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THE GHETTOS

Invasion of Poland

In September 1939, the Germans invaded Poland. Poland lost its independence, and its citizens were subjected to severe oppression. Schools were closed, all political activity was banned, and many members of the Polish elite, intellectuals, political leaders, and clerics, were sent to concentration camps or murdered immediately. were subjected to violence, humiliation, dispossession, and arbitrary kidnappings for forced labor by German soldiers Jews rounded up for forced labor, Przemysl, Poland, who abused Jews in the streets, paying special October 1939. Photo Archive (5323) L4 attention to religious Jews. Many thousands of Poles and Jews were murdered in the first them great control over the Jews. Soon after months of the occupation, not yet as a policy of the ghettos began to be established, the Nazis THEsystematic GHETTOS mass murder, but an expression of tried to remove the Jews from their midst the brutal nature of the occupying forces. through . At first they sought to drive Jews into Soviet territory, but On September 21, 1939, just after the German when that strategy proved unworkable, the conquest of Poland, , Nazis developed a plan to send the Jews to the Nazi head of the SIPO (security police) and island of Madagascar. This plan also proved SD (security service) issued an order to the INTRODUCTIONcommanders in occupied Poland. The first, immediate stage called for several practical During the , “ghettos” were places of SECRET measures, including deporting Jews from imprisonmentwestern that and became central deadly Poland for the and Jews concentrating as a Berlin: September 21, 1939 direct resultthem of Nazi in the policies. vicinity Isolation, of railroad limited junctions food and and To: Chiefs of all of the heating, and horrific overcrowding led to high death Security Police forming Judenrate (councils of elders or Jewish Subject: Jewish question in the occupied territory tolls from starvation,councils) that disease, would and be cold. responsible In the Lodz for these Ghetto in Poland,actions. for instance, the death rate due to I refer to the conference held in Berlin today…. starvation and the miserable conditions was 21% of the For the time being, the first step toward the final goal is the concentration of the Jews from the countryside ghetto’s population.Establishment Far from of Ghettos being a concern for the into the larger . This is to be carried out with all Nazis, the fact that Jews were dying in many ghettos speed…. Guided by ideological principles and striving was seen as desirable. It was a relatively small step to establish a “New Order” in based In each Jewish community a council of Jewish Elders from this deadlymainly situation on racial to the doctrine, active systematic mass is to be set up…. The councils of Elders are to be murder of separatedJews, the Final Jews Solution.from the rest of the population informed of the dates and deadlines…. They are then to be made personally responsible for the departure of by establishing ghettos. A ghetto was a section the Jews from the countryside…. For general reasons INVASIONof theOF cityPOLAND in which Jews were confined and of security, the concentration of Jews in the cities will In Septemberrestricted 1939, the to Germans live behind invaded walls, Poland. fences, or probably necessitate orders altogether barring Jews barbed wire. The Germans wanted to isolate from certain sections of the cities, or, for example, Poland lost its independence, and its citizens were Jews and completely disconnect them from forbidding them to leave the ghetto…. subjected to severe oppression. Schools were closed, the world around them, from Jews in other all politicalplaces, activity and was banned,from everyday and many life. members This gave of the Polish elite, intellectuals, political leaders, and clerics, were sent to concentration camps or murdered 104 Lesson 4: The Ghettos ESTABLISHMENT OF GHETTOSechoesandreflections.org immediately. Jews were subjected to violence, On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland. A central humiliation, dispossession, and arbitrary kidnappings goal of the Nazis was to create a “New Order” in Europe for forced labor by German soldiers who abused Jews in based mainly on racial ideology. The Nazis wanted to the streets, paying special attention to religious Jews. solve what they considered to be the “Jewish Problem” Many thousands of Poles and Jews were murdered in and limit Jewish influence in every sphere. They the first months of the occupation, not yet as a policy believed that physical and geographical separation of systematic mass murder, but an expression of the might address this “problem” and help to establish brutal nature of the occupying forces. their “New Order.” So, the Nazis continued isolating Polish Jews as they had been doing in Germany. They On September 21, 1939, just after the German conquest separated Jews from the rest of the population by of Poland, Reinhard Heydrich, Nazi head of the SIPO establishing ghettos. A ghetto was a section of the (security police) and SD (security service) issued an in which Jews were forced to live and where they were order to the commanders in occupied Poland. The first, confined behind walls, fences, or barbed wire. Isolating immediate stage called for several practical measures, Jews and disconnecting them from the world around including deporting Jews from western and central them, from Jews in other places, and from everyday life Poland and concentrating them in the vicinity of gave the Germans great control over the Jews. railroad junctions and forming Judenrate (councils of elders or Jewish councils) that would be responsible for Soon after the ghettos were established, the Nazis also these actions. tried to remove the Jews through population transfer.

THE GHETTOS © Echoes & Reflections Partnership 1 THE GHETTOS impractical. Only later, once the Nazis began services. Of course, the German authorities did to implement a policy of systematic mass not allocate resources for these purposes, and murder of Jews through deportation to this put the Judenrate in an extremely difficult extermination camps, were the Jews who had situation. They had to provide community Invasion of Poland been concentrated in the ghettos deported servicesIn the ghettos, to athe needy Judenraete population were held fullywithout any responsible for compliance with German policy. In September 1939, the Germans invaded and murdered. A minority of Jews was also infrastructure or financial resources. Therefore, deported from the ghettos to a myriad of labor membersMembers of theof Judenraetethe Judenrate were exposed were to Germanconstantly Poland. Poland lost its independence, and its abuse and many were murdered for not obeying camps to be exploited as slave labor. As such, forced to contend with moral dilemmas and citizens were subjected to severe oppression. German orders. The Judenraete were required to act as ghettos were a means to an end and not an end make crucial decisions in unprecedented Schools were closed, all political activity was public authorities and to provide a full range of services banned, and many members of the Polish elite, in and of themselves. situations.that Jewish communities As restrictions, had not providedshortages, in the hunger, past. intellectuals, political leaders, and clerics, and diseases worsened in the ghettos, the were sent to concentration camps or murdered Ghettos were set up almost exclusively in Eastern dilemmasMembers of theof Judenraetethe members were constantly of the forcedJudenrate immediately. Jews were subjected to violence, Europe for two main reasons. First, in many becameto contend increasingly with moral dilemmas more extreme.and make crucial The most humiliation, dispossession, and arbitrary Eastern European cities, as opposed to Western difficultdecisions indilemma unprecedented came situations. when Thethe Judenraete German kidnappings for forced labor by German soldiers Europe,JewsJews rounded thererounded alreadyup up for forcedfor wasforced labor, a largelabor,Przemysl, JewishPrzemysl, Poland, district OctoberPoland, authoritieswere not only demanded responsible forthat re-establishing the Judenrate systems supply of who abused Jews in the streets, paying special and October1939.so Yadconfining 1939. Vashem Yad Photo Vashemall Archive Jews Photo (5323) to Archive those (5323) districts listseducation, of Jews culture, to beand deported religious services from inthe the ghettos, ghettos L4 attention to religious Jews. Many thousands and maintaining health and welfare institutions; they of Poles and Jews were murdered in the first madeAt first,the theyprocess sought ofto driveestablishing Jews into Soviet ghettoes territory often to death camps. them great control over the Jews. Soon after also had to arrange for garbage removal and postal months of the occupation, not yet as a policy of moreand practical. then to create Second, a Jewish because “reservation” of perceivednear Lublin, the ghettos began to be established, the Nazis services. Of course, the German authorities did not systematic mass murder, but an expression of culturalPoland. and When “racial” these strategies differences proved unworkable, (Western Conditions in the Ghettos tried to remove the Jews from their midst allocate resources for these purposes. This put the the brutal nature of the occupying forces. Europeansthe Nazis were developed seen a byplan the to send Nazis the asJews being to the onisland through population transfer. At first they Judenraete in an extremely difficult situation. They had a higherof Madagascar, racial level); off the the southeast Nazis coast refrained of Africa. from This Conditions in the ghettos were influenced by L4 sought to drive Jews into Soviet territory, but to provide community services to a needy population On September 21, 1939, just after the German antagonizingplan also proved Western impractical. Europeans Only later, and once did the not Nazis many factors, among them whether the ghetto when that strategy proved unworkable, the without any infrastructure or financial resources. conquest of Poland, Reinhard Heydrich, concentrateNazisbegan todeveloped implement Jews in aghettos aplan policy to ofin send systematicWestern the Jews massEurope. to murder the was hermetically sealed or was open to some Nazi head of the SIPO (security police) and of Jews through deportation to extermination camps, extent; the size of the ghetto and its location, island of Madagascar. This plan also proved As restrictions, shortages, hunger, and diseases SD (security service) issued an order to the Relativelywere the little Jews whotime had was been generally concentrated allotted in the ghettosfor sinceworsened ghettos in the ghettos,in the the countryside dilemmas of the often members had commanders in occupied Poland. The first, deported and murdered. A smaller number were moving into the ghettos. Jewish families who in accessof the Judenraete to more became food; more and extreme. the personality The most of immediate stage called for several practical somedeported casesSECRET had to labor lived camps in their to be exploitedhomes for as slavedecades labor. the Nazis who were in charge of the ghetto. In measures, including deporting Jews from difficult dilemma came when the German authorities had to gather their belongings and find shelter manydemanded ghettos, that the a Judenraetelarge number supply listsof Jews of Jews died to of western and central Poland and concentrating GhettosBerlin: were September a means 21, to 1939 an end and not an end in in a definedTo: Chiefs area of all that Einsatzgruppen was extremely of the crowded. starvationbe deported fromor various the ghettos, epidemics often to deaththat camps.raged due them in the vicinity of railroad junctions and and of themselves. Motor vehiclesSecurity were Police not available, and even to the harsh conditions. Lack of medication forming Judenrate (councils of elders or Jewish Subject: Jewish question in the occupied territory councils) that would be responsible for these horse-drawnGhettos were carts set up were almost rare; exclusively therefore, in Eastern many presented a constant dilemma in the ghettos. actions. peopleEurope movedI refer for to two thetheir conferencemain belongings reasons. held in First, Berlin in babyin today…. many carriages Eastern or onEuropean theirFor the backs. cities,time being, as Jews opposed the firsthad step to to Western toward painfully the Europe, final decidegoal there is the concentration of the Jews from the countryside whatalready to take was with a large them Jewish to district. the ghetto Confining although all Jews to Establishment of Ghettos into the larger cities. This is to be carried out with all theythose hadspeed…. districtsno information made the process about of how establishing long they ghettos Guided by ideological principles and striving wouldmore have practical. to stay Second, or whatWestern life Europeans would werebe like seen to establish a “New Order” in Europe based there.by theIn each Nazis Jewish as being community on a ahigher council racial of Jewish level. Elders The Nazis is to be set up…. The councils of Elders are to be mainly on racial doctrine, Nazi Germany did not want to antagonize Western Europeans, so they separated Jews from the rest of the population informed of the dates and deadlines…. They are then In thedid to notghettos, be madeconcentrate personally the JudenrateJews responsible in ghettos forwere the in departurethis held region. offully by establishing ghettos. A ghetto was a section responsiblethe Jews fromfor the compliancecountryside…. For generalwith reasonsGerman of the city in which Jews were confined and policy.Littleof Members security, time was the generallyconcentration of the Judenrate allotted of Jews for in werethe moving cities exposed will into the restricted to live behind walls, fences, or ghettos.probably Jewish necessitate families, orders who altogether in some barring cases Jews had lived in to Germanfrom certain abuse sections and of manythe cities, were or, for murderedexample, for barbed wire. The Germans wanted to isolate their homes for decades, had to gather their belongings Jews and completely disconnect them from not obeyingforbidding German them to leave orders. the ghetto…. The Judenrate were requiredand find to shelteract as in municipala defined area authorities that was extremely and the world around them, from Jews in other crowded. Motor vehicles were not available, and even to provide a full range of services that Jewish places, and from everyday life. This gave horse-drawn carts were rare; therefore, many people communitiesmoved their had belongings not provided in baby carriages in the past. or on theirThe Judenrate were not only responsible for re- 104 Lesson 4: The Ghettos backs. Jews had to make painfullyechoesandreflections.org difficult decisions establishingabout what systems to take with of education,them to the ghetto, culture, although and religiousthey had services no information in the ghettos about how and long maintaining they would Two Starving Women on a Rickshaw, , Poland, health and welfare institutions; they also had Two Starving Women on a Rickshaw, Warsaw Ghetto, have to stay or what life would be like there. Poland,September September 19, 1941. Yad 19, Vashem 1941. PhotoYad Vashem Archive (2536/85) Photo Archive to arrange for garbage removal and postal (2536/85) THE GHETTOS © Echoes & Reflections Partnership 2

echoesandreflections.org Echoes and Reflections Teacher’s Resource Guide 105 Doctors faced with shortages of medication Cultural activity took place within some had to decide which patients to treat. ghettos and the extent varied from ghetto to ghetto. Some of the activities were secret, held InCONDITIONS the shadow INof THEchaos GHETTOS and terror, many atsome the Judenraete initiative set of up underground vocational school organizations; systems JewsConditions attempted in the ghettosto retain were influenced their humanity by many theyin ghettos included where literarythis was permitted.evenings, The gatherings idea was to andfactors, operate such asrelief whether organizations the ghetto was just sealed as orthey was markto enlarge the the anniversary ghetto labor offorce a andJewish to give artist, youth anda hadopen done to some before extent; World the size ofWar the ghettoII broke and itsout. concerts.practical means Jewish of earningauthors, a living directors, during theand war. poets Despitelocation, sincethe ghettosdeteriorating in the countryside conditions often hadand produced works in the ghettos, and there were extremeaccess to deprivation,more food; and athe refugee personality aid of networkthe Nazis secretCultural libraries. activity took Some place of within the culturalsome ghettos activities and waswho established were in charge in ofmany the ghetto. places. In manyFor example,ghettos, werethe extent based varied on works from ghetto written to ghetto. before Some the ofwar the (in childrena large number gathered of Jews in diedspecial of starvation kitchens, or variouswhere, theactivities Theresienstadt were secret andghetto, set up for by undergroundinstance, works inepidemics addition that to ragedreceiving due to food, the harsh they conditions. were kept Lack byorganizations. Shakespeare, They Moliere,included literary and Chekhovevenings, were busyof medication with educational presented a constantactivities. dilemma Frequently, in the presented,gatherings to while mark thetheaters anniversary in Warsawof a Jewish stagedartist, reliefghettos. center Doctors staff faced recruited with shortages unemployed of medication but Yiddishand concerts. classics Jewish by authors, S. An-ski, directors, Sholem and poets Asch, produced works in the ghettos, and there were secret highlyhad to educated decide which people patients to towork treat. with youth in and Sholem Aleichem, among other things); libraries. Some of the cultural activities drew on the the ghetto. In most cases, the relief centers had others drew on the situation in the ghetto. The situation in the ghetto, while others were based on toIn figure the shadow out how of chaos best and to distribute terror, many their Jews limited cultural activities helped people temporarily works written before the war. For example, in the resources,attempted which to retain raised their humanitymany moral and operatedilemmas. relief forget the worries of ghetto life and were a Theresienstadt ghetto, works by Shakespeare, Moliere, organizations just as they had done before World War source of encouragement. However, there was and Chekhov were presented. Theaters in Warsaw CommonlyII. Despite the the deteriorating Jewish family conditions unit andunderwent extreme also criticism; some people argued that these staged classics by writers including S. An- L4 a deprivation,major change a refugee during aid thenetwork ghetto was period.established The in events were inappropriate in a place where so ski, Sholem Asch, and Sholem Aleichem. The cultural prewarmany places.situation, For example, in which children the gathered father inof special the many people were dying every day. activities helped people temporarily forget the worries familykitchens, had where been they the received main foodbreadwinner, and were kept was busy with educational activities. Frequently, relief of ghetto life and were a source of encouragement. altered unrecognizably because the father could Ultimately, once the Germans developed a plan center staff recruited unemployed but highly educated However, there was also criticism; some people argued no longer work in the ghetto, or was absent for the “ of the Jewish Question,” people to work with youth in the ghetto. In most that these events were inappropriate in a place where because he had been killed or sent to a labor they embarked on a process of closing down cases, the relief centers had to figure out how best to so many people were dying every day. camp. As a result, the women and children and liquidating the ghettos, deporting most of distribute their limited resources, which raised many had to share in the financial burden. In ghettos the Jews who remained alive. The vast majority moral dilemmas. Ultimately, once the Germans developed a plan for the where it was still possible to sneak through the of“Final Jews Solution deported of the Jewish from Question,” the ghettos they began were barriers and reach the world outside, many murdered in the extermination camps; only a The Jewish family unit often underwent a major change closing down and liquidating the ghettos. They deported smallduring children the ghetto became period. smugglers, Before the war, clandestinely fathers had smallmost of percentage the Jews who were remained taken alive. to Theconcentration vast majority bringingbeen the back main foodbreadwinners for their in families. most families. Smuggling In the andwere forcedmurdered labor in the camps extermination in the camps.late stages A small of wasghetto, very many dangerous: fathers could a Jew no longer found find outside work orthe were thepercentage war. By were the taken end to of concentration the war when and forced Europe ghettokilled orwalls deported was togenerally extermination killed and immediately. labor camps. waslabor liberated, camps in the except late stages in Budapest, of the war. notBy the a endsingle of StarvingAs a result, parents, the women therefore, and children confronted had to share inan the ghetto,the war, whenneither Europe in wasits liberated,entirety, not nor a single in ghettopart, awfulfinancial dilemma. burden. In ghettos where it was still possible to remained.remained intact, except in Budapest. sneak through the barriers and reach the world outside, Lifemany in thesmall Ghettos children became smugglers, secretly bringing back food for their families. Smuggling was Educationvery dangerous: was aoutlawed Jew found outsideby the the Germans ghetto walls in manywas generally of the ghettos; killed immediately. schools were Starving closed parents, and learningtherefore, was confronted punishable an awful by death. dilemma. Despite this prohibition, in some ghettos an underground educationalLIFE IN THE system GHETTOS was set up by the Jews, thoughEducation many was young outlawed people by the had Germans to help in manysupport theof familythe ghettos; and schools could werenot closedafford and to learningsit in class. was Inpunishable addition by to death. the Despiteunderground this, in some educational ghettos an system,underground some Judenrateeducational set system up vocational was set up by school the systemsJews. However, in ghettos many whereyoung peoplethis washad topermitted. help support Thethe ideafamily was and to could enlarge not afford the ghettoto sit in class.labor force TheThe Library, Theresienstadt, Theresienstadt, . Czechoslovakia. Yad Vashem Yad Vashem andIn additionto give toyouth the underground a practical educational means of system,earning PhotoPhoto ArchiveArchive (2977/471) (2977/471) a living during the war. THE GHETTOS © Echoes & Reflections Partnership 3

106 Lesson 4: The Ghettos echoesandreflections.org