Staging the Nation Through Art Music of the Haitian Diasporaauthor(S): Diana Golden Source: Journal of Haitian Studies , Vol

Staging the Nation through Art Music of the Haitian DiasporaAuthor(s): Diana Golden Source: Journal of Haitian Studies , Vol. 24, No. 2 (Fall 2018), pp. 37-84 Published by: Center for Black Studies Research Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26600004

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Staging the Nation through Art Music of the Haitian Diaspora Diana Golden Independent scholar and musician

“Nation is narration. The stories we tell each other about our national belonging and being constitute the nation.” —Stefan Berger, Narrating the Nation In music they imagine as representing the nation, composers reflect priorities of the present by choosing which elements to include or discard in their compositions. These musical choices collectively reflect a particular narrative about a national musical history. Philip Bohlman writes that music acquires meaning because it responds “to a historical awareness of a shared history . . . [that is] invented to serve the nation by participating in the narration of its history.”1 A “staged” history elevates certain elements over others in order to create a narrative that presents the preferred national image. According to Michel-Rolph Trouillot in Silencing the Past, the production of historical narratives is controlled by those in power.2 While the historical narrative of Saint-Domingue may have been controlled by those in power, the historical narrative of Haiti often served as a reaction against threats to national autonomy. After the US Occupation, the historical narrative of art music was shaped frequently as a reaction against those in power. The musical developments that were influential—and recorded as a result—were reactions against the United States. The call for a national musical voice, the exploration of African and folkloric elements of Haitian music, and in turn the rejection of American and European stylistic elements grew from the sociopolitical context in Haiti at the time. The pull toward mizik angaje, or politically and socially engaged music-making, contributed to the production of music history as a form of resistance. After the Occupation, as Haiti looked externally for international recognition, art music was used for further nation-building, creating a cultural image across the diaspora. Because certain characteristics have come to be known as unique to the Haitian musical voice, composers who especially represent them in

This content downloaded from 86.59.13.237 on Thu, 08 Jul 2021 09:55:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 38 Diana Golden their compositions have been celebrated for promoting Haitian music. These elements—European dance music, rhythms and melodies from folkloric dance, and efforts to counter the stigma surrounding Vodou music in state and popular perception—have been present and evolving in the music of the Haitian diaspora. Composers such as Carmen Brouard and Julio Racine embraced Haitian elements of musical style in their compositions, staging their works for musical consumption at home and abroad according to the priorities and historical contexts of their own times. It is clear that just as these composers sought to establish their own musical voices, they also sought to create a Haitian musical voice to be recognized internationally. As a result, the staging of a national musical identity in Haiti occurred not only through composition but also through advocacy; a renegotiation of folkloric representations in ethnography, tourism and dance; and heated discussion across multiple artistic and political genres over Haiti’s national identity. Musical values in the years of Brouard and Racine echoed ideas in commerce, philosophy, art, and literature that reacted to international competition and threats to sovereignty. Brouard and Racine’s compositional interests reflect the cosmopolitanism and fragmentation communicated by the Haitian diaspora from the 1960s to the present. In this article, I analyze elements of musical style in the works of Brouard and Racine for their contributions to the staging of a Haitian national musical identity. This research builds on Trouillot’s idea that the construction of a nation’s historical narrative is influenced by factors such as power and politics. It also draws from Michael Largey’s extensive research on how Haitian art music of the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth century helped to perform the nation and shape how Haiti was viewed abroad. In particular, I build on Largey’s discussion of composer Werner Jaegerhuber as staging the nation in order to examine how composers of the diaspora have shaped a narrative about the nation through their art music. Mary Procopio and Rebecca Dirksen’s scholarship on Jaegerhuber, Racine, and Brouard helps to contextualize the composers and the specific works analyzed here. Lastly, Claude Dauphin’s writings on the styles and forms of Vodou music and on the history of Haitian art music inform my understanding of elements of compositional style in Haitian art music. This article describes the historical context in which composers of the Haitian diaspora have created art music; converses with ideas by Trouillot, Stefan Berger, and Bohlman on the expression of nationhood through music; examines elements of musical style that Haitian composers participating in the diaspora share; and analyzes how these elements function in works by Brouard and Racine. I conclude by summarizing the activities of contemporary creators and proponents of Haitian art music and suggesting areas for further study.

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Staging the Nation “The yanvalou . . . it creates a certain nostalgia. But, a false nostalgia! Because the piece is not really a yanvalou. But harmonically, melodically, it is like something you play but have to look behind you to see it, it is something you leave behind. You leave it behind.” —Julio Racine, about his piece for flute and piano, Tangente au Yanvalou (1975), as quoted by Michael Largey, “Musical Ethnography in Haiti”

The Staging of Political Music under the Duvaliers As both rulers of the Duvalier regime used Haitian popular music for political gain, Haitian composers employed art music as a means of critiquing the government. Their inclusion of elements such as Vodou rhythms, protest songs, and subjects or themes of the diaspora such as loss or exile was key to the political resistance in their music. François “Papa Doc” Duvalier, having run on a noiriste platform of political power and social mobility for the Haitian Black middle class against the multiracial elite, consolidated power with the help of the tontons macoutes, a militia that caused his opponents to “disappear.”3 After his death in 1971, his son Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier continued the dictatorship in Haiti until 1986, when he was overthrown by the Haitian military. Jean-Claude’s rule was marked by the spread of swine fever, the AIDS epidemic, food riots, economic crisis, and a decline of tourism. Both Duvalier leaders tolerated Vodou alongside Catholicism in an effort to win popular support.4 The months following the regime change held the largest wave of persecution of Vodou in Haitian history, with Vodou priests targeted and killed.5 In 1987, however, Vodou was legalized and all penalties for Vodou practice abolished.6 Representations of Vodou in music fluctuated as acceptance of Vodou practice waxed and waned. François Duvalier’s reign of power extended into the Haitian musical realm, as popular musicians and ensembles were forced to perform for government-run Carnivals, campaign rallies, presidential tours, and parties for the macoutes.7 The government went further than hiring fanfa (military bands) to entertain at events: officials would commission prominent musicians to write pieces based on Duvalierist propaganda.8 At the 1965 Carnival, for instance, Wébert Sicot was made to write “Men Jet-La” (Here comes the jet) in honor of a new airport built by Duvalier, while the Ensemble Nemours Jean-Baptiste was hired to write “Tout Limen” (All lit up) to honor Duvalier’s electricity program.9 At the 1967 Carnival, a musicians’ float was bombed to protest the pro-Duvalier songs they played as well as the poor economy and government-incited violence in Haiti at the time.10

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Like his father, Baby Doc used popular music to advance his political aims. In turn, however, popular music ensembles represented the masses in voicing political resistance during his regime in ways that they could not during Papa Doc’s rule.11 Just as Vodou-djaz and konpa had been popular in the 1950s, mini-djaz and konpa direk were popular in the 1960s and 1970s, while in the 1980s and 1990s, mizik rasin (roots music) and zouk rose in popularity.12 According to Peter Manuel, songs of protest (in keeping with the tradition of the Haitian konplent and chant pwen) developed across the diaspora beginning in the late 1970s.13 Gage Averill extensively documents political resistance by Haiti’s popular music groups, but Haitian composers of mizik savant (art music) also responded to political oppression through their music. Whereas popular music employed lyrics with double meanings, Haitian art music voiced indirect critiques of social and political circumstances through instrumental music without words. In a wave of migration beginning in the early 1960s, many Haitians left to settle in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Africa; in North America, prominent Haitian communities formed in New York City, Boston, Montreal, and Miami.14 As Maya Hoover notes, “The turbulent political climate of Haiti in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries caused the professional training of Haitian musicians [and other professionals with financial means] to occur abroad.”15 Throughout the Duvalier regimes, these diasporic Haitian communities continued to grow, with migration fueled by political turmoil at home and changes to immigration policies abroad.16 Haitian composers who left their country took inspiration from the subject of the diaspora as well as the mixing of musical styles created by it.

Staging Trends in Haitian Music of the Diaspora Werner Jaegerhuber’s ethnographic transcriptions of Vodou melodies and rhythms interested ethnographers and musicologists, his compositions and teaching inspired other composers to incorporate Vodou rhythms and melodies into their classical works, his establishment of the Pro Arte Society spurred a wave of Haitian chamber music in the 1950s, and his work with folkloric dance troupes and tourist shows helped give Haitian classical music international standing. Jaegerhuber encouraged the elite classes to reimagine the Vodou ceremony as folklore, changing a stigmatized musical tradition in Haiti into a national treasure. In notating various elements of musical style, Jaegerhuber expressed his vision for what constituted Haitian musical identity. Arguably more than any other Haitian composer, Jaegerhuber helped to stage mizik savant’s distinctly

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Haitian musical voice.17 Soon after Jaegerhuber’s death in 1953, composers inspired by his incorporation of folklore into classical compositions soon faced different challenges than the preceding generation. Haitian elites engaged in a national dialogue through the arts as means of responding to the lingering psychological impact of the Occupation. Largey writes, “Haitian composers . . . subsequently participated in cosmopolitan culture once again.”18 Largey argues that Haitian composers of art music “moved away from ethnographic fieldwork” and toward other ways of expressing folk music in classical music, developing what he calls a cosmopolitan style.19 In other words, rather than simply including musical quotes from authentic sources, which could potentially exoticize these traditions, post-Occupation composers integrated folk elements into their classical compositions: they sought to highlight features of folk music that could be shared across cultures, creating the perception of universality and, therefore, cosmopolitanism in Haitian music. But which musical elements reflect cosmopolitanism, and what motivated a cosmopolitan style? The titles of works written during the migration waves of the 1970s and 1980s reveal ways in which the diaspora impacted Haitian composers and their music. Canadian émigré Claude Dauphin’s Quatuor d’exil, op. 3 (1975) and Haitian American composer Rudy Perrault’s “Exodus String Quartet” (premiered 2003) suggest the loss of a homeland. Nostalgia for the old country is expressed in Canadian émigré Carmen Brouard’s Duo sentimental pour violoncelle et piano (1986), Cuban émigré Martha Jean-Claude’s Nostalgie pour voix et piano, and US émigré Julio Racine’s symphony Regards (Looking back), written for the bicentennial anniversary of Haiti’s independence (2004).20 Brouard is said to have exclaimed, “Nostalgia for a dead world, one tells me? And why can’t I, too, sing my nostalgia of a dead world?”21 The romanticization of Haiti from afar may be expressed by Brouard’s Nuits sous les tonnelles d’Haïti (1969–1970), Haïti ma jolie (1985) and L’Île magique . . . Haïti (1992). If the title of Racine’s Tangente au Yanvalou (Yanvalou tangent) is translated to mean a departure or deviation using the Yanvalou rhythm, then Largey’s claim that Racine and “other composers have used this tension between Haitian and foreign musical expectations as a starting point for their own compositions” may show that this fragmentation is a characteristic of musical style common to diasporic composers.22 Haitian composers active during the 1960s–1980s share certain commonalities. Many of them experienced life under the Duvalier dictatorships, many left Haiti for residence abroad, and all were writing as access to a wide variety of musical genres had greatly expanded— in Haiti, across the Caribbean, in North America, and elsewhere. The

This content downloaded from 86.59.13.237 on Thu, 08 Jul 2021 09:55:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 42 Diana Golden postwar emphasis on modernization, cosmopolitanism, and globalization defined many musical works of this time. Rather than attempting, as Jaegerhuber and other composers prior to the 1950s had done, to define Haitian music as a commodity for its exoticism and for aspects of musical style that were unique to Haiti, Haitian composers sought to show Haitian music’s universality across cultures. Largey notes a tension in composers’ attempts to claim Haitian music as both unique and universal, however.23 Instead of turning inward toward the country’s folklore as the source of musical material, composers of the Haitian diaspora turned outward in order to promote and successfully sell musical material to foreign audiences. The Haitian musical styles that composers of the diaspora chose to present had to differ from those of Jaegerhuber’s ethnographic folk song transcriptions because their music was meant for different audiences. For instance, composer Frantz Casséus, who moved to New York in 1946 and is widely known as the father of Haitian classical guitar playing, sought to show Haitian styles through his compositions and performances, though he was also interested in incorporating Caribbean music, jazz, and European classical music into his work. Procopio writes that Casséus hoped with his music to transcend regionalism and enter the “realm of transnational art.”24 Composers who moved abroad, like Casséus, had to capture the tastes of an international market even as they represented Haitian musical styles. Largey describes this appropriation of values from other cultural groups in the diaspora as “diasporic cosmopolitanism.”25 By writing stylistically Haitian music even after emigrating or becoming exiled, Haitian composers recontextualized and recreated the experience of Haitian musical styles outside Haiti. This is not to say that the compositions of Haitians in the diaspora are any less authentically Haitian but rather that, as Trouillot argues, a number of silences (or, to Largey, tensions) in the making of history inherently occur.26 First, the spread of Haitian music-making across the diaspora cannot be tracked as a linear pattern: as composers and performers create music in different locations outside Haiti, they hold varying degrees of connection to their homeland and reflect diverse musical influences. As a result, a linear approach to constructing historical narratives is not possible. Secondly, as the making of narratives necessitates emphasizing some priorities over others, silences are involved in the making of narratives. In choosing to emphasize elements of musical style unique to Haitian music alongside aspects of style that occur across cultures, Haitian composers of the diaspora have staged the nation as both unique and universal.

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The tension between representations of Haitian music as unique and universal, national and international, and generated from internal sources but promoted to external markets may also be explained by Bohlman’s ideas on music as a means of narrating a nation. He writes:

The shear [sic] abundance of musical genres narrating the nation has increased appreciably. More styles and repertoires contain nationalist music, and more musicians—music makers, performers, national subjects actively engaged in narrating the nation through music—give voice to nationalism. Surely, one reason for the explosion of nationalism in music must be the proliferation of nationalism itself in a postcolonial age of globalisation.27

Bohlman categorizes the mixing of musical styles, the mixing of nationalities, and the tendency to project nationalism through music as products of globalization. Next, he writes of music as either political resistance or affirmation, claiming, “There is greater cause for singing for or against the nation as it provides the contexts for the lives and activities of its citizens.”28 In his analysis, narrating (or staging) the nation involves the reinvention of national music as it is recontextualized for another culture: “Music narrates the nation in hybrid forms, and musical genre moves across historical, geographical and linguistic borders, generating new processes of narration by mixing the old with the new.”29 For Bohlman, nationalist music has genres that “emphasize external [to the nation] characteristics”; moreover, “symbols of cosmopolitanism proliferate in music but generate a sense of loss,” as in Racine’s Tangente au Yanvalou and the other Haitian compositions titled to reflect nostalgia.30 Haitian composers staged the nation through cosmopolitanism, nostalgia, and promotion to foreign audiences.

Carmen Brouard (1909–2005) In her compositions, Carmen Brouard included elements of political expression and cultural tension, impressions of Haitian Vodou rhythms and pentatonic scales alongside European forms and tone rows, and an emphasis on nostalgia, fusion of styles, and other themes of the diaspora. These elements in her Duo sentimental and Contra-Folk piano trio show Brouard’s musical style as a composer of the diaspora. Though Brouard did not gain the same fame in her lifetime as Jaegerhuber or Justin Élie and though she began composing later in life, she was one of the most significant composers of Haitian art music. Of

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Haitian and German descent, Brouard was known in Haiti and later in Montreal as a virtuosic pianist, composer, and teacher of ear training, composition, and piano.31 Brouard studied piano with Élie and Émilie Price, as well as serving on the board of directors for Jaegerhuber’s Pro Arte Society.32 She first left Haiti for musical training in Paris during her childhood, then again in 1937, studying piano with Marguerite Long and earning a certificate in music theory from the Conservatoire de Paris. In 1956, Brouard returned to Paris to study composition at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique with Georges Hugon.33 She officially emigrated to Montreal in October 1977, helping to found the Société de Recherche et de Diffusion de la Musique Haïtienne (SRDMH)—which aims to promote classical music, composers, and performers of Haiti and the Caribbean—along with musicologist and composer Claude Dauphin and other proponents of Haitian music.34 Brouard wrote for piano, harp, chamber ensembles (with instrumentation including voice, violin, cello, flute, and piano), and solo instruments with orchestra.35 Duo sentimental for cello and piano (1986) and the Contra-Folk piano trio (1988) are two of her most notable works. The piano trio has been performed and recorded in Montreal with the composer’s granddaughter Diane Brouard as the pianist, while Duo sentimental was first publicly performed in 2017 and recorded in 2018 by the author on cello and Shawn Chang on piano for the album Tanbou Kache. Other prominent works include the Sonate vaudouesque for violin and piano (1965), Sonate folklorique haïtienne for violin and piano (1965), and Baron-la- Croix (1984) for solo piano and orchestra.

Political Expression in Brouard’s Music “Freedom of expression is the right and the first need of the artist.” —Carmen Brouard, program notes for Baron-la-Croix Brouard’s family was ensconced in politics and literature. Her father, Raphael Brouard, was involved in the noiriste magazine Les Griots, her husband Jean Magloire (divorced in 1938) was a government official, and her brother Carl Brouard was a prominent poet influenced by the work of Jean Price-Mars.36 In addition, the composer’s daughter Nadine Magloire is a celebrated feminist novelist in Haiti and Canada. Carmen was especially inspired by Carl’s involvement with the mouvement indigéniste to create her own mizik angaje, expressing in music what political activists expressed though literature.37 Carl’s poems served as inspiration for her Sonate vaudouesque, and his poems “Prière” and “Quand je serai mort” as texts for her song cycle Reflets d’âme.38 According to Dauphin, the “artistic

This content downloaded from 86.59.13.237 on Thu, 08 Jul 2021 09:55:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Staging the Nation through Art Music of the Haitian Diaspora 45 hope” of Négritude “has found its greatest musical realization” in Carmen Brouard’s works.39 Brouard was also influenced by the work of Frank Fouché, a Haitian writer exiled to Montreal. Her symphonic poem Baron-la-Croix was based on Fouché’s satirical play Général Baron-la-Croix (1974), which criticized Papa Doc’s dictatorship.40 Dirksen notes that Brouard’s Baron-la-Croix was not premiered until nearly thirty years after its composition because “this proved impossible for political and practical reasons.”41

Brouard’s Musical Style Dauphin classifies Brouard’s works into stylistic categories of the individual, the collective, and the universal.42 Within the “individual” style, Dauphin includes works of “intimate” settings, including song cycles, solo piano compositions, and the chamber works Deux pièces pour flûte et piano (1968) and Duo sentimental. “These are precious pieces, because they reveal all the interior universe of the composer,” Dauphin claims.43 In the “collective” style, or one representing a collective Haitian identity, Dauphin includes works such as Sonate vaudouesque, Duo sentimental, and the Contra-Folk piano trio. Dauphin depicts Brouard’s “universal” style as expressing themes of childhood, spirituality, and her adopted region of Québec.44 Brouard’s musical style ranges from referencing a collective Haitian identity (in her “collective” works) to expressing universal themes (in her “universal” and “individual” works), showing she embraced in her music both her Haitian and adopted homelands. Well versed in Haitian and European musical cultures, Brouard emphasized Haitian rhythm, folklore, and scale systems using European forms.45 The Fondation Carmen Brouard describes her musical style as having “free reign of her natural romanticism” in vocal music.46 Jean- Ronald LaFond attributes Brouard’s romanticism to her study at the Conservatoire de Paris and influence from Fauré and other European song composers.47 According to LaFond, Brouard’s songs “show an economy of material and a refined harmonic language, expertly interweaving a traditional European language with a profound knowledge of Haitian musical folk elements.”48 On the other hand, the Fondation suggests that her instrumental music highlights the contrasts between various stylistic influences: “Through rigorously classical forms and by means of the opposition between tonal system and pentatonic scale, she reinforces reflection on the color of her native island, its manner of being and its ethnic origins.”49 For Dauphin, Brouard’s music “reflected her own personal sensitivity and combined it with a Haitian national expression.”50

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Brouard drew from traditional Haitian folk music for her emphasis on rhythm. Dauphin describes this attention to rhythm as transforming “the piano into a [Haitian] drum.”51 Similarly, Procopio recognizes in Brouard’s use of rhythm the influence of Vodou, Rara, andméringue .52 The composer said, “I am always interested in Haitian rhythm, it’s a way to represent also my country. My music is romantic, folkloric and rhythmic. . . . At night the drums march.”53 In other words, Brouard’s experience of hearing the drums of distant Vodou ceremonies playing during the night led her to capture familiar rhythmic patterns in her own compositions.54 The dances that Brouard most likely heard were the quick-paced Mayi and the slower, sweeter Yanvalou, as well as the more secular Kongo, which Brouard also considered representative of Vodou.55 Dauphin does not think there is any direct relationship between Vodou dance rhythms and Brouard’s works, as she never undertook ethnographic fieldwork or became a Vodou practitioner.56 However, her music evokes the patterns of Vodou drums, and many identical rhythms appear in examples of Vodou drum patterns offered by Dauphin, Nicole Beaudry, Harold Courlander, and Gerdès Fleurant. Though Dirksen also doubts that Brouard ever attended a Vodou ceremony in person, she regards the composer’s percussive use of the piano in low registers as a means of expressing nationalist sentiment.57 Brouard treated Haitian aspects of musical style not as opportunities to portray authentic Vodou sources but as points of departure for musical impressions of Haiti. Dirksen sees Brouard’s physical distance from Haiti as allowing her space for artistic interpretations of Vodou meant for international audiences. Dirksen explains, “The vague impressions Brouard had of vodou, somehow, satisfied her nostalgia as an artist who had spent several years far from her native country: her artistic meditations, inspired by vodou, permitted her to define her native country in a presentable way in front of the international community.”58 Identifying the Vodou dances from which particular rhythms derive is more complicated than simply identifying rhythmic patterns; Dauphin notes regional differences and ornamentation as additional factors to consider in categorizing Vodou dance rhythms.59 One syncopated rhythm that appears frequently in Brouard’s Contra-Folk trio is shown in bars 2, 5–8, 10, 12, and 18–20 of Musical Example 1, Courlander’s transcription of rhythms performed by banda drums. The same pattern appears in bars 1 and 4 of Musical Example 2, an example of a Kongo from Dauphin. In Fleurant’s example of a Kongo, Musical Example 3, this rhythmic pattern appears on the third beat of each bar.

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Musical Example 1. From Harold Courlander, The Drum and the Hoe, 209. Selection of music transcribed by Mieczyslaw Kolinski from recordings made by Harold Courlander in Haiti. Copyright 1960, 1988 by Harold Courlander. Reprinted by permission of The Emma Courlander Trust

Musical Example 2. An example of a Kongo. Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 92.

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Musical Example 3. Another example of a Kongo. From Gerdès Fleurant, “The Ethnomusicology of Yanvalou,” 54. Reprinted with permission

Another rhythm that appears frequently in the Contra-Folk trio as well as in Brouard’s Baron-la-Croix is identified by Dirksen as deriving from the Ibo dance.60 But Beaudry suggests the rhythmic pattern has a Zarinyin derivation, and Dauphin uses the pattern to show an example of a Kongo. Musical Examples 4 and 5 show variations of a pattern found frequently in Brouard’s trio, which is categorized by Beaudry in Musical Example 6 as a rhythmic cell (or unit) from the Zarinyin dance. In Musical Example 7, Dauphin categorizes the same rhythm as deriving from a Kongo fran dance. Associating rhythms with the Vodou dances from which they derive is not straightforward, as many dances share similar rhythmic patterns. However, excerpts of rhythmic patterns from Vodou dances can show how Haitian classical compositions may have been informed by the Vodou rhythms that the composers heard.

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Musical Example 4. Piano’s left hand in bars 48–50 of Brouard’s Dolce y Cantabile from the Contra-Folk trio. Excerpts from Brouard’s works reprinted with permission

Musical Example 5. Bar 19 of the Rondalette of Brouard’s Contra- Folk trio.

Musical Example 6. Nicole Beaudry classifies the same rhythm as deriving from the Zarinyin dance. Beaudry, “Le Langage des tambours dans la cérémonie Vaudou haïtienne,” 129, http:// id.erudit.org/iderudit/1013900ar, DOI: 10.7202/1013900ar. Reprinted with permission

Musical Example 7. The Ogan performs the same rhythmic pattern in the Kongo fran. From Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 67. Reprinted with permission

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Cultural Tensions Brouard is truly a composer of the diaspora, having straddled the musical cultures of Canada, her adopted homeland; Haiti, her native country; and France, where she received her compositional training. As a result, her music expresses tensions arising from cultural differences. Dauphin points out that in Brouard’s representation of the classic sonata form, one theme is “European and romantic” in feel, with “well-defined tonal cadences,” while the contrasting theme is of “ambivalent tonality,” using pentatonic scales and rhythms suggestive of the mouvements folklorique and indigène.61 Dauphin understands this tension within the “two-themed polarization of the classic sonata form” in Brouard’s works as symbolic of the “dramatic opposition of the tragic bringing together of the West and Africa.”62 He explains that Brouard was inspired by successful musicians of multiracial backgrounds in the Americas, and she was especially interested in showing representations of cultural opposition.63 In fact, the composer may have embedded a reference to cultural tensions in the title of the Contra-Folk piano trio. “Contre” means “against,” “in opposition with,” and “in exchange for” in French, and “fighting” in Creole.64 While Brouard was committed to carrying on the tradition of Haitian mizik savant, her interest in the meeting and clashing of cultures would likely have reflected her experience (shared by a generation of composers as well as their target audiences) as a Haitian expatriate. I read the title to mean that the culture of her adopted homeland is “in opposition with” that of Haiti, and that elements of musical style within the same piece are in tension with one another, alongside tension created by the insertion of Haitian folk rhythms from a Vodou context into a classical idiom and the fusion of Haitian and other cultural influences. Dauphin sees universal appeal (or diasporic cosmopolitanism) in Brouard’s “expressive force and modernity” from “the importance accorded to rhythm and timbre, making comparable the roles of the melody and the harmony.”65

Duo sentimental Duo sentimental is significant not only as a representation of Brouard’s compositional style but also as a major work for cello in the Haitian art music repertoire, deserving of further analysis and performance. The composition shows many of the stylistic elements described by Dauphin, Françoise Forest, LaFond, and Dirksen. The title of the work expresses at times a sentimental duo, with Cantabile, Lento y dolce, and Amoroso sections, and at other times dueling sentiments, with sudden interruptions by Agitato or Animato sections, climaxing in a harmonically unstable Vivace

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Figure 1. Carmen Brouard’s dedication for Duo sentimental section before a singing return to the opening tempo. The contrasting sections may reflect the fragmentation of the diaspora, opposing sentiments of nostalgia and political or cultural turmoil, and the “tragic bringing together of the West and Africa,” or they may mirror simpler conflicts.66 In Brouard’s dedication of the piece to her student Regis Belanger (Figure 1), she indicates that the piece was inspired by a particular time in his life, perhaps one of uncertainty or struggle.67 Duo sentimental is folkloric in its use of pentatonic scales, which— although Brouard uses them unconventionally—are characteristic of Haitian folk music. While many composers use anhemitonic pentatonic scale patterns (without half-steps, also known as semitones), Brouard employs chromatic pentatonic scale patterns; it is clear that her use of pentatonicism is deliberate as well as unusual, since these patterns occur at least fourteen times in this ninety-four-bar work.68 Many of these pentatonic scale patterns are not only less common hemitonic (with one or more semitones) pentatonic scale patterns; they also contain two semitones rather than just one. This would be unlikely to occur without design. Musical Examples 8 through 12 show Brouard’s use of pentatonic scales in Duo sentimental. Pentatonic scale patterns begin in the Agitato section, bars 21–22, with an A, F♯, C♯, E, and E♯ (see Musical Example 8); this series contains two semitones and a minor triad when ordered from smallest to largest intervals (A, F , C , E, and E is reordered to become E, E , F , A, 69 ♯ ♯ ♯ ♯ ♯ and C♯). The piano responds in bars 23–24 with an A, F♯, B, D, and D♯, lowering the last three pitches by a whole step. The pentatonic scale pattern of bars 21–22 returns in bars 25–26 (see Musical Example 9), with

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all pitches lowered by a fourth. As in Musical Example 8, the reordered hemitonic pentatonic scale pattern of Musical Example 9 contains two semitones and a minor triad (E, C♯, G♯, B, and C becomes B, C, C♯, E, and G♯). The next iteration of a chromatic pentatonic scale appears in bars 31–33, transposed down a major third from the previous statement (see Musical Example 10). Here, too, the reordered hemitonic pentatonic scale pattern contains two semitones and a minor triad (C, A, E, G, and A♭ becomes G, A♭, A, C, and E).

Musical Example 8. Bars 21–22 of Duo sentimental, with a hemitonic pentatonic scale of two semitones and a minor triad in the cello line (E, E♯, F♯, A, and C♯)

Musical Example 9. Bars 25–26 of Duo sentimental, with a hemitonic pentatonic scale of two semitones and a minor triad in the cello line (B, C, C♯, E, and G♯)

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Musical Example 10. Bars 31–33 of Duo sentimental, with a hemitonic pentatonic scale pattern of two semitones and a minor triad in the cello part (G, A♭, A, C, and E), with augmentation of the five-note theme as the harmonic rhythm slows and the tempo changes from Agitato to Lento y dolce

Musical Example 11. A pentatonic scale pattern again undergoes motivic development, with rhythmic diminution and transposition down a third, in bars 70–71 of Duo sentimental. This is one of the few hemitonic pentatonic scale patterns containing two semitones followed by a major triad (E♭, E, F, A, and C), marking an important cadence that begins the final section of the piece.

Musical Example 12. Brouard’s Duo sentimental, bar 75. Brouard may be using the quintuplet here to make an association between the five-note quintuplet of the Haitian méringue and the five-note pentatonic scale patterns used in Haitian folk music.

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Even as Brouard expresses her Haitian heritage through pentatonic scales in Duo sentimental, she simultaneously expresses the cosmopolitan trend of atonality. While it is somewhat obscured by tonal harmonizations of augmented and minor chords, Brouard uses a twelve-tone row at the first entrance of the cello, in bars 1–10 (Musical Example 13). A twelve- tone row occurs when a composer uses all twelve pitches of the chromatic scale before repeating any one pitch.

Musical Example 13. Brouard’s Duo sentimental, bars 2–10, first twelve-tone row

The retrograde transposition of the tone row down a semitone follows in bars 11–20 (Musical Example 14). The numbers illustrating the placement of each note in the row are shifted down by one, and the second row begins from the last note of the previous row (12 becomes 11, 9 becomes 8, 4 becomes 3, etc.). Brouard does more than establish her proficiency with both Western- based serialism and Haitian pentatonic scales. She goes further by combining the two compositional techniques. The intervallic pattern seen in the first five notes of the second tone row (Musical Example 15) then appears in each pentatonic scale (Musical Example 16).

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Musical Example 14. Bars 11–20 contain the second tone row of Duo sentimental, with the retrograde transposition of the first tone row.

Musical Example 15. Bars 11–13 of Duo sentimental, five-note intervallic pattern in second tone row. This pentatonic scale pattern is hemitonic with two semitones and a minor triad (when reordered by interval size from C♭, A♭, E♭, G♭, and G to G♭, G, A♭, C♭, and E♭).

Musical Example 16. Bars 21–22 of Duo sentimental, with an intervallic pattern of the first five notes of the second tone row (bars 11–13), transposed an augmented sixth, with the third note inverted down the octave

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The minor triad and rhythm of bars 11–13 appear (altered by motivic development) throughout the piece, becoming a secondary theme to the pentatonic passages. Brouard especially uses F♯, G, A♭, A, and A♯ minor triads (Musical Examples 17–19).

Musical Example 17. Bars 11–12 of Duo sentimental, A♭ minor triad, during the expansive Cantabile section

Musical Example 18. Bar 35 of Duo sentimental, A♯ minor triad, during the Animato section with faster harmonic rhythm

Musical Example 19. Bar 62 of Duo sentimental, Poco a poco animato leading to the Vivace with an A minor triad in rhythmic diminution and an accelerated harmonic rhythm

The Amoroso section is the first time the theme of the minor triad is paired with the theme of the pentatonic scale pattern. The hemitonic pentatonic scale pattern (G, A, C, E, and F) in the cello part has only one semitone (bar 49). The piano part responds with a hemitonic pentatonic scale pattern with only one semitone (G, A♭, C, E♭, F) in bar 53, while flowing triplets in the piano’s left hand help to sustain the soaring melodic line above. Elements from the atonal twelve-tone row, tonal minor triad, and pentatonic scale are brought together for the first time harmoniously at the Amoroso, beginning at bar 48 (Musical Example 20).

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Musical Example 20. Duo sentimental, Amoroso, bars 48–56. Minor triads alternate with pentatonic scale patterns, with the melody alternately played by the cello and the piano’s right hand while the piano’s left hand plays an expressive ostinato (or “Haitian drum”) of triplets.

In the last section of the piece, the second twelve-tone row of bars 11–20 is embellished and augmented in bars 77–90 (Musical Example 21). In using twelve-tone rows and pentatonic scales together, Brouard references her dual identities as both a Haitian and cosmopolitan composer participating in the diaspora. Though cultural tension is expressed with the contrasting sections of Duo sentimental, ultimately, Brouard weaves the musical elements of style together harmoniously to reference multicultural influences.

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Musical Example 21. Duo sentimental, bars 77–90, displaying embellishment and augmentation of the second tone row from bars 11–20

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Contra-Folk Piano Trio Brouard’s Contra-Folk trio (1988) shows the composer’s use of pentatonicism and call-and-response figures as well as a shifting meter, syncopation, and fragmentation of the melody. The fragmentation and changing meter represent diasporic themes of loss and abstraction, while call-and- response, syncopation, and pentatonicism may have influences from Vodou ceremonies, Haitian popular music, and jazz. Simultaneously, the Contra-Folk trio’s strict compositional forms have European origins. These elements of musical style show Brouard’s priorities as a Haitian composer navigating the diaspora. The Contra-Folk trio is striking for its ostinatos of rhythmic patterns resembling those used in Vodou ceremonies, found throughout the piano part in each of the three movements—Dolce y Cantabile, Rondalette, and Pastorale. Changing rhythmic patterns and textures mark new sections in this episodically structured composition. Dauphin calls the Contra-Folk trio the “most audacious and most complex of all works by Carmen Brouard,” comparing it stylistically to compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich and Olivier Messiaen.70 The Contra-Folk trio is more tonal than Duo sentimental, with each movement adhering to stricter forms, including sonata form with a minimally related and episodic development (ABCAB), rondo form (ABAʹCAʹ), and binary form (ABAʹ), respectively. Throughout the work, Brouard uses pentatonic scales and call-and-response figures between the piano and strings (Musical Example 22). As seen in Musical Example 23, the pentatonic scale of C, D♭, E♭, F, and G is used in bar 1 of the Dolce y Cantabile. Also in the Dolce y Cantabile, the meter alternates between 5/4 and 4/4 with each new musical section, while in the Rondalette, the meter alternates between 3/4 and 4/4.71 In the Rondalette, each time the primary theme returns, it is developed by transposition or altered rhythms, including syncopation and fragmentation of the melody (Musical Examples 24 and 25). The movement ends with a skeletal abstraction of the original melody, with reminders of mere key pitches within the melodic contour. In the Pastorale, the meter alternates between 12/8 and 4/4, beginning and ending with a rhythmically swaying chromatic theme notable for its modal melodies in the middle section. Brouard may have aimed to delineate cultural tension with the Contra-Folk trio through contrasting musical sections, or cultural dichotomy in the juxtaposition of Western forms with Haitian rhythms and pentatonic scales.

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Musical Example 22. Contra-Folk, Dolce y Cantabile, bars 51–53: call-and-response

Musical Example 23. Carmen Brouard, Contra-Folk, bar 1 of Dolce y Cantabile: Pentatonic scale of C, D♭, E♭, F, and G

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Musical Example 24. Primary theme of Contra-Folk’s Rondalette, bars 1–3

Musical Example 25. By the last statement of the Rondalette’s primary theme, the melody is an abstraction of the original. Contra- Folk, Rondalette, bars 78–80.

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Brouard Staging the Nation Brouard staged the nation in a number of ways. Most importantly, she (along with Dauphin and other Haitian music enthusiasts) created an archive, shaping a national narrative of Haitian music through the SRDMH. Brouard’s work in establishing the archive has ensured a physical place of recognition for herself and other Haitian composers. In Trouillot’s theories of power and the production of history, archives constitute “the moment of fact assembly,” in which silences “enter the process of historical production,” along with silences that also enter the processes of making sources, narratives, and history. According to Trouillot, power “makes some narratives possible and silences others.”72 Though Brouard was one of the most accomplished Haitian composers of her generation, as a female composer born in 1909, she also experienced silences in the “moment of retrospective significance,” or what Trouillot calls the “making of history in the final instance.”73 Despite her longevity and generous musical output, working until her death at ninety-six years of age, Brouard’s work is examined in depth by only a few scholars: Procopio, Dirksen, and Dauphin; her longtime friend Françoise Forest; and the Fondation Carmen Brouard. Dirksen explains,

As a composer, Brouard has been overshadowed by the likes of Occide Jeanty, Justin Elie, Ludovic Lamothe, and Werner Jaegerhuber, for complex and interconnected reasons. These reasons include her gender, her reputation as primarily a music instructor and consummate performer, and the facts that she took up composing at a comparatively advanced age and that almost none of her compositions have been formally published, leaving few individuals with access to her scores.74

Brouard’s music is cosmopolitan, often conveys a sense of loss, and is presented to an international audience. In addition, she staged the nation through her successful negotiation and expression of cultural tensions, as a composer of the diaspora situated in several different cultures. She did this by incorporating atonality and classical forms into her works while simultaneously showing distinctly Haitian aspects of musical style, including rhythms evocative of Vodou and pentatonic scales. Brouard also staged the nation by engaging in politics through her music. She showed solidarity with exiled writer Frank Fouché in basing her Baron-la-Croix on his politically critical play of the same title. She was also inspired by Carl Brouard’s engagement in the Négritude movement, using his poetry as song texts for her own mizik angaje.

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As a composer of the diaspora, Brouard staged the nation through her vision of what Haitian music should represent. This vision is one in which Vodou rhythms are evoked but not transcribed directly from Vodou ceremonies, and Haitian politics may be criticized with art music as the medium. She created Haitian music for international audiences, with strictly wrought compositional techniques of twelve-tone rows and hemitonic pentatonic scale patterns alongside universal themes of romanticism, nostalgia, and contrasts depicting cultural tensions. In her work to establish the SRDMH, Brouard helped to stage the nation by documenting it—through the archiving of Haitian musical compositions and performances.

Brouard’s Legacy The breadth and quality of the artistic contributions Brouard made to Haitian art music over many decades firmly establish her as one of the most significant Haitian composers of any era. She was described by LaFond as “the most accomplished Haitian composer until [her death]” and by Dauphin as “the figurehead of all Haitian musical creation of the second half of the twentieth century.”75 Her work in helping to establish the SRDMH is one of Brouard’s greatest legacies, and her artistic contributions within the Haitian diaspora were recognized by the Prix Sylvio Cator of 1999.76 Brouard worried about her legacy, telling a friend, “My music will sleep for a long time but, perhaps, some day, a charming prince, loving color, [will] give her the kiss that will make her live.”77 Future performances of Brouard’s compositions, as well as the dissemination and study of the Haitian music held at the SRDMH, will continue to shape the composer’s legacy.

Julio Racine (b. 1945) The compositions of Julio Racine also contain elements of musical style that are representative of the diaspora. Racine’s music fuses together a variety of styles from Haitian folkloric music to jazz and art music, featuring rhythms from Vodou ceremonies, syncopation from jazz, and Haitian méringue rhythms. Frequent meter changes as well as ambiguous form and tonality represent the diasporic themes of abstraction, nostalgia, and fragmentation. Chromaticism, pentatonicism, and modes are also common in Racine’s music. The following analysis of Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia examines these elements of style. Born in Port-au-Prince, Racine studied at the Conservatoire Nationale de Musique d’Haïti, which was founded in 1954 under the government of Paul Magloire.78 Racine studied flute with Depestre Salnave, with whom

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Jaegerhuber often collaborated, and piano and theory with composer Solon Verret.79 Racine earned his degree in composition from the University of Louisville, studying flute with Francis Fuge and composition with Nelson Keyes, before returning to Haiti to teach flute and conduct the Orchestre Philharmonique de Sainte-Trinité for almost thirty years.80 Racine remained active as a flute and chamber music recitalist in Haiti.81 As Procopio recounts, Racine left Haiti for Louisville, Kentucky, in 2001 due to health reasons and the political atmosphere in Haiti at the time.82 In 2012–2013, Racine and Karine Margron produced a series of pedagogical materials called Chansons d’Haïti folkloriques, traditionnelles et classiques.83 Through publishing arrangements of traditional folk songs and classical works, Racine aims to document and share the heritage of Haitian music with future generations.84 In addition to his renown as a dedicated pedagogue, Racine is also considered one of the most prominent living Haitian composers. Claiming Jaegerhuber as “a profound influence” on his philosophy of “creating fundamentally Haitian music,” Racine wrote chamber music for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, organ, and piano, as well as works for solo piano, orchestra, solo clarinet and orchestra, and brass sextet.85 He has also arranged numerous vocal, instrumental, and orchestral works by Haitian composers.86 Important works include Concertino for clarinet and orchestra; Regards (Looking back) for orchestra; String Quartets nos. 1 and 2; Sonate à Cynthia for cello and piano; Missa Brevis for soprano, alto, cello, and organ; Sonate Vodou Jazz for flute and piano; and Tangente au Yanvalou for flute/violin and piano.

Racine’s Musical Style Influenced by Haitian popular, folkloric, and art music as well as jazz, Racine’s compositions are driven by rhythm. Viewing Jaegerhuber’s contributions to Haitian art music as occurring within “the melodic aspect,” Racine feels rhythm is his own contribution in “picking up the torch after him.”87 Like Brouard, Racine recontextualizes Vodou rhythms and melodies as abstractions rather than direct transcriptions. His Tangente au Yanvalou uses Yanvalou rhythms, while Sonate Vodou Jazz uses Kongo rhythms.88 Sonate à Cynthia uses Petro, Ibo, and Nago rhythms.89 “Just like my other compositions,” Racine writes, the Sonate à Cynthia “is about rhythmic developments.”90 The piece was written in honor of the composer’s daughter Cynthia, and inspired by his imaginings of “local dancers executing a folk choreography.”91 Racine defies listener expectations through chromaticism, meter changes, additional or fewer beats in established rhythmic patterns,

This content downloaded from 86.59.13.237 on Thu, 08 Jul 2021 09:55:21 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Staging the Nation through Art Music of the Haitian Diaspora 65 ambiguous form, and fragmented melodies.92 For instance, while the first appearance of the theme is a simple melody in 6/8 (Musical Example 26), the melodic material undergoes meter and key changes and eventually evolves into fragments of the original theme (Musical Example 27). Largey claims that Racine and other Haitian composers of the diaspora treat Vodou music “in increasingly abstract ways.”93 In Tangente au Yanvalou in particular, Racine explains, the ending “leaves the listener with an undefined question—a false nostalgia; [the final note] in the flute fades away like something escaping into the silence of space.”94 Nostalgia is even included as a performance indication (“nostalgic”) for Racine’s Sonate Vodou Jazz.95 Dauphin describes Racine’s style as modern, imaginative, and eclectic, marked by modal scales, dissonance, and syncopated rhythms.96 Nostalgia and abstraction of melodies are elements of diasporic music common to a number of composers who had left Haiti.

Musical Example 26. The opening of the flute part for Racine’s Tangente au Yanvalou, with a simple 6/8 melody. Excerpts from Racine’s works reprinted with permission

Musical Example 27. Bars 41–47 of the flute part from Racine’s Tangente au Yanvalou. Meter and key changes disrupt the expectations for the melody that were set at the beginning of the piece.

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Sonate à Cynthia Written for his daughter, Dr. Cynthia Racine, Principal Cellist of the Symphony Orchestra of Brooklyn, this sonata is in three movements: Allegro Spirito, Cantilena, and Allegro. Pentatonic scales are featured in this composition, beginning with a scale of F, G, B♭, C, and D in the opening theme of the first movement (Musical Example 28). Scale patterns such as this one show Racine’s stylistic preference for the pentatonicism characteristic of Haitian folk music.

Musical Example 28. A pentatonic scale of F, G, B♭, C, and D appears in bars 1–4 of the Allegro Spirito in Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia.

Modes also feature prominently in the work, especially in the first and second movements. Racine’s harmonic language deemphasizes the major and minor dichotomy of Western classical music to instead suggest folk music idioms. The Allegro Spirito uses C and B♭ Mixolydian, and in the Cantilena, shown in Musical Example 29, the key alternates between D Dorian and D harmonic minor, though key changes are made with accidentals, as the key signature reflects no sharps or flats. According to Racine, while the cello part clearly establishes the key of D harmonic minor with a B♭ and C♯, the tonal ambiguity resulting from B naturals and the major second between C and D in the piano part holds the listener’s interest.97 A similar ambiguity occurs from the mixture of B♭ and B natural in the Animé of the Cantilena, shown in Musical Example 30. The pentatonic scale of B, C, D, E♭, and G continues to alternate with that of B♭, C, D, E♭, and G until the Tempo Primo at bar 46. In the Allegro, though

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Musical Example 29. Bars 1–11 of the Cantilena in Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia. The key signature shows A minor, while the melody begins in D Dorian. The shift from B natural to B flat changes the key to D minor. modes occur less frequently, Racine uses less conventional intervals such as augmented seconds and thirds and diminished fourths. Just as Racine challenges listeners’ expectations with meter changes in Tangente au Yanvalou, the third movement of Sonate à Cynthia also subverts expectations regarding the return of the primary theme through frequent meter changes, seen in Musical Examples 31 and 32. Because of frequent meter changes and tonal ambiguity, all three movements of Sonate à Cynthia are notable for “a false sense of a tonal center” and “a feeling of tension all through until you reach the last chord.”98

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Musical Example 30. Bars 32–46 of the Cantilena in Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia. B natural alternates with B flat, causing mode mixture.

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Musical Example 31. Original statement of the Allegro’s primary theme in 2/4, bars 1–4. Racine, Sonate à Cynthia.

Musical Example 32. Bars 45–52 of the Allegro in Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia. Return of primary theme with frequent meter changes, challenging expectations for conventional recapitulation.

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Vodou rhythms from the Ibo, Petro, and Yanvalou traditions are present in Sonate à Cynthia. One particularly prevalent rhythm throughout the first movement resembles the Ibo pattern, shown in Musical Example 33.99 An ostinato played by the piano’s right hand through much of the third movement uses the rhythm of the Haitian méringue (Musical Example 34). The notation Racine uses to show the Haitian performance practice of the méringue is the syncopated quintuplet rather than five even notes, in keeping with the notational practices of Théramène Ménès over those of Jeanty and Etienne Constantin Eugène Moïse Dumervé.

Musical Example 33. Allegro Spirito of Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia. The Ibo rhythm first appears in the bar 5 of the cello part and bars 9 and 10 in the right hand of the piano.

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Musical Example 34. The méringue rhythm is shown in the right hand of the piano, bars 31–36.

In an excerpt of Petro drum rhythms shared by Racine (Musical Example 35), it is clear that the méringue rhythm is also used in Petro traditional dance. The pattern in the second voice of the “Petro Raboday” excerpt resembles the rhythm at the opening of Sonate à Cynthia. Even where the Sonate incorporates eighth note anacruses, in both cases, the accent falls on the first, fourth, and seventh sixteenth notes (Musical Example 36). The same Petro rhythmic figure appears often with theméringue rhythm in the third movement, as seen in Musical Example 37. Vodou rhythms cannot be represented in full by one melodic line; in Vodou ceremonies, many traditional dances are comprised of polyrhythms performed by an ensemble of percussion instruments, accompanied by singing from the oungan (priest or priestess). Racine explains that although his orchestral works use Haitian rhythms in a more complete form, the Vodou rhythms used for his chamber music are in a modular form, or short rhythmic cells isolated from the context of cross-rhythms within a larger score.100 In other words, a chamber music setting with only two players does not capture the complexity of the polyrhythms in a full score of percussion instruments used for a traditional Vodou ceremony, but Racine offers a representation of those rhythms.

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Musical Example 35. Excerpt from Racine’s “Petro Raboday,” bars 9–16. The méringue rhythm is played here by the third voice of the Petro drum pattern.

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Musical Example 36. At the opening of Racine’s Sonate à Cynthia, the piano part emphasizes a dotted eighth note followed by a tied note. The rhythmic emphasis on the first, fourth, and seventh sixteenth notes of the bar continues in the cello melody, bars 5–8, before returning to the piano part in bar 12.

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Musical Example 37. Bars 21–23 of the Allegro Spirito of Sonate à Cynthia. The méringue rhythm is in the piano’s right hand in bars 21 and 23, while the Petro rhythm is in the cello melody in bar 22.

Racine Staging the Nation Racine’s achievements as a Haitian conductor, flutist, and pedagogue are noteworthy. As a composer, he is known for his works for orchestra and chamber ensemble, as well as for his stylistic contributions of chromaticism, rhythmic development of Vodou rhythms, and jazz influences. Racine incorporates pentatonic scales into his works not simply because this stylistic element is considered “Haitian.” He believes that pentatonicism “has a certain universality,” as it is “common to all Folklore on the planet and was used intensely by the slaves from Africa.”101 The presence of pentatonic scales in Racine’s compositions is thus an appeal to an imagined universality invoked by Racine and many Haitian composers of the diaspora. As for his approach to rhythm, Racine stages the nation by developing rhythms from traditional Vodou contexts into modern settings, posing questions such as “What was the rhythm like in the past, what form does it take today, and what could it evolve into in the future[?]”102 Racine has asserted that his compositions contain “no political influence whatsoever.” However, his compositions do make a statement of cosmopolitanism, presenting aspects of Haitian style that are universal and accessible to listeners interested in the fusion of jazz, Haitian folkloric music, and art music.103

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Conclusion

Contemporary Haitian Music A number of other composers trained and influenced by the previous generation currently work to carry on the tradition of Haitian mizik savant. In addition to Dauphin’s responsibilities with the SRDMH and his work as a musicologist and professor, he is well established as one of the most significant living Haitian composers. Composer Jean Rudy Perrault, a violinist and professor at the University of Minnesota, also performs and records Haitian chamber music. Sydney Guillaume, based in Los Angeles, often conducts choirs performing Haitian music, including his own compositions. Based in Montreal, Gifrants (also known as Guy Frantz) composes for orchestra, voice, guitar, and cello. Paris-based guitarist and ethnomusicologist Amos Coulanges composes for voice, guitar, and chamber ensembles. Violinist and composer Daniel Bernard Roumain of New York writes and performs music for violin, violin and orchestra, and string chamber ensembles. Classical and jazz pianist David Bontemps of Montreal writes for string orchestra, chamber ensembles, voice, and piano.104 Many other rising Haitian composers are also working to continue the traditions of Jaegerhuber, Brouard, Racine, and others. Music education in Haiti is extremely active, with over a dozen national music schools. Year-round instruction is offered, providing opportunities to perform in small and large ensembles, musical tours, intensive summer camps, and youth programs, run through the Orchestras of the Americas. Interest in performing Haitian music continues to increase as organizations dedicated to Haitian music share performances and recordings. The SRDMH regularly hosts concerts and scholarly lectures, searches for and procures unpublished works, and maintains one of the largest existing archives of Haitian music. The performance presentations and recordings of Crossing Borders in Chicago, established by Tom Clowes, and ZAMA (Zanmi Ansanm Mizik Ayiti), established in Haiti by Mary Procopio, Rebecca Dirksen, Ann Weaver, and Tom Clowes, have greatly increased awareness of Haitian art music.105 The nonprofit organization BLUME Haiti (Building Leaders Using Music Education) uses music education to aid in Haiti’s social and economic development.106 Its president, cellist Janet Anthony, spreads interest in Haitian classical music through performances and pedagogy, having taught and brought others to teach music in Haiti every summer since 1996. However, many compositions at the SRDMH archive have not been performed outside Haiti; in some cases, they have not been premiered at all. Few

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Further Study The study of Haitian art music has much to offer musicologists, performers, and scholars in a variety of research areas. Haitian art music history offers many topics for further study, including the appropriation of European and folkloric dance, musical representations of Vodou and folklore, postcolonial cultural ideology, musical engagement of the diaspora, music as sociopolitical resistance, and the interconnected trajectories of music, art, literature, and philosophy. Saint-Domingue was the first Black republic and the first former colony composed primarily of freed slaves. As a result, Haiti shows a unique relationship between nationhood and the representation of a nation through music. Examples of how composers and performers may participate in shaping the historical narrative of a nation can be viewed in the works of Carmen Brouard, Julio Racine, and others. Composers, scholars, and performers will continue to break the silences in the making of Haiti’s historical narrative, staging the nation through sound and echoing for the next generation.

Notes Acknowledgments: I am grateful to Janet Anthony, Tom Clowes, Michael Courlander and the Emma Courlander Trust, Claude Dauphin and the SRDMH, Rebecca Dirksen, Gerdès Fleurant, Françoise Forest, Karen Fournier and MusCan, Christine Gangelhoff, Robert Grenier, Jean-Claude Nazon, Mary Procopio, and Julio Racine for encouraging my research and helping to provide source material. Many thanks to Gregory Williams, Adele Golden, and especially Eduardo Herrera, for their valuable critical insights. Lastly, thank you to Rose Elfman and the Journal of Haitian Studies. 1 Quoted in Berger, Eriksonas, and Mycock, Narrating the Nation, 253. 2 Trouillot, Silencing the Past, 26. 3 Averill, “Anraje to Angaje,” 222. See also Coupeau, The History of Haiti, 88. 4 Mintz and Trouillot, “The Social History of Haitian Vodou,” 145. See also Simmons, “The Voice of Ginen,” 165; Yih, “Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou,” 113–114. 5 Yih, “Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou,” 113–114. 6 Ibid., 116.

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7 Averill, “Anraje to Angaje,” 225–228. 8 Ibid., 228. 9 Ibid., 229. 10 Ibid., 230. 11 Ibid., 234. 12 See Roberts, Black Music of Two Worlds, 148–150; Gerstin, “Foreword,” ix–x. 13 Manuel, Bilby, and Largey, Caribbean Currents, 136–137. 14 Ibid., 136. 15 LaFond, A Guide to the Latin American Art Song Repertoire, 168. 16 Ibid., 18–19. See also Manuel, Bilby, and Largey, Caribbean Currents, 136–137; Brandon Lindsey, “Werner Jaegerhuber’s Messe Folklorique Haitienne”; Coupeau, The History of Haiti, 89–96; Averill, “Anraje to Angaje,” 235; Troper, “Immigration in Canada.” While the United States initially supported the Duvalier dictatorship in order to remain allied with Haiti during the socialist revolution in Cuba, the Carter administration supported activists and the reestablishment of the rule of law. Under the Reagan administration, the United States favored Cuban immigration and discouraged Haitian immigration, conditioning economic aid to Haiti on restrictions for Haitian immigration. Meanwhile, in Canada, immigration law was reformed in 1971 to accept all without discriminating by race and ethnicity, though those who spoke the language and proved their skill in a field were given priority. In 1978, Canada’s new Immigration Act “affirmed Canada’s commitment to the resettlement of refugees from oppression” (Troper, “Immigration in Canada”). 17 For more information on Jaegerhuber’s contributions to Haitian art music, see Largey, Vodou Nation. 18 Quoted in Grenier, “La Mélodie Vaudoo,” 67. 19 Largey, “Musical Ethnography in Haiti,” 197. 20 Singer and composer Martha Jean-Claude, known for her songs of political resistance, was exiled to Cuba in 1952. 21 Fondation Carmen Brouard, “Ma rencontre avec Carmen Brouard,” translation mine. 22 Largey, “Musical Ethnography in Haiti,” 198. 23 Ibid. See also Largey, “Ethnographic Transcription and Music Ideology in Haiti,” 2. 24 Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence,” 63–65. 25 Largey, Vodou Nation, 18: “Diasporic cosmopolitanism describes the process by which Haitians and African American elites deliberately adopt values associated with intellectuals from African, African American, and Caribbean cultures.” 26 Trouillot, Silencing the Past, 26.

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27 Quoted in Berger, Eriksonas, and Mycock, Narrating the Nation, 258. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard.” 32 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 238, 293. 33 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard.” 34 Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence,” 80. According to SRDMH president Jean-Claude Nazon, Frank Fouché, Robert Durand, and Claude Dauphin “launched the idea of a society to search and research for Haitian Art music and to produce concerts,” established a board over two years, and created the SRDMH (email to author, December 5, 2017). Besides Carmen Brouard, the composers present were Edouard Woolley, Claude Dauphin, and four others. 35 Ibid. See also Dirksen, “Baron la Croix,” 68–71, and entry for Carmen Brouard in Catalogue of Scores by Société de Recherche et de Diffusion de la Musique Haïtienne. 36 Kreyolicious, “Nadine Magloire.” 37 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard,” 415. 38 Dirksen, “Baron la Croix,” 69, 72. 39 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 278, translation mine. 40 See Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard,” 415; Dirksen, “Baron la Croix,” 76. 41 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard,” 415. 42 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 276. 43 Ibid., translation mine. 44 Ibid., 277–278. 45 “Form” refers to the structure of a musical composition. 46 Fondation Carmen Brouard, “Notice bipgraphique [sic] de Carmen Brouard,” translation mine. 47 LaFond, A Guide to the Latin American Art Song Repertoire, 168. 48 Ibid. 49 Fondation Carmen Brouard, “Notice bipgraphique [sic] de Carmen Brouard,” translation mine. 50 Quoted in Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence in Haiti,” 80. 51 Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence in Haiti,” 80, citing her translation of Claude Dauphin, “Compositrice haitienne, Carmen Brouard’s eteint a Montreal a 96 ans,” Le Matin (Port-au-Prince) and Haiti-Tribune (Paris).

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52 Ibid. 53 Carmen Brouard, quoted in ibid. The quote is from September 6, 1986, the year Duo sentimental was composed. 54 Email conversation with Claude Dauphin, January 15, 2017. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Dirksen, “Baron la Croix,” 72. 58 Ibid., 75, translation mine. 59 Email conversation with Claude Dauphin, January 15, 2017. 60 Courlander, The Drum and the Hoe, 73. 61 A pentatonic scale is a collection of five pitches spread across an octave, usually without semitones. Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 278, translation mine. 62 Ibid., translation mine. 63 Ibid. 64 There is no evidence of Brouard using the Spanish spelling of contre rather than the French to convey an alternate meaning. Perhaps this is a reference to the contra-dance brought to France from England, and subsequently, the contredanse brought to Haiti from France, which was danced in Haiti until the US Occupation, when it was replaced by the American two-step and one-step, according to Yih, “Music and Dance of Haitian Vodou,” 429–442. 65 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 279, translation mine. 66 Ibid., 278, translation mine. 67 Conversation with Claude Dauphin, March 12, 2016. 68 “Chromatic” refers to notes outside the diatonic scale of the key. 69 An interval is the distance between two notes. “Intervallic” is the adjective pertaining to intervals. A minor triad is a chord containing the root, minor third, and perfect fifth. 70 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 277, translation mine. 71 A meter is a grouping of beats into a pattern of emphases. 72 Trouillot, Silencing the Past, 26, 25. 73 Ibid. 74 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard,” 415. 75 LaFond, 167; Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 279, translation mine. 76 Dirksen, “Carmen Brouard,” 415. 77 Fondation Carmen Brouard, “Ma rencontre avec Carmen Brouard.”

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78 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 317. 79 Ibid. See also Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence,” 68. 80 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 317, 249. The Orchestre Philharmonique de Sainte-Trinité was later known as L’Académie Pro Musica during the Duvalier dictatorship. See Zick, “Haitian Composer, Arranger and Flutist.” 81 Zick, “Haitian Composer, Arranger and Flutist.” 82 Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence,” 73. 83 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 330. 84 The mission of the Chansons d’Haiti project is found at www.chansonsdhaiti. com (accessed January 14, 2017). 85 Racine quoted in Procopio, “Crossing Borders,” 40; see also the entry for Julio Racine in Dauphin, Catalogue des partitions. 86 Zick, “Haitian Composer, Arranger and Flutist.” 87 Procopio, “Haitian Classical Music, Vodou, and Cultural Identity,” 103. 88 Ibid., 108–115. 89 Email conversation with Julio Racine, August 29, 2016. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 See Procopio, “Crossing Borders,” 41; Procopio, “Challenging Cultural Ambivalence,” 73; Procopio, “Haitian Classical Music, Vodou, and Cultural Identity,” 103–108. 93 Quoted in Procopio, “Haitian Classical Music, Vodou, and Cultural Identity,” 103. 94 Ibid., 108. 95 Ibid., 114–115. 96 Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 317. 97 Email conversation with Julio Racine, January 18, 2017. 98 Ibid. 99 This claim is based on an audio example of Ibo drumming created and sent by Julio Racine in an email conversation, January 18, 2017. 100 Email conversation with Julio Racine, January 18, 2017. 101 Ibid. 102 Procopio, “Haitian Classical Music, Vodou, and Cultural Identity,” 103. 103 Ibid. 104 See Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 291–323, for biographical information about each composer.

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105 See Dauphin, Histoire du style musical d’Haïti, 250, for more information on both organizations. 106 See www.blumehaiti.org for more information about the organization.

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