International Journal of Transpersonal Studies
Volume 37 | Issue 1 Article 4
9-1-2018 Well-being and Self-transformation in Indian Psychology Sangeetha Menon National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India
Shankar Rajaraman National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India
Lakshmi Kuchibotla Private Practice, Bangalore, India
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Recommended Citation Menon, S., Rajaraman, S., & Kuchibotla, L. (2018). Well-being and self-transformation in Indian psychology. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 37 (1). http://dx.doi.org/https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2018.37.1.13
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This paper uses instances from literature covering a broad spectrum of Indian philosophies, art, medicine and practices—attempts to offer the components of a psychology that is rooted in transformative and transpersonal consciousness. Psychology, in this instance, refers to a systematic study of mind, behavior, and relationship, rather than the formal Western discipline as such. In the Indian approach to understanding consciousness, primary importance is given to the possibility of well-being. Such an approach facilitates an immediate comprehension of the unity of metaphysical opposites, such as matter and consciousness, and its experience as empathy, love and intuition. It involves a thinking that connects the gross and the subtle, the particular and the universal, the outer and the inner, the objective and the subjective, through a discipline of transcendence. This paper argues, based on carefully selected narratives from the Indian philosophical discourse, that the theories of the transpersonal developed in Indian wisdom traditions are founded on a practical body-mind discipline designed to lead to well-being and self-transformation.
Keywords: well-being, self-transformation, Indian psychology, consciousness, healing
ndian philosophical traditions have varied Indian philosophy as a whole, appears over again metaphysical goals but contain much in them in more than one system. Iwhich argues for transformative consciousness Another prominent anthologist of Indian in terms of the body, mind, and spirit. A self- philosophy wrote on the intimacy of philosophy exploratory, and psychological quest is articulated and life in India: in Indian theories of art, aesthetics, medicine, There are two vital reasons for studying—and epistemology, and metaphysics. In their practices understanding—Indian philosophy. . . . In order and theories, Indian religions and philosophies such to understand the country and its people, as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism recognize the which is impossible in the case of India without organic and inorganic world as interconnected. understanding its basic philosophies, because Their mythologies are rich with stories and the intimacy of philosophy and life in India is so narratives that bring stones and natural elements fundamental to the whole Indian point of view. to life and cause transformation to human life. Life (Moore, 1967, p. 1) is celebrated by the practitioners of these religions through their festivals, rituals, and daily chores The emphasis on the concept of self-transformation with the consequence that transformation lies in in Indian philosophy is emphasized by a scholar of living and in experiential sojourns. According to Buddhism: the well-known commentator of Indian philosophy In both the Mahayana and non-Mahayana Hiriyanna (1952), the most striking feature of Indian schools, the path of seeing (darsana-marga) is thought is its many-sidedness, which includes all the point at which a practitioner is transformed possible types of solutions for the problems of from an ordinary to noble being (arya) on philosophy; and this variety, which characterizes
International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 37(1), 2018, pp. 13–26 13 https://doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2018.37.1.13 such a philosophy and mutual commitment is in- account of direct meditative insight into the dicated in the Upanishadic Santimantra that elab- ultimate nature of things. (Meyers, 2014, p. 61) orates the prayer invocation. This bi-directional Along with the celebrative mind in Indian philosophies mode of pedagogy is significant since it checks the there also exists a strand of detached critique hierarchy of teacher as the giver and the student which cautions about the apparent enchantment as the receiver which leads to monologue trans- of ephemeral enjoyment in human life. A call for ference. disenchantment is loud and clear in, for example, the The teacher-pupil relationship has a signif- works of the philosophers of the Darsana traditions. icant place in the traditional Indian view of ped- An analysis and review of the philosophical agogy and character building, mainly in setting concepts of self and self-transformation are important standards for formulating concepts and ideas and in the context of understanding wellbeing. While building person-oriented theories. The lineage of there are several approaches to conceptualizing the guru-sisya is the passage for passing on the and quantifying wellbeing, one of the dominant teachings of the philosophical tradition. The fun- perspectives centers on the prominence given damental relying on the guru parampara is a fea- to self-recognition, and the characterization of ture that is seen in the schools that follow the Veda the self as holistic, active, and empowered. This (such as the sad-darsana) and that do not follow wellbeing is to be discovered through exploring and Veda (such as Buddhism and Jainism). The Jaina understanding one's inner core: philosophy traces its origins back to the teacher Parsvanatha, whose teachings were later codified Importantly, it is not just the person, but by Mahavira, both being in the long line of liber- their soul, that assesses what counts as a ated teachers (Chapple, 2014). In Kashmir Saivism, life that is both meaningful and healthy. The another important school of Indian philosophy, person-specific "inner peace," "harmony" or Utpaladeva, developing initiatives of his teacher "balance"—often emphasized in alternative Somananda, created the foundational texts of the and complementary health practices—relate to Pratyabhijna system, which was later elaborated complex understandings about the self. (Sointu, by Abhinavagupta (Lawrence, 2014). 2006, p. 496) Samvada, or dialoguing, is one of the meth- This study on the aspects of wellbeing in Indian ods used in communicating and debating the phil- philosophy is founded on the concept of self and osophical teachings. The practice of samvada— self-transformation. Since the review of the self is not maintaining two distinct styles of argumentation complete without considering the intersubjective while presenting a position—and purvapaksha-ut- elements, examples and vignettes are given to tarapaksha—taking the alternate viewpoint before identify the presence and journey of the self in the making a counter point—makes the tradition a context of pedagogy, healing, and transformation. living one. These two practices also consider the cognitive and emotive development of the people An Organic Pedagogy involved while indicating an interactive socio-cul- s evidenced by a medieval compendium of dif- tural context. Samvada is a pervasive communica- Aferent Indian philosophical schools, the word tive tool employed across Indian texts of philos- darsana for Indian philosophy connotes the philo- ophy. Examples are the dialogues narrated in the sophical enterprise to think and to delve into ideas Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the commen- so as to perceive organically (Madhava Acharya, tary traditions of the darsana schools. Instances of 1882). The epistemological foundations of these some of the fascinating samvada are: the dialogue systems share a facility for developing a pedago- with Oneself as presented in Sankarachrya’s works, gy fostering an integral development of not only such as Vivekachudamoni and Nirvana Shatkam; the student but also the teacher (Krishna Yajur Veda the dialogue between the teenager Nachiketa with Taittiriya Upanishad 2.2.2). One of the instances for Yama the god of death in Katha Upanishad; the
14 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al. dialogue between the wedded couple Yajnavalk- are interrelated to understand ethical, axiological, ya and Maithreyi in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad; the aesthetic, causal, and spiritual issues. The whole dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna upon self philosophical system achieves philosophical and experiential conflict in the Bhagavad Gita; the growth through opponent-proponent dialogue. dialogue between Gargya Balaki, a learned priest, The opponent’s standpoint is taken so seriously by and Ajatasatru, the king of Benares, in Kausitaki the proponents that the explanation of opponents Upanishad. Samvada through these dialogues can given by the proponents is more understandable be understood as an attempt to reach out and con- to us than that of the opponents, which evidences nect with the other mind, and create knowledge the intellectual honesty of the philosophers (Gosh, that has the potential to transform the self. Indian 2015). There is an attempt to reconcile and integrate philosophy discusses the various formats of formal experiences and daily-life contradictions so as debate and reasoning, which range from success- to generate existential responses to metaphysical ful advocacy to determination of truth. riddles about self-identity, creation, purpose of life, value systems, etc. The causal connections between The Naiyayikas, from Gautama downward, the nature of the ever-changing world and its causal look upon logic both as a science and art, source is an important discussion for the whole of that the function of logic, according to them, Indian philosophy (Dasti, 2014). comprises both discovery and proof, induction The nature of Samvada changes its style and deduction, and lays adequate stress on the to reasoned argumentation in later philosophical material and formal aspects of reasoning; and traditions. The pramana sastra, or epistemology, that logical debate, even in its apparently non- in Indian philosophy suggests various means of logical forms of jalpa (successful advocacy) and ascertaining valid knowledge apart from explanations vitanda (destructive objection), is never allowed on forming valid arguments (Menon, 2006). to stand completely divorced from the aim of Tarkasamgraha, a widely used text on Indian logic nyaya, viz., conclusive determination of truth. and dialectics, talks about the four-fold preliminary, (tattvadhyavasaya; Sastri, 1951, p. 224) anubandha catushtaya, required for a debate and In the classical period, we find that individual dialogue to result in proper understanding. The four- schools try to marshal their philosophical fold preliminary for any discourse are elucidations resources to reflect upon and defend the goals of vishaya (theme of discourse), prayojana (major of life that they take on from traditional cultural goal), sambandha (relation between the theme of and religious authorities. These various schools discussion and the goal), and adhikari (the qualified were in constant dialogue. Philosophical participant; Sastri, 1951). development often involves inter-school debate, While Samvada engages with logic and truth with mutually inspired refinement throughout the determination another Indian philosophical tool generations of commentators and respondents. that highlights the interconnections between words, An individual darsana’s arguments and positions thoughts, and actions is mantra. The ancient text on cannot, in fact, be fully understood without Yoga the Yogasutra authored by Patanjali presents determining who its disputants are, whether or the psychology of mind and cognitive functions. not such interlocutors (purvapaksins) are stated The philosophy that underlies the idea of mantra explicitly or left unmentioned. (Dasti, 2014, p. 2) is that the power of certain words and sounds can Samvada has references not only to logical and create a constitutional change in people's energy epistemological methods but also to states of mind levels. Associated with this philosophy is also the which are important in the discussion about the importance of visualization techniques. Forms primal nature of self, as illustrated in the Upanishadic and words, to a large extent, are the initiators for dialogues engaged in by Yajnavalkya, the Bhagavad thoughts and interactions. Similar words can create Gita dialogues engaged in by Krishna and Arjuna. dissimilar experiences for different people. The same Discussions on metaphysical and ontological issues person can evoke different responses from different
Well-being in Indian Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 15 individuals. The Yogasutra explains how alertness anger get administered with doses of compassion; and better understanding of mind (and thereby those who are blinded by flamboyant lives are taught controlling the vacillations of the mind) could lead to be self-controlled; and those ruled by greed learn people to self-stability. To be established in one's to share. This story is a perfect example for the spirit, the core of one's being, it is essential to start organic method followed by the Upanishads. The with physical and mental stability. Before aspiring philosophy from this story is that health, lifestyle, and for a stable seating in the spiritual space, one must co-existence with the community form an integral be grounded in a physical space with comfort. The whole. A study on exceptional human experiences realistic tradition of the Yogasutra hence mentions (Palmer & Braud, 2002) suggested that often optimal the importance of one's physical seating being well-being is brought about by transformative change relaxed and steady (Patanjali, Yogasutra 2:46, as caused by such experiences. The inner mind, outer cited in Swami Bodhananda, 2004) to begin with. environment, one’s attitudes, and one's value system To be stable and comfortable in the way one places each play a role in placing the individual within the oneself physically is also necessary to go farther into spirit. the experience of inner realization. At the same time, The reason for the emphasis on healing for Patanjali, the propounder of yogic traditions, the and spiritual progress in Indian psychology is journey from the physical plane to the spiritual plane the philosophical idea that consciousness is the is not purely a hierarchical process, but is founded foundation for the mind and the body, as exemplified on deeper self-reflection (e.g., Patanjali, Yogasutra in the Upanishads and other early texts. Hence mental 1:3). Self-reflection, which is the ability to reflect health is equated with continued self-exploration. upon oneself, objectifying not only the content of Transformation and evolution of consciousness imply experience, but also the author and experiencer of basic attitudinal and self-identity changes and shifts. experience, and establishing oneself in a uniting The concept of healing thus is not just a cure for an Self is a central theme of discussion in all schools of ailment but a state of perfection aimed at by one Indian philosophy, and in particular yoga philosophy and all. Classical Indian spirituality, best described, is (Rao & Menon, 2016). Indian transpersonal psychology. Not just one aspect of the person but one’s Charity, Compassion, and Restraint complete personality is considered in understanding ell-being is included among the goals of complex issues of experience. Lifestyle, day-to-day Wmany traditional schools of Indian psychology affairs, ideals and worldviews define each individual, and philosophy, as indicated, for example, in their as per the Ayurvedic philosophy. According to earliest wisdom literature, the Upanishads. Because P. V. Sharma, a prominent translator and scholar the search for wellbeing is founded on self-inquiry, of Ayurveda, Caraka Samhita, the primary text of it is expected to also foster transpersonal changes. In Ayurveda, upholds a holistic and integral view about a story from the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (Swami the individual: Madhavananda, 1950) the representatives of three Caraka-samhita holds the synthetic view of man classes of beings—the humans, the demons, and instead of analysing him into hundreds of parts demi-gods—go to Brahma the creator to know from and reducing him as aggregate of tiny cells. him what is the very best for them. To their utter Happiness and unhappiness are the final conse- surprise, Brahma answers cryptically repeating a quence of health and disease respectively and single syllable, “da”. The delegation interpreted this these affect the person wholly and not partly. mantra variously. Humans interpreted da as dana (Sharma, 2014, p. 7) (charity), demons as daya (compassion), and demi- gods as dama (restraint). This was a nuanced formula Mental and social health, for Indian philosophies Brahma offered for the three different personalities to and religions, in the context of their spiritual achieve not only mental health but also to get rid of practices and ideas, imply not merely curing a finite their lifestyle ailments. Those suffering from excessive number of deficiencies or ailments but inspiring
16 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al. better expression of inner potential, better social that Krishna gives Arjuna is to be an instrument— engagement, and a fuller sense of wellbeing. nimittamatram (Bhagavad Gita 11:33). One who guides one’s psychophysical setup with the attitude Transcendence In and Through Action of instrumentality is alert and has better ability ore examples for the emphasis on well-being to see events and situations in a detached and Mcan be cited from the yoga tradition, and objective manner. However it is not to be taken that the Bhagavad Gita. Spiritual healing, according to such a detachment is non-participation. It is not Patanjali, is not a treatment for an ailment in the strict detachment in the sense of shedding responsibility sense (e.g., Patanjali, Yogasutras 1.4). However it is a or sensitivity but creating a balanced mind that better approximation towards inner stability (svarupe can view a situation in a multi-perspectival fashion avasthanam) and corresponding positive values. He and respond creatively by being in the present. To talks about afflictions of mind —antaraya—such be in the present or the now moment launches a as disease, depression, paranoia, inadvertence, transpersonal process. Pitchon (1998) wrote, carelessness, laziness, inability to show restraint, The general idea is that although we have a delusion, boredom, and instability. These afflictions past and possibly a future, the point of power are to be removed or checked by the introduction is in the present. To become aware of the now of a set of positive values such as friendliness, means to become centred. The power to effect compassion, cheerfulness and forgiveness. When the a change, to take a decision, to fix a new goal, is modifications of mind are restrained, the seer abides now. Our real world is in the present. The past in its true nature. The restrained mind, sattvic mind, is no more and the future is uncertain. (p. 117) abides in the real nature of the seer without being distracted by thought or sensations or memories. In What the Bhagavad Gita signifies is that true and other cases, when there is no restraint, mind identifies clear comprehension lies in reflecting upon the with modifications and not pure consciousness. seeming conflicts and factors in a total fashion in the The commonality in the various traditions present, and not in compartmentalized judgment on spiritual healing is the importance given for the formations. Such a method for right perception and practice of positive values. Spiritual healing and self-reflection is given throughout the Bhagavad thereby mental health is not considered a secluded Gita, in the exposition of purusha (individual activity. The Bhagavad Gita (13:8-12), for instance, consciousness) and prakrti (matter), individual and talks about a series of positive values, which are world, individual and God, activity and meditation of personal, social, and spiritual significance, to (Menon, 2008). be the best tool for self-abidance. A major idea in The Bhagavad Gita gives interesting the Bhagavad Gita is that action, or any productive definitions for yoga that indicate social engagement engagement, and meditation are complementary to and meditation as complementary. One definition each other. Action in the real sense, according to the is “yoga is efficiency in action”—karmasukausalam Bhagavad Gita, can be executed only by a meditative (Bhagavad Gita 2:50). The mind must be focused mind. At the same time, one can meditate only if one to be efficient. Hence yoga is also maintaining the has gained the evenness of mind through non-reactive evenness of mind, samatvam (Bhagavad Gita 2:48), performance of work. Hence, in order to be actively for the efficient performance of work. Such an engaged in living, one must meditate, and in order to evenness of mind guides decision-making process meditate one must be physically and mentally active. to follow a middle path, by being steadfast in an A Yogi is one who engages in work with a meditative inner calm—samadhav achala buddhi (Bhagavad mind, according to the Bhagavad Gita. Activity does Gita 2:53). Another definition is that yoga is not add or reduce one’s inner contentment. disjunction from unhappiness—dukhasamyoga The Bhagavad Gita identifies meditation viyoga (Bhagavad Gita 6:23). Yoga must be practiced with a non-reactive mind. Control of thoughts with determination and with a non-depressed is possible only for a non-reactive mind. Advice heart. Here, yoga is described by the principle of
Well-being in Indian Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 17 exclusion, using double negatives to indicate that and yogic traditions. Ayurvedic aetiology is not only yoga is not a state to be acquired, but is to be about causes of imbalance but also about therapy realized by the removal of the false perception of guided by one’s own mental disciplines and spiritual unhappiness. It is the disjunction from the apparent practices: conjunction with unhappiness. Yoga is the disunion Mind, self and body-these three make a tripod from the apparent identity with unhappiness. on which the living world stands. All depend The Bhagavad Gita advises that instead on this (living world). (Caraka Samhita 1:46; of eliminating unhappiness, one should look into Sharma, 2014, p. 6) the experience of unhappiness and see that it has no independent existence (Swami Bodhananda, Since the focus is on mental health and not 1998). Happiness is akshayasukham—the endless necessarily mental disorder, the goal for healing is and perpetual joy. Spiritual healing happens when not redemption but progress recorded in a scale happiness is considered not a state to be acquired, from mental health to spiritual uplift. If we consider but is realized as one’s ontological nature. Happiness that Ayurveda follows an interrelated system, is not the transient pleasure got from an object of all components of the practice of medicine are experience, which comes and goes. Happiness organic contributors. Valiathan (2003) made the which is not bought with objects, events or persons observation, paraphrasing the Caraka Samhita, that signifies the spiritual nature of self and is identified medical knowledge always existed in folklore, local with pure consciousness. health traditions, verbal testimony and many other sources. It was their periodic systematization that Healing and not Cure led towards progress (p. iii). deas about self-transformation and spiritual One example for the organic approach to Iexperiences are presented in Indian psychology wellbeing is the exposition of health and the state in concurrence with a philosophical position. For of absence of diseases as described in the Caraka instance, for the idealist Indian philosophical schools, Samhita. The second chapter of the division of the division between ordinary and transcendental Sarirasthanam (46–47) describes health in perhaps experience itself is an incorrect postulation, and any the most ecological manner. According to the experience has the potential to be a transformative Caraka Samhita (Kaviratna & Sharma, 1996), one experience. Therefore, healing is not an event caused who is free from diseases is one who follows a by an outer agency but by the inner Self. Though diet that is wholesome, keeps a proper regimen of the experience could be described as therapeutic, exercise, who acts after thinking in a wholesome the process is not therapy, but Self-healing. Healing manner, is non-indulgent and moderate, shares what is not by catharsis, according to their methods, he has, is balanced in mind, truthful, forgiving, and but by creating transpersonal ideas, visions, helpful to people who are wise and accomplished. thoughts, experiences, goals, world-views and most Further, diseases do not affect one who has positive importantly self-identity. One such method is the thoughts, whose actions lead to happiness, who has usage of an array of imageries and metaphors which original views, clarity in thinking, mental discipline are different, both by kind and order, to create and desire for attuning to a meditative space. new experiences, to re-look at the given situation The fundamental texts of Ayurveda, such from a new perspective and to respond anew from as the Caraka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita, that perspective. Examples are the discussion of based on Sankhya and yoga, accept two ontological immortality in the Katha Upanishad, Selflessness in realities, one of which is conscious, called purusha, the Chandogya Upanishad, and the mind-body-self and the other which is not, called prakrti, loosely interactive system in the Caraka Samhita. translated as matter (Kaviratna & Sharma, 1996). The Ayurveda and yoga traditions are founded latter is constituted by the three gunas or attributes, on the philosophy of intrinsic healing. Healing is sattva, poise or goodness; rajas, dynamism or the goal of Indian medicinal (Ayurveda, Unani, etc.) passion; and tamas, inertia or ignorance. All the
18 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al. evolutes of matter (and this includes something as is transpersonal at its very conception. Holism subtle as the mind at one end and something as and the possibility for retaining balance permeates gross as the manifest world at the other) exhibit at every level starting from the philosophical and a combination of these three attributes in various spiritual base extending up to mundane concerns degrees. At its gross level, matter differentiates into of disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Its five elements, the panchabhuta: earth, dominated concerns are at the same time grounded in day to by tamas; water, by sattva and tamas; fire, bysattva day living, health and disease, transcendence, and and rajas; air, by rajas; and space, by sattva. In liberation from the wheel of existence. Therefore, relation to the human body, these five elements health is described in terms of overall wellbeing of not only determine its physical structure but also the body, mind, and self. Wellbeing is experienced participate in its physiology by becoming what when there is balance in physiological and digestive are called dosha, vaguely rendered in English as processes, well-formed tissues, proper eliminative humors. The three dosha are named vata, pitta and bodily processes, coupled with self-abidance, and kapha, the first derived predominantly from air and cheerfulness of the sense organs and mind and space, the second from fire and the third from (sama dosha samagni ca sama dhatu-mala-kriyah; earth and water. Cosmically, vata corresponds to prasanna atmendriyamanah svastha ityabhidiyate; air, pitta to sun and kapha to moon. The three, Susruta Samhita Sutrasthanam 15.38; S. Menon, in that order, are responsible for the functions Trans.). of diffusion, absorption and secretion within the It is important to highlight that health human organism. These functions are not limited according to the classical masters of Ayurveda is not to the physical but also extend to the psychological a state which is achieved at some point of time but a world of humans. Vata, for example, not only process that involves various transpersonal elements regulates breathing, contributes energy and initiates connecting the immediate societal engagements, physical movement, but also creates enthusiasm cultural practices, and the environment in large. and is responsible for mental processes. The three dosha are the fundamental entities Cognitive, Emotive, and Spiritual Inquiry so far as Indian medicine is concerned and, in various ndian transpersonal thinking can be viewed combinations, produce the seven body constituents Ifrom three standpoints. The three standpoints— called dhatu, comparable to tissues. Aetiology, of a cognitive inquiry, emotive inquiry, and, a patient-healer relation, diagnosis, environment, spiritual inquiry—are based on the healing of the nature of medicine, life style and healing, in Ayurveda self through different modes of expressing and are connected amongst themselves and represent a being. For instance, the different parables from the cosmic philosophy that underlies human mind and Upanishads which are at the same time symbols of body. The description of the healer, who is a life- subtle cognitive processes (based on negation— saver, often reminds us of an ideal philosopher. neti neti) and also the strength of steadfastness and Clarity in theoretical knowledge, repeated exposure patience indicate the foundational nature of these to practice, skill, and cleanliness—these are the four narratives as relating to continuous self-inquiry and qualities of a physician (Caraka Samhita Sutrasthanam self-transformation caused by an inner space. The 9:6; S. Rajaraman, Trans.). Pranabhisara, the life- examples are stories of Nachiketa’s inquiry into that saver, is a physician who interests himself in the which stays after death; Yajnavalkya’s discussion ideological framework, in understanding the on the importance of the self, and the multiple import thereof, in the practical application of that interpretations of the same syllable differently by knowledge and in the actual practice of the medical the three beings in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad. profession (Caraka Samhita Sutrasthanam 9:18; S. K. Transformation addresses the bruises caused by Ramachandra Rao, Trans.). the thorns of alienated rational processes and Ayurveda, concerned with the unitary, impermanent pleasure points of the mind. The role spiritual and transcendental aspects of human life, of love (devotion in the bhakti traditions), dialogue
Well-being in Indian Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 19 (organic form of inquiry), and being (self-abidance) gets a meaning in the context of the representation are the tools for both transformation and pedagogy. of forms, plots, and emotions, in performative and Bhakti, or devotion, in theistic schools non-performative Indian art. What comes through represents an intense experience which includes is a thread that seems to connect and present both the feelings involved with love but that which goes the inner and outer space. The poignant metaphor beyond them through a transcendental divinizing of for this is the sutradhara (the literal meaning is one the emotions. For instance, the Narada Bhaktisutra who holds the thread) of classical Indian drama is an exposition of divine love. The text considers the who connects the real world and narrated plot issue of bhakti not from a personalistic standpoint (Kulkarni, 2008). He will be the first to enter and but from an ontological perspective. Emotions are last to leave the stage. He is neither outside nor employed as rational tools in the inquiry. They also inside the theatrical space, but both. His presence behold an ontological factor since they transcend is continuous yet not intervening. the limitations in the experiential level and since The concept of rasa (the flavor of aesthetic the ultimate objective is dedication and dissolution emotion) is another important aesthetic concept that of the experiencer. The focus in this text is to serves the in-between role by invoking a particular understand the experience of intense, unconditional bhava (emotional state) in the spectator. Rasa love, leading to self-realization of the experiencer. creates an aesthetic space between the actor and Bhakti is described as anirvacaniya (Narada the spectator and uses that as the channel for the Bhaktisutra 2), or indescribable (Swami Sivananda, passage of complex meanings represented with the 2008). Such a description could be understood help of the story. Rasa cannot be rendered without a in two ways. The experience of bhakti cannot contrast to other emotions. The transition from one be translated into a cognitive concept. Bhakti rasa to another takes place in the twilight space of transcends its verbal expressions. The experience the changing moods—anubhava. In classical drama of bhakti cannot be exhaustively translated into the twilight space is rendered more clearly by the verbal description since “it is like taste enjoyed by delineation of two kinds of actions—actions that the dumb” (Narada Bhaktisutra 3). The dumb one is are learned by watching people (lokadharmi) and incapable of describing the taste in words though actions that are stylized (natyadharmi). The goals he might very much wish to. The nature of bhakti as of natya (mime, movement and drama) pertain to attributeless qualifies it as a pure experience which both objective and subjective features. Through cannot be repeated or reported. The experience the composite of external and physical enactment, of bhakti happens to a desireless (kamanarahitam) subjective states of mind and feelings represented: mind. Desire is always for the other outside oneself. For the spectator, in the secondary level there is For a bhakta there is no alienated other. Through its an appreciation of the characters and the theme; tradition of devotion, teaching, and practise, Indian and in the primary level, a temporary detachment psychology leads to a method of learning that can with one’s self-identity is experienced. For the be described as affective, systemic, and organic. actor, in the primary level it is the complex task of Another Indian tradition that has a rich representing a character, an idea, or the nuance approach to emotions, and their physical and of a particular feeling through abhinaya—mime, mental expression, is aesthetics and dramaturgy. and producing the corresponding mood—rasa The two debates that generate exciting ideas about for the viewer—prekshaka. In the secondary level space in drama, philosophy, and aesthetics are a temporary detachment from one’s self-identity about the residence of movement and space—is it and identity with the particular character’s self as in the outside object, or in the inside subject? The a whole and the narrative is experienced (Menon, inner/outer and subject/object binaries define the 2003). aesthetic object in most Indian art forms. The Natya There are interesting characteristics of the Sastra is a classical text that discusses the origin and in and out movement of emotions and acts used nature of aesthetic experience. Interestingly, space in traditional pictorial art. Representations of
20 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al. two or multiple events are done with the help of joints, creating adequate stimuli for deep receptors demarcating them in different sections. Different (Evarts, 1981, p.44). areas of pictorial space render different scenes While this vital sense is challenged in seen from different vantage points. The classic text patients with psychiatric and neural disorders on drawing Chitrasutra (Warrier, 2002) describes (Cole, 2009), it is present in a heightened degree nine positions (nava-sthana) based on the form, in performers of martial arts (e.g., kalari payattu) movement, colors, and disposition of the person. where the other person’s (proprioceptive) capability These nine positions create a two-way viewpoint is also considered as feedback (Zarrilli, 1998). For for the painter and the viewer to communicate that the practitioner of kalari payattu, an ancient martial which is represented through a particular vantage art that originated in Kerala, the mind becomes so point. In both pictorial and theatrical space, distance sensitive that one’s whole body turns into the visual is symbolically represented. In stage it is by the in and organ, the eye. The discussion on movement and out (or even sideways) movement of characters, the viewpoint in space cuts across disciplines with effects of the spotlight, etc. In paintings it is with the greater relevance to drama, yogic methods, and usage of lines and shapes, such as square and circle, martial arts, such as kalari payattu. Together seen to cordon off particular instances, with the help of and understood the viewpoint in space creates the colors. In drama the actor’s body is the medium. identity of the performer/artist and one’s presence A detailed analysis of the movement of every part that transcends color, form, and body, and in the of the body is given by Bharata in Natya Sastra. process creates a transpersonal space that is still, The varied movement of the eye through glances peaceful, and aesthetic. (drishti) is one instance. Apart from the drishti there is a detailed description of the kinds of movements Unsolved Binaries and the Foundations of the pupils, eyelids, and that of eyebrows (Natya of the Transpersonal Sastra) t is important to understand the theoretical The in and out aesthetic space of Indian Ifoundations which hold together the ways of dramaturgy poses several larger issues in psychology thinking in traditional Indian epistemology. This and philosophy that seem to connect binaries of the connects the entities that are gross and the subtle, the outer and inner, object and subject, presence and particular and the universal, the outer and the inner, absence, movement and stillness, body and spirit. the objective and the subjective, through a discipline Discussions are on connections between that which of transcendence fringed by higher orders of ethical stays the same in space and that which changes living and exercises for conceptual precision in location. The viewpoint in space goes beyond body thinking. Essentially, the attempt in Indian wisdom praxis and aesthetics and implies an overwhelming traditions is to go beyond the immediate and to attribute of creative presence, that which moves and connect to a larger whole. In other words, a seeking is yet unmoved. Such connections pose questions for experiences which are transpersonal, as defined on body-sense, body-movement, self, and identity by Walsh and Vaughan (1993): in the context of not just drama but also lived Transpersonal experiences may be defined as everyday experiences. Curiously the discussion experiences in which the sense of identity or self on body-sense and body-movement, together extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal called proprioception, are two central topics of to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, discussion in neurobiology. Proprioception is a third psyche or cosmos. (p. 203) sense (apart from the sensations of outer and inner objects) that tells us how much effort we need to There are two paradigms in the classical Indian give for movement, and where the body parts are philosophical schools in spite of the differences in located in relation to one another, an awareness their metaphysical and epistemological positions, of the body which stems from sensory receptors such as what we see and experience, which — proprioceptors — in the muscles, tendons, and is constituted by the given and the immanent;
Well-being in Indian Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 21 and what we can see and experience, which is Almost all characters in the Mahabharata constituted by the possibilities and the transcendent are prone to taking risks and subsequently face (Menon, 2003). It is within these two paradigms that the consequences of actions which they do not elaborate discussion on fundamental experiences, reflect upon in advance. The impact of choice and such as pain and pleasure, sorrow and happiness, decision making in defining risk is best illustrated selfishness and selflessness, freedom and bondage, by the story of the rendezvous of the Pandava the given and the possible, et cetera, takes place. An brothers with Yaksha, a demi-god guarding a lake in apt literary instance for this stance is the epic text the forest. The story of Yaksha Prashna, as narrated Mahabharata. in the Vanaparva book of the Mahabharata (e.g., The Mahabharata is an epic of 100,000 Iyer, 1969), is about the brothers’ quest for water, verses and narrated in eighteen books. Its authorship which forces them to trespass boundaries and face is ascribed to Sage Vyasa. It narrates the story of a the consequences of Yaksha’s terms and conditions, unique war within various frameworks. The story which is having to answer certain self-reflective, is narrated by several characters. On the simplest phenomenological, and spiritual questions. All plane, the Mahabharata narrates the struggle for brothers fail the test and die, except Yudhisthira, the throne, amongst cousins, the Kaurava brothers, who answers all the sixty odd questions of Yaksha. and the Pandava brothers. Duryodhana, the eldest To Yudhisthira's happiness he is not only granted Kaurava, beguiles Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava water from the lake but also the lives of the four and the emperor, to a dice game. Losing their brothers. entire kingdom, and themselves too, in the game, The Yaksha story has immense significance the Pandavas are forced to go into a 13-year forest for understanding self-representations in crisis and exile which includes a year of incognito exile. At the dilemma. Yudhisthira responds to crisis at many end of the stipulated period, Duryodhana haughtily different levels. At a physical level, he initially shows refuses to return the empire to the Pandava brothers, strength but succumbs to his emotional state upon leading to the decision for a war. seeing his listless brothers. At a physiological level, Through this tale of ambitions and human he endures his thirst and demonstrates a measure of ironies, Vyasa etches the complex shades and nuances mastery over his biological need. His keen sense of of human weakness, attitudes, and possibilities. commitment and values deepens his psychological The Mahabharata’s characters and narratives state. His spiritual and transcendental inclinations are the key to understanding an individual’s self- move him toward acquiring knowledge. At each representation, relationships, dilemmas, wellbeing, level he manifests certain symptoms and resolves and transcendence. The narrative is born out of the these states. Each resolution absorbed by him experiences of the characters as well as gives shape significantly contributes to his overall self. He uses to experience in the Mahabharata. The narrative his whole person as a position from which he can and self-representations are inseparable in the respond to the dilemma and crisis. In a sense, his Mahabharata. thirst for knowledge opens vital space within him The epic is characterized by the roster of enabling him to understand the questions, which characters replete with innumerable shades of are life puzzles, intensely. behaviors, attitudes, values, situations, circumstances The brothers were already fatigued by and dilemmas. None emerges as purely good or bad hunger and thirst, and also by their depressed in the good-bad binary, but each character emerges minds, due to the defeated life in the forest. and unfurls dependent upon the context and life When pushed to a corner, we are forced to take situations. Yudhisthira, Arjuna, and Gandhari—some a risk, even if it is at the cost of a trade-off like of the key characters—in experiencing their desires death. In answering the Yaksha's remarkably and sorrows attempt to enhance and transform progressive series of phenomenological questions, themselves through their tryst with unpredictable Yudhisthira consolidates his experiential learning events and their consequences. and understands him-self. His knowledge leads
22 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al. to an expansion of his self-representation and therefore inherent in its analysis of dharma augments his psychological wellbeing, developing and adharma; of truth and untruth; of himsa, his resources and potentials to higher degrees of violence, and ahimsa, not-violence; of the freedom and renunciation: attitudes towards having and not having; What is the all comprehensive virtue? What is of sexuality; of life-in-family and life alone; the all comprehensive thing of fame? What in of self-knowledge and self-discipline or the one word, leads to heaven? In what is comprised absence of them; and in its explorations all happiness? Integrity is all comprehensive in the question of causality and human virtue. Charity is the one comprehensive matter freedom, moksha. (Chaturvedi, 2007, p. of fame. Truth alone leads to heaven. Character 264) comprises all happiness. (Yaksha Prasna 13; Iyer, 1969, p. 40) The concept of choice in the Mahabharata is a contextual act that carries the insignia of actions that By renouncing which things does one become lead to it. Arjuna, another prominent character of lovable? By renouncing which things does one the Mahabharata, presents an array of contradictory never suffer grief? By renouncing which things and conflicting options to Krishna as an apparently does one become wealthy? By renouncing reasoned argument for his plea to flee the battlefield. which thing does one become happy? By Arjuna at first requests Krishna, as exemplified in renouncing pride one becomes lovable. By the first chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, to position renouncing anger one never experiences grief. him between the two armies, which itself is an By renouncing desire one becomes wealthy. By expression of the conflict that will pull him in one renouncing avarice one becomes happy. different directions. According to the Bhagavad Gita (Yaksha Prasna 17; Iyer, 1969, p. 47) philosophy the self that is bruised, by the inability to According to Neelakanta, a commentator of the engage in actions that ensue from decisions already Mahabharata, the renunciation of the four, namely, taken, cannot be healed through an avoidance of pride, anger, desire and avarice, enables one to the immanent action but only by facing the life- control the mind (Iyer, 1969, p. 47). The life goal, situation through thought out engagement. Such an according to the Yaksha Prasna, is the attainment engagement is possible through settling oneself in of the state of a sarvadhanee, a person who is the non-shifting space of a deeper subject, which concerned not only about his salvation, but is according to Indian psychology is consciousness. deeply interested in the spiritual welfare and the happiness of mankind (Iyer, 1969, p. 80). Conclusion The Mahabharata through telling these and significant characteristic of the Indian mode of many other stories highlights the idea that life’s Athinking is an overriding urge above all urges options come in binaries, are interrelated, and to connect and catapult from what is given to are not spelled out most of the time as to which what is possible. Such a feature can be perceived one could be chosen. The choices we make bring in the Hindu metaphysics and epistemology. The out various aspects of ourselves, allowing several conception of experience is not strictly what is possibilities to express themselves for each choice caused by extraneous factors but what is possible by that is made. In the process of choice, and in the intervention of the distinctive and unique nature choosing upon the actions, values, attitudes, and of the individual. Therefore, experience is not merely other critical aspects of our being, we add depth a theme for understanding based on its immediate and vastness to our self. Another commentator of context, such as cause or results, but is a tool for the Mahabharata writes: further exploration of the self. The ordinariness and extra-ordinariness of an experience is understood The Mahabharata’s teachings of sukha- from the standpoint of the deeper self than from the dukha, happiness and suffering, are causal agent. The object of experience, the result
Well-being in Indian Psychology International Journal of Transpersonal Studies 23 of experience, and the experiencer constitute the of attitudes and perceptions and encourages one triad of which each is significant in understanding to be grounded in the world. Being-in-the-world and contributing to the other, and thus defining is crucial for Indian systems in redefining a healthy wellbeing. self-identity. The Indian transpersonal process is While the different Indian philosophical placed in the existential context of the person and traditions hold different views towards the ultimate one’s being tied to the consequences of choices. purpose of life, in general the Vedantic traditions Such a psychological process and a desire for the offer a metaphysics that either questions or affirms transcendent develop from existential predicaments the presence of a unitary reality. While the theistic and emphasizes an integral method. Experience traditions build a metaphysics that is based on a that has personal relevance and potential for part-whole relationship with the ultimate reality, change is pivotal for creating wellbeing. The focus the non-dualistic traditions believe in the inherence of metaphysical discussions in Indian philosophical of the reality in all dimensions of the experiential literature is on how to create a dynamic and world (Radhakrishnan, 1940). However, in all these continuous process of spiritual uplift that is not traditions the values that support spiritual living distanced or alienated from the lived experiences are the urge to know the true nature of one’s self, of the person. ecological awareness that connects one with the rest of the world, empathy that is needed for an aspirant, References intersubjective sharing, emotional wellbeing, efficiency in expressions and creative imagination. Bodhananda, S., & Agarwal, S. (2017). Panchatantra: The distinct psychological feature of these traditions The Handbook for mastering life skills. Ahemdabad, is their spiritual openness, and not just a liberal India: Ahmedabad Management Association. philosophy, the facility to integrate new experiences Chapple, C. K. (2014). Free will and voluntarism in and new understandings into an evolving scheme Jainism. In M. R. Dasti & E. F. Bryant (Eds.), Free of ideas and lifestyle, all leading and pointing to will, agency, and selfhood in Indian philosophy continued self-exploration (Menon, 2006). The (pp. 68–84). New York, NY: Oxford University individual, and one’s experiences are key aspects Press. for inquiry in the Saddarsana traditions. Experience Chaturvedi, B. (2007). The Mahabharata: An inquiry can help achieve a degree of transcendence for the in the human condition. New Delhi, India: individual—by going beyond personal, social and Orient Longman. spiritual limits—through transformation in one’s Cole, J. (2009). Impaired embodiment and worldview, by being sensitive to yet another point of intersubjectivity. Phenomenology and the view, and thus being open-minded, with more self- Cognitive Sciences, 8(3), 343–360. reflection, and sensitivity to oneself and others. All Dasti, M. R. (2014). Introduction. In M. R. Dasti & E. these would help achieve mental peace, personal F. Bryant (Eds.), Free will, agency, and selfhood growth, stability, and a sense of fulfilment. The in Indian philosophy (pp. 1–40). New York, NY: Upanishadic stories (Radhakrishnan, 1994) and the Oxford University Press. Panchatantra tales that may seem to contradict one Evarts, E. V. (1981). Sherrington's concept of another at times (Bodhananda & Agarwal, 2017) for proprioception. Trends in Neurosciences, 4, 44- instance are based on subjective narratives and the 46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(81)90016-3 personal urge and struggle to understand the nature Gosh, R. (2015). The concept of dialogue in of the real, and one’s self. Indian philosophy. Dialogue and Universalism, The transpersonal in the Indian psychology 1(1), 1–6. Retrieved from https://www.emporia. and the philosophy of transformative consciousness edu/~cbrown/dnue/documents/vol06/ could be sighted in its epics, poetry, medicine, Vol06.01ConceptOfDialogue.pdf and aesthetics. With eclectic methods, Indian Hiriyanna, M. (1952). The quest after perfection. philosophy and psychology offers transformation Mysore, India: Kavyalaya.
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About the Authors
Sangeetha Menon, PhD, is a Professor at the National Institute of Advanced Studies, in the campus of Indian Institute of Science, in Bangalore, India. She is the Head of the NIAS Consciousness Studies Programme. Her latest books are “Brain, Self and Consciousness: Explaining the conspiracy of experience” (Springer Nature, 2014); and "Self, Culture and Consciousness: Interdisciplinary Convergences on Knowing and Being (Springer Nature, 2018). Her emails are prajnanata@gmail. com and [email protected]. Her website is: http://niasconsciousnesscentre.com/sm-cv.html
Shankar Rajaraman, MBBS, is a psychiatrist, Sanskrit scholar and poet. He has won national awards for his contributions to Sanskrit literature. Currently he is a Post-doctoral Associate with the NIAS Consciousness Studies Programme of the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore. His email is [email protected].
Lakshmi Kuchibotla, PhD, is a Counsellor and therapist, with interest in Indian philosophy, Indian psychology and music. Her email is lakshmi.nias@ gmail.com.
About the Journal
The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies is a is a peer-reviewed academic journal in print since 1981. It is sponsored by the California Institute of Integral Studies, published by Floraglades Foundation, and serves as the official publication of the International Transpersonal Association. The journal is available online at www. transpersonalstudies.org, and in print through www. lulu.com (search for IJTS).
26 International Journal of Transpersonal Studies Menon et al.