Islamic In Iberia

Islamic Castles In Iberia Peter Burton

228 The Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Islamic Castles In Iberia1 ods of cultivation of the land and a variety of new crops (e.g. lemons and other fruits, etc) Origins The military organisation required to When the invading Muslim army arrived in achieve such a rapid and complete conquest the Iberian Peninsula (modern day was of the highest order. The use of fortifica- and ) in AD 711 they found a coun- tions to hold territory gained and to garrison try largely ruled by Visigoths who had troops for onward conquest into new regions themselves occupied the area after the fall was an important factor in the colonisation. of the Roman Empire. It was a Christian land and even today substantial remains of The first Muslim colonisers of Iberia Visigothic churches, monasteries and reli- originated from Syria, Egypt and other east- gious artefacts can still be seen. ern areas displaced by internal political dis- cord within the Caliphate (leadership of all Of the military buildings of the Muslims in the Middle East) and settling in pre-Islamic period however, little now sur- North Africa. Eventually they would form a vives. What is clear though is that resistance new, breakaway Western Caliphate based in to the invading Muslim army was slight. Cordoba in Spain. Largely because of the fragmentation of a central authority in Iberia and the absence of This history brought the architectur- any co-ordinated response to the arrival of al and military traditions to Iberia via North the Muslims their initial success quickly Africa. spread throughout the peninsula. We should note before going further The speed with which the Muslims that the Muslim occupation of Iberia and from North Africa established both military therefore the story of Islamic Castles, is a long and economic dominance was spectacular. one. This period lasted almost 800 years, Within thirty years of their first landing on much longer than the period from the final Iberian soil (reputedly at the southern coast- reconquest of Spain by the Christians at the al port of Tarifa in Spain)2 they had spread end of the 15th century to the present day. virtually throughout the peninsula leaving The most significant period for the only the extreme northwest still under study of castles and of Iberia Christian lordship. In this early colonisation was during the periods of first the Almoravid stage the Pyrenees Mountains were hardly a and then Almohad invasions of Spain. These barrier and incursions and brief occupation two strong dynasties originated in the Berber of what is today southern France occurred. regions of southern Morocco and were mili- The political, social and economic tarily strong with powerful religious convic- situation of the time that made such an tion and were prodigious castle builders. astonishing conquest possible and the fac- The Almorovids ruled in Spain from tors that limited the expansion of the Mus- the mid 11th century to be replaced by force of lims northward is a fascinating story, but not arms by the Almohads from about the mid an area we will be exploring in the present 12th century. Under these powers some inno- 3 paper. An almost total dominance of the vative castles were created. area by Muslim lords inevitably meant that the Islamic religion and culture also became Clearly over such a lengthy period of the dominant drivers in local society. Settle- Muslim occupation the changes in social, cul- ment by agricultural workers and their fam- tural and architectural styles will be varied ilies from North Africa quickly followed the and complex and one only has to consider the th th military conquest bringing alternative meth- changes between the 8 and 15 century in

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 229 Islamic Castles In Iberia one’s own country to consider how long that and especially by incorporating Roman ma- was. sonry (e.g. the at Colchester and Chep- stow or the banded masonry at Caernarfon) Design and Construction can thereby assume all of the imperial conno- Remains of Islamic Castles are to be found tations for themselves. throughout Iberia save for the extreme north The Spanish examples of Roman west of Spain where Muslim occupation, site occupation do not appear to show any of interestingly, didn’t quite extend to the Celt- these deliberate imperial connotations and the ic land between the Cantabrian Mountains sites would seem to be reused because they and the sea. A common thread to the archi- were the best available and gave the Islamic tecture of these buildings was the use of builders a head start using the existing re- rammed clay, mud brick or ‘tapial’ in the mains as a basis. construction of the vast majority. Stone built and especially ashlar built Islamic castles The early castles from the 8th & 9th are far from being the norm but stone was century onwards were purely military struc- used, sometimes on an immense scale where tures. Their general purpose was to create an it was available and where the prestige, the enclosure of strong walls to house a garrison, strength or simply the need to impress was their horses and equipment and accommoda- greatest. tion for the commander or lord. Tapial as a form of masonry was The construction of fortifications at traditional in the Arabic speaking world, this period as purely military establishments originating as it did, from areas where tim- is reflected in other parts of the Muslim world ber was not plentiful and might it be consid- (e.g. Syria).4 The administrative and residen- ered as the common method of construction, tial centres of the regions were usually in comparable in some respects to the wide- separate palaces, themselves often fortified. spread use of timber construction techniques A good example of an early castle is used in northern European . to be found at Banos de la Encina and dates (photo 01) from the 9th century. This castle is in Andalu- There are many examples of Islam- sia north of Jaen. The curtain walls are of ic castle construction using a combination of Tapial construction with evenly spaced Tapial and stone with the latter being used square, open backed, interval towers. The for structural details such as doorways, wall entrance gateway is a simple horseshoe junctions, towers etc. shaped opening. The survival of this building with little in the way of later alteration is A surprising number of Islamic remarkable. castles were built upon Roman fortress foundations suggesting that military consid- One of the largest enclosure castles erations of defensive position was para- in Spain is that of Gormaz near the Duero mount in the siting of the castles. River frontier area of Castile, an area that remained an active border between Muslim As a point of interest, there is a and Christian from 10th to the 12th century. good deal of discussion in UK castle studies The castle itself was founded in the mid 10th on the reoccupation of Roman sites for the century. construction of castles from the time of the Norman Conquest and later. These discus- Gormaz is built on a high ridge, sions tend to follow a theory of the castle visible for miles around and dominating the builders invoking memories of the imperial surrounding landscape. It has walls of 1200 Roman past and by reusing the same sites metres circumference around a great enclo-

230 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 01. Tabernas Castle, SE Spain nr. Almeria. Tapial construction on hilltop site.

Photo 02. Fortaleza de Gormaz, Spain. Huge enclosure castle

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 231 Islamic Castles In Iberia sure within. A castle on this scale not only was able to house a consider- able army but also the lo- cal inhabitants and their livestock in the event of border warfare. (photo 02 & 03) Gormaz is built of stone and ashlar con- struction with 26 square interval towers, crenellat- ed parapets and an inner with its own de- fended walls and original- ly separated by a dry . These early cas- tles had simple gateways into the enclosure, some of elaborate Moorish horseshoe shape others more simple arched open- ing but no sophisticated gateways were construct- ed at this early period. The doors, although strong and well made of wood were barred internally but little else to add strength, beyond the location and external defences. (photo Photo 04. Forteleza de Gormaz. Double horseshoe entrance gate. 04) Islamic castles were usually provi- and long access staircases. Other types were sioned with elaborate and often very large above ground in specially constructed build- water storage cisterns. The use of water ings. The use and management of water re- within the Muslim world beyond simply its sources for agricultural purposes of the period life sustaining properties is well known and are renowned in the Muslim world and this the builders of many castles went to great applied to water management within castles lengths to collect and retain water. The ter- too. (photo 05) rain and position of many Islamic castles As settlement became more perma- meant wells were often not practical so nent the castles were places of safety and cisterns were constructed. refuges for the local village that inevitably These were usually contained sprang up below the walls. As with castles of within the curtain walls and could be deep the Christian countries there was no one size underground with linked storage chambers fits all as each castle had its unique position

232 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 03. Forteleza de Gormaz. Hilltop site. Distant view.

Photo 05. Caceres, Extremadura, Spain. Underground water cistern or ‘Aljibe’ in Arabic

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 233 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 06. Castillo de Biar, Spain. Islamic tower or , mid-late 12th century.

234 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 07. Villena Castle, Spain. Islamic rib vaulting in keep/tower, similar in date and style to one at Biar castle nearby

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 235 Islamic Castles In Iberia that in turn affected its de- sign, its local purpose and social requirements. Islamic castles that were first established to- wards the second half of the Muslim period begin to adopt some of the features seen in Christian castles. In particular great towers or keeps (towers of homage in Spanish) begin to appear. The Islamic castle of Biar built on the border of the long established Islamic ter- ritory of Zaragoza in the southeast was built with a great tower from the outset. This tower still stands with only minor later alterations. (photo 06) It is of Tapial con- struction on the outer walls and rises to three stories. The ground floor chamber is vaulted with a simple barrel vault but the first floor cham- ber (the main chamber of the tower) possess a magnificent Photo 08. Castillo de Almeria, Spain. Walled town and castle or ‘’ in rib-vaulted masonry ceiling Arabic of an Islamic decorative de- sign and clearly was a room of some status. was one of the most important towns and (photo 07) strongholds in the Islamic world from the 8th th or Walled Towns - 11 century, and a cultural and artistic cen- tre at the heart of all medieval cultures in Some of the most important towns in Islamic Spain – Muslim, Christian and Jewish. Tole- Spain were walled and defended by strong do has large stretches of medieval walls and gates. These towns were called Alcazabas gateways still in excellent condition. The and were often built on a huge scale in the Christians took the city in 1085 and stretches south of Spain. Good examples of these in of Islamic town wall from before this date are the south are to be found at Malaga, Almeria still to be seen. (photo 09 & 10). and of course . (photo 08) The dates of the walls range from There are many others scattered 11th century to 13th with the earlier stretches about the peninsula with an excellent exam- made up of massive stone blocks and impres- ple, continuously occupied from the earliest sive gateways in parts, tapial walls in others period, being the city of Toledo. This city and highly decorative gates of the later peri-

236 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 09. Toledo, Spain. Bisagra Gate and town walls.

Photo 10. Toledo, Spain. Bisagra Gate (detail). c.1050.

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 237 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 11. Toledo, Spain. Puerta del Sol. Gateway into town – 13th C.

238 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia od. The post 1085 walls are made in the bles, wood, brick and other stone.5 The walls Islamic styles and Moorish artisans were were made between wooden boards in sec- almost certainly involved in their construc- tions, into which was pressed the mixture as tion (photo 11) described. This was left to set after which From the time of the Almoravid time the retaining boards were removed and th repositioned to continue the walls occupation of Iberia from the mid 11 cen- 6 tury the defensive circuit of walls was be- construction. coming more elaborate. In particular, The hard set but rough surface pro- impressive gateways into the town were duced would then be plastered over to create being constructed. These gateways were a smooth and solid wall. It has been convinc- often embellished with decorative patterns ingly argued (see ref 5 above) that the size of in Tapial, stone or brick, often with gate- the wooden boards corresponded to the reach ways shaped with ‘Moorish’ or horseshoe of a mans arm and no more as the plastering arches but also with increasingly sophisti- over process was conducted from above each cated defences. section of wall as it grew in height. A larger The use of the turned entrance wooden board would mean the lower section through the gateways was becoming the of rough wall was beyond the reach of the normal arrangement whereby the visitor had plasterer. to turn through 90 degrees once and some- In Tapial walls remaining today the times twice, before entering the open space exterior plaster render is often missing reveal- inside. The gateways were defended by ing the very hard core (some are over 1,000 strong gates at each turn very often and were years old) and also the regularly spaced holes covered by defensive firing positions above where the wooden retaining bars were placed and in front of each door. (photo 12) onto which the exterior wooden boards were An inner defended castle was usu- fixed. The holes were left in situ (i.e. not filled ally present within the walled town enclo- in) to allow expansion and contraction of the sure, often at the highest part of the site, fabric. where the lord and his palace was located. Influences Once again the trends we see in It is difficult to propose specific stylistic ante- Iberia were reflected in other parts of the cedents when examining Islamic military ar- Islamic world and the siting of royal or chitecture in Spain in other than the most dynastic palaces within the enclosure of a general terms. There is ongoing research into fortified town from the late 11th century can this area. The first builders of military archi- be found elsewhere (see ref 3 above). tecture in Spain came to the peninsula with Tapial masonry ideas and techniques from other parts of the Islamic world, notably the Middle East ( espe- A characteristic feature of Islamic castles cially the areas of present day Syria, Iraq and everywhere, and no more so than in Iberia, Egypt). Research into early Islamic military is the use of Tapial or rammed earth. This architecture in that area shows a number of word applies to the type in Spain but many similar styles and techniques7 in use in the countries have their own name for the mate- wider Muslim world such as the use of Tapial rial (Pise in French speaking areas, Adobe construction, ‘dog-leg’ entrance gates, deco- in some other countries and there are others). rative gateways etc. But without doubt by the th Tapial is made from clay and earth 11 century a particularly Iberian style was taken from the site and mixed with water, developing that was the result of many influ- lime and hard loose material such as peb-

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 239 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 12. Toledo, Spain. Town Gates by medieval Alcantara Bridge, the main entry point across the river.

240 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia ences combined with an Andalusian creativ- mains we see today lean to a view that ity and therefore unique. Christian architecture in Spain was influenced As the greatest period for the build- by the Islamic people they conquered rather ing of castles and military structures gener- than the other way around – the Christians in ally in Spain was during the Almoravid and Spain for example adopted the detached or Almohad periods (late 11th C to mid 13th C) albarrana towers (see later). and as these two great dynasties originated Developments in Morocco it might be reasonably pre- As elsewhere in Europe and the Middle East sumed that some influence arrived in Spain there was no progressive development of cas- from that area. tle architecture of one style or feature leading However, there is no obvious evi- to another. Castles and fortresses were built dence for this, and the building of Kasbas for many reasons and by many people and no and other mud built structures bear no rela- evolution of military architecture existed. tionship to the structures found in Spain. As we have seen the Islamic archi- Indeed the sophisticated early structures that tecture of the area developed into its own are to be found in Morocco, such as the unique style as a result of the varied set of tower of the Al Kutubiya in Mar- circumstances and influences that existed rakesh (mid 12th C) is clearly in the Andalu- within Iberia. sian style and although this tower predates the similar Giralda tower in Seville they are One unique feature of Islamic mili- both of the same influence.8 tary building in Iberia, found nowhere else, was the use of detached mural towers along It seems that Almoravid and Almo- the exterior walls of the castle. These towers had Berbers from Morocco, once settled in are referred to as ‘torre Albarrana’ or Albarra- Spain, absorbed some of the sophisticated na Towers.9 The use of theses detached tow- scientific and cultural Islamic society that ers in some Iberian castles gives an immediate had long existed under the Caliphate from identity to the buildings and marks them out the 8th century and brought this back to instantly as being of the area. (photo 13) Morocco. The introduction of these particular An interesting building of note in features was during the Almohad period of Morocco is the Almoravid fortress of Dar occupation with the first known detached de- al-Hajar in Marrakesh that still has some fensive tower most likely being the Torre de excavated remnants visible today. This Espantaperros in the town of and was building was constructed towards the end of constructed in the year 1170. It must be said the 11th century and before the Almoravid that there is not universal agreement on this invasion of Spain. It is unusual in that it was and a number of other examples are some- constructed of dressed, quarried stone. As times championed as the first we have discussed above the common build- particularly the tower of Guzman el Bueno at ing material for Islamic castles in Spain was Tarifa on the southern coast of Spain and at Tapial, not stone, but clearly not from any Merida, a town not far from Badajoz. Dating lack of capability. evidence is uncertain but are all from around The Christian reconquest of Spain this time give or take a few years. brought northern castle building techniques The purpose of the albarrana towers into the Andalusian Islamic sphere and was to provide flanking cover to defend the some influences undoubtedly occurred be- exterior walls or gateways from attackers. tween the two traditions. The visible re- Defenders could gain access to the top of the

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 241 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 13. Badajoz, Spain. Detached or ‘Albarrana’ towers along the town walls.

Photo 14. Cacres, Spain: Torre de la Yelba. 12th C Muslim town walls

242 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8 Islamic Castles In Iberia detached tower via a moveable wooden Reconquest and Departure bridge and be able to fire down onto attack- The great Islamic Iberian empire that occu- ers from behind. If taken or brought down pied virtually the entire peninsula in the 9th the defenders could retreat back to the wall century was reduced to the tiny but still sig- walk of the castle leaving the detached tow- nificant Kingdom of by the 15th. er isolated with no fear of the main fortress Occupying the most southerly part of Spain being accessible nor of the mural walls be- the Kingdom was centred on the city of Gran- ing breached by its collapse. ada itself but also included the important They also, as we have said, made a coastal stronghold of Malaga in the west. The striking and impressive feature to any on- castle and walled city (alcazaba) of Malaga looker. was strong, sumptuously provided with gar- dens and other luxuries and was only margin- Frontiers ally less magnificent than the remarkable The Islamic occupation of the Iberian Penin- stronghold, palace and final flowering of the sula gradually withdrew southwards over a Muslim culture in Spain, the in long period of time. From the 10th century to Granada. the 15th century the contraction of the occu- The Alhambra embodies all of the pied areas left frontier zones between the culture, artistry and sophistication of late me- Muslim and Christian held land.10 The fron- dieval Islam but it was also the heart of a tier areas were in a varied state of flux from military complex and walled city. Many of being rather fixed for very long periods (e.g. the defences of the castle and walled town the frontier formed by the River Dureo in still remain and can be traced through the north-central Spain that remained fixed for heart of Granada today. many decades). Frontiers in other times were often more fluid with the actual fron- The whole area contains a rich histo- tier being ill defined and changing with the ry of medieval most no- ebb and flow of local political and military tably in its castles and palaces but also in the situations.11 domestic architecture of the towns and villag- es. The Kingdom of Granada was the final Castles were built in the highest home of Muslims in Spain and strong links densities along these frontier zones and ar- were maintained with the Muslims or eas where the frontiers were stable (e.g. the ‘’ across the straights in Morocco (it is Dureo River) had numerous substantial cas- interesting to see how the village houses in tles at regular intervals along the frontier. In the Atlas Mountains of Morocco are precisely addition to the great castles a large number the same as those in the Alpujarra Mountains of stone were built. These were south of Granada in the Sierra Nevada of often constructed on high ground, mountain Spain – even to this day). passes, hilltops etc and were used as addi- tional outposts of a nearby. The reconquest of Islamic Spain by Many survive to this day. The frontier zones the Christians was completed in 1492 when were not always turbulent hostile areas as Granada was finally taken and the Moors many such frontiers within Spain during expelled from the country. This brought an these 800 years were settled and peaceful for 800 year history of Islamic castle building many generations. An interesting frontier and society in Iberia to a close. zone that has a number of fortified farm- Peter A Burton houses and small fortresses still remaining is in the area of Torredelcampo in the south of Spain and these are of Islamic origin.12

The Castle Studies Group Journal No 22: 2008-9 243 Islamic Castles In Iberia

Photo 15. Castillo de Biar, Spain. Outer curtain, gateway and corner towers - post-Islamic period replacements.

1 It is always difficult to find the most appro- 6 The use of the same earth on which the castle priate terms for this area. Iberia was a Roman stands would give the structure a natural colour word for the peninsula. At the pinnacle of and blend into the landscape. It is interesting to Islamic rule the peninsula was referred to as conjecture if these smooth finished, plastered Al-Andulas. Spain as we know it today was surfaces were painted externally. The author a series of independent kingdoms until after has no evidence for this. Tapial constructed the medieval period. Portugal gained inde- buildings used until very recently in the Islam- pendence from Castile in the mid 12th-centu- ic world, the Kasbas of Morocco, were not ry as a separate kingdom. Most of this article painted externally but were usually painted on covers the modern country of Spain. the inside. 2 The main force landed at Algeciras in Au- 7 Hugh Kennedy (ed.), Muslim Military Archi- tumn 712. See D W Lomax, The Reconquest tecture in Greater Syria. Brill 2006. of Spain, Longman, 1978. 8 Richard Parker, A Practical Guideto Islamic 3 For a full account of this story see Hugh Monuments in Morocco, Baraka Press, 1981. Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal, 9 See Peter Burton, ‘Pontefract and Castles in Longman, 1996. Spain’ in Castles Studies Group Journal 19 4 See Tabba, ‘Defending AyyubidAleppo: (2006), pp. 239-244. The Fortifications Al-Zahir Ghazi’ in Mus- 10 See Lomax, The Reconquest of Spain, Map lim Military Architecture of Greater Syria, 3, p. ix. Hugh Kennedy (ed.), p. 177. Brill 2006. 11 See Angus Mackay, ‘Religion Culture and 5 See article, Construction History Society Ideology on the late medieval Castillian-Gra- Newsletter 69 (July 2004), Archie G. Walls, nadan Frontier’, in Bartlett and Mackay, Medi- ‘Arabian Mud Brick Technology: Some eval Frontier Societies, Oxford U. P. 1989. thoughts after the Bam Earthquake’.

244 The Castle Studies Group Journal No 21: 2007-8