact the authors may write to:

Antonio Bianchi Francesco Festi via Sommariva 5 Museo Civico di Rovereto 37131 Verona Via Calcinari 18 Italy 38068 Rovereto (Trento) Italy

250

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