TWE MODERNIZATION OF THE 'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM TO MEET THE NEEDS OF INDONESIAN COMMUNITIES

by

Suprayetno Wagiman

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research 'in partial fuifiilment of the requirements . for the degree of Master of Arts

Institute of Xslamic Studies McGU University July 1997

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Au thor : Suprayetno Wagiman

Title : The Modemization of The Pesantren's Educational System to Meet the

Needs of Indonesian Communities.

Department: hstitute of Lslamic Studies, McGill University

Degree : Master of Arts.

Indonesian archipelago facilitateci its dissemination throughout this region. Since its coming,

Islamic values have easily existed side by side with hdigenous hdonesian values, and some

Indonesian dueshave even been considered as Islarnic values by some hdonesian Muslims and vice versa Indonesian Muslims have not only adopted the religious practices of , but have accepted many of its social, economic and political ethics. Especially, in the field of education, the IsIamic educationd institutions, both forinal and non-formal, have played a major role in educating nom the colonial era 1600- 1945, to the present day.

One of the Islamic educational institutions famous for its Islamic approach is the pesantren. This institution, however, is facing major challenges at present and is king asked to update, develop and change many of its programs in order to enable its graduates to participate more fully in Indonesian national life, particularly in the field of national deveIopment. As a result, some began modernizing thek educational systems. The modemkation process is accomplished through the adoption of the national education system alongside the classical system, thus providing students with secular subjects and skills training together with religious education. As is to be expected, this modemization effort has

created a number of problems for pesantrens such as lack of funds, finding skilled teachers for the secular and ski11 subjects, building the necessary facilities and creating the needed administrative apparatus.

In this modernization process, many individual, non-governmental organizations are involved, together with the Indonesian govemment. The involvement cf the govemment, however, is viewed by some pesantrens with suspicion and is regarded as an attempt to diminish the religious function of the pesantren. The reason being the past experiences of

Indonesian Muslims who were deliberately marginalized and treated as a threat by successive govemments from the colonial era to the era. Not surprisingly, this situation led to great antagonism between Indonesian Muslims on the one hand and the Indonesian govement on the other hand. Fortunately, this relationship changed in the 1980's when both sides started-to accommodate each other. As a result, some pesantrens successfully adopted the national educational system, while others were left to maintain their own educational system. Auteur : Suprayetno Wagiman

Titre : La modernisation du systkme éducatif du Pesantren afin de combler les

besoins des cornmunautCs indonésiennes.

Département : Institut des Études Islamiques, Université McGill

Diplôme : Maîtrise ès Arts.

La souplesse de l'Islam ainsi que sa capacité de s'int6grer avec les cultures indigènes

de l'archipel indonésien a facilit6 sa dissémination partout dans cette région. Depuis leur

introduction, les valeurs islamiques ont coexisté avec les valeurs indonésiennes indigènes

à un point tel que ces dernières ont été considérées comme étant islamiques par les

musulmans indonésiens et vice versa. Les musulmans indonésiens n'ont pas seulement

adopté les pratiques religieuses de l'Islam mais aussi plusieurs éléments de son éthique

sociale, économique et politique. Tout particulièrement, les institutions formelles et informelles de l'éducation islamique ont joué un rôle majeur dans la formation des indonésiens depuis l'ère coloniale (1600-1945) jusqu'll aujourd'hui.

Une de ces institutions d'éducation reput& pour son approche islamique est le pesantren. Toutefois, cette institution affronte achlellement des défis majeurs et a été sollicitée pour ameliorer, développer et changer plusieurs de ses programmes afin de permettre à ses gradués de participer plus efficacement a la vie nationale indonésienne et plus particulièrement dans le domaine du développement. Par cons6quent, certains pesantrens entreprendront la modernisation de leurs systèmes éducatifs. Ce processus fut accompli par

l'adoption d'un systkme national d'éducation parallèlement au syst&meclassique, apportant

ainsi aux 6tudiants une formation s6culière cornbide avec une 4ducation religieuse.

Comme on pourrait s'y attendre, cet effort de modemisation a crdé de nombreux problbmes

pour les pesantrens savoir, des phunes de fonds. d' enseignants comp6tents dans les

sujets séculiers, de construction d' infrastructures nécessaires et d'appareils administratifs

adéquats.

Dans ce processus de modemisation, personnes ainsi que des organisations

non-gouvernementales se sont impliquées avec le gouvemement indontsien. Toutefois cette

implication gouvernementale est perçue avec suspicion par certains pesantrens et est

considérée comme une tentative visant à diminuer leurs fonctions religieuses. La raison

expliquant cette attitude repose sur I'expMence vécue par les musulmans indonesiens qui

furent délibérément marginalis6s et considérés comme 6tant une menace par les

gouvernements qui se sont succédés depuis l'époque coloniale jusqu'à l'ère de l'Ordre

Nouveau. II est évident que cette situation a conduit à un important antagonisme entre les

musulmans d'une part et le gouvemement indonésien d'autre part. Heureusement, ces

relations se sont améliorées dans les années 1980 alors que les deux parties ont entrepris de

s'accommoder mutuellement. Par conséquent, certains pesantrens ont adoptt5 avec succès

le système d'éducation nationale, alors que d'autres furent confrontks 3 maintenir par eux- même leur propre système d'éducation. TRANSLITERATION

The system of transliteration of words and names applied in this thesis is that used by the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGilI University. Indoneian terms are written according to Ejaan Ba.Yang Disempurnakan (EYD), but personal names and the t it les of books and articles are rendered according to the original spellings.

# Short vowels :- =: a, fathah

- Long vowels : l. ,, = a =i - ->=u Diphthongs: y l= ay J= au

In the case of ti'marbüalt (i), it is translit erat ed as "h" in pause fom (e.g. bid 'ah) and 9"in conjunctional fom (e.g. Oidiyat al-mu/'t&d). Alif or hamzah (6) is translit erat ed as an elevated comma (') in ail positions except when it occurs at the beginning of a word (e.g. Tmik and al-Quy&). 1would like to begin by thanking Dr. Howard M. Federspiel, my Thesis Supervisor, for his

patience, constmctive criticism and guidance. Similarly, 1 would like to thank to my parents,

who always kept placed the education of their children as the first priority, my family, wife

and children, although geographically far away from me during my studies, have always been

a close source of strength and 1 felt their support and prayers. The oppominity for me to study

and complete my Masters degree in Canada would not have occurred without the financial

support of CIDA and the INN-McGill Project to whom 1 am gratefu1. My

gratitude also goes to the Director of the Institute of Islamic Studies, Dr. A. Üner Turgay and

all the staff of the hstihite for their warmth and heIp during my study. My Canadian fiend

and colleague Holly R. Buchanan was always available for discussion and for sharing and

bouncing ideas with. I wish to thank her for her ck5sm,sense of humour, and professional

acumen. Much gratitude dso goes to my Indonesian fellows at the Institute of hlamic Studies

for their encouragement, inspiration, and succour. Like wise, my heartfelt appreciation goes to my editors Reem Meshd, Chris McLeod, especially Paula Jolin and Yasmine Badr who deciphered and made my text comprehensible. Special recognition must also be given to the librarians, especially Salwa Ferahian and Wayne St. Thomas whose patience and insight assisted me in finding the necessary sources for my research.

viii Table of Contents

Abstract ...... , ...... ii Résumé ...... iv Transliteration ...... vi ... Acknowledgments ...... , . . . . , ...... viii Table of contents...... '. . . . ix Introduction ...... ,...... 1 Chapter I: The Indonesian state's national values and the Muslirn community's values ... 11 1 . Indonesian Muslims and politics ...... 17 2. Indonesian MusIims and lndonesian development ...... 42 Chapter II: Islamic Educational Institutions in Indonesia ...... 5 1 1. The role of education in Indonesian development ...... 5 1 2. The particular place of Islamic education in Indonesian development ...... 60 3. The pesantren in the hdonesian educational system ...... 66 Chapter III: The Interaction of the pesantren, government

and Non-Govenimental Organizations ...... , . 76 1. The Pesantren's educational system ...... 76 2. The Involvement of the government in the pesantren's educational system ... 92 3. The Involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations in the Pesantren's educatiûnal system ...... , . . . .. 10 1 4. The pesaniren and hdonesian development ...... 105

Conclusion ...... , . . . 113 Bibliography ...... 12 1 The Modernization of the Pesantren's EducationaI System to Meet the Needs of Indonesian Communities.

Introduction

Cultural and social changes have run parallel to Indonesia's development and

modemkation since the establishment of Indonesian independence. Econornic development

in Indonesia has brought new values, including matenalism. And, Although the Indonesian

govemment's goal is to create a balanced development, incorporating both material and

spiritual elements, it appears to have given more attention to material goals. Within the

educational curriculum, for exarnple, public education (non-religious education) emphasizes

"secular science",' while maintainhg a low-level of concem for teaching religious values

in school, except in religiously oriented schools.

Moreover, the moral degradation of the younger generation, especially in the urban

context, suggests that this secularized educationdsystem is not irnparting a satisfactoy level

of morality to the younger generation. Hence, some parents, educators, and members of the

Indonesian community are repeatedly complaining that religious education is not emphasized

enough. At the same time a dissatisfaction has risen within the younger generation towards

the emphasis on materid achievements and the Jack of balance with regards to spirihiality.

Consequently, signs of protest and an effort to retum to traditional values have arisen. Thus,

' Within Islam there is a differentiation between the secular sciences and the Islamic . sciences. While this differentiation cannot be ge~eralizedfor dl Muslims, such subjects as physics, biology, mathematics are perceived to be "secular" sciences whilefiqh, hadith and shori'a are regarded as "klarnic" sciences. girls began wearing the jilbab (head covenng) in public schools (non-religious schools),

students have established Islamic discussion groups, pesantren kila? activities are held, and

the remja rnesjid' has been more prominent emerged.

These efforts by the younger generation to transfom other educational practises have

caused members of the Muslim community to reconsider the role of the traditional IsIamic

educational system, i.e. the pesantren, with its rich moral teachings. As a result, during the

past two decades many people have begun sending their children to pesantrens, where they

are instilled with spiritual fundamentals. In turn,'the pesantrens too had to partially

reconstmct themselves to conform to modem perceptions of education. Indonesia is a

culturally diverse nation and the changes to the pesantren have occurred within the specificity

of the local cultural traditions. While 1acknowledge the diversity of religious and culturd

traditions in Indonesia, as well as within and between the vanous Islamic "comm~nities"~rny

discussion, however, does not focus on these differences specifically. Furthemore, as

cultural ideologies and knowledge are unevenly distributed within societies4,individuds can

resist change and/or transfom their cultural traditions within this development process.

hdeed, it is within this space that confiicts and coherence cmtake place. Individuals use

strategies which cm be situational, strategic, and multiple to reach their aims; dl of which

This refers to the act of shidying lslamic sciences in the pesantren system for a short period of time, during which theory and practise are taught at the same tirne.

Literally, this means Teenagers of the Mosque; that is, a group of teenagers who focus on Islamic activities and make the mosque the centre of their activities.

Roger Keesing, "The Concept of Culture and the Crisis of Theory," unpublished paper, Dept. of Anthropology, McGill University, 1992. had ben resorted by Indonesian Muslims in their endeavour to modemize the pesantren's educational system.

At the sme time, the Indonesian government, interested in national educational expansion, has regardeci the pesantren as an instrument to reach and educate large numbers of rural Muslims. And, like numerous Muslim reformers, the government wants too the pesanûen, in addition to its spintual teachings, to impart the knowledge and skills useful in today's job markets. This process of change within the pesantren's educational system is referred to as the modemization of the pesantren. At the Conference on Education in

Religious Educational Institutions held between May 3 1, and June 4th, 197 1, , the

Minister of Religious Affairs at the time, explained that the modemization process is an effort to make the bad good, and the good better. It means that the pesantren should maintain its educational system by eliminating those elements which are not in line with Indonesian development and strengthening those elements which are in line with the community's needs and development. Furthemore, he stated that it is possible to gage the degree of improvement in education by rneasuring the role education plays in enhancing Indonesian development .'

KaufÎnan defines a system as "The sum total of parts working independently and working together to achieve specified required results, or outcornes, based on needsY6

Keeping this in perspective, an educational system would include methods, teachers,

'Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan Pondok Pesantren &dam Pembang~uuuzme Role of the Pesantren in Development], : PmBarkah, n.d.), 23.

Roger Kaufman, Planning Educatioml Systems: A Results- based Approach, (Lancaster: Technornic Publishing CO,inc., 1988), 12. students, parents, comrnunity leaders, curriculum, and facilities. In the modernization process

of the pesantren's educational system, these components cannot be considered separately as

independent elements. Thus the pesantren's development process could foliow one of several

different courses: the kyai7 and the of the pesantren might develop programs on their own initiatives, for exarnple, or programmatic changes might occur in cooperation with govemment andfor non-govemmental organizations.

Initially, the Indonesian government's involvement in the modemization of the pesantren's educational system made the pesantren stidents, teachers and suspect that the govemment was trying to secularize the2 educational system. At the same time, the

Indonesian govemment regarded the pesantren as a system choosing to isolate itself from

Indonesian national educational goals because it followed irtraditional patterns of operation for many years and was not forced to join the national school system significantly.

Consequently, homogenization of school structures, centralized currîculums and examinations have been introduced and encourage by the govemment, thus influencing the content of leaming with regards to national interests and inserting national goals into the educational systema8Historically, Muslim leaders were always active in the struggle against colonialism and were strong nationalists during the revolution years. Consequently, they cm

Kyai is a tenn derived from the Javanese language. Broadly speaking, it refers to someone, or something, that people respect on account of his, or its, extraordinary character. In this case, refers to the founder or the leader of a pesantren. The title kyni cannot be eamed through academic achievement. It is bestowed by the cornrnunity in recognition of the talent, honour, and nobility possessed by a particular individual. One of the requirernents is that a bai must have a deep knowledge of Islam.

'~arthdiscusses the infusion of nationalism into the Bahese educational system. See Frederik Barth, Balinese Worldr, (London: University of Chicago Press), 1993. be considered an important sector of national supporters. Moreover, keeping in mind that the

pesantren produces many of the leaders of the Islamic movements, it is politically strategic

to the govemment that national education goals be introduced to the pesantren's educational

system.

Considering the important role the pesantren plays in community development, there

is a constant need for it to develop and adapt its cu~mculum,practices, and ideologies to

curent issues affecthg human and natural resources. Therefore, the santns (students) must

develop the practical skills and knowledge necessary for the needs and challenges of the

cornmuni ty 's development process. Since the 1970's, many pesantrens have modeniized their

systems of education and social programs to deal more effectively with community issues

and to do it in more meaningful ways. In some cases such programs give the vocational training in fields like agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, management of farm cooperatives, and the development of other technologies for rural communities. Many pesantrens also provide informal education in the Islamic doctrines and new technologies to the nearby communities, thereby helping to raise community consciousness towards development. At this point, it is important to note that the government bas for long realized that the pesantren is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it can encourage people to become more receptive to the progress of nual development, but, on the other hand, if the pesantren is dienated, this infomd system could be used as a powerful tool to encourage

1oca.I resistance to govemment-imposed changes.

As the progress and achievement of Indonesian development depends on the educational levels of its population, the pesantren as an educational institution is required to maintain an educational system which caters to the individual interests of the santris, while

improving their ability to participate in social development and the political system. This has

led to the problem of trying to balance and maintain the underlying religious training of the pesantren's educational system arnidst such variables as new 'secular' subjects and national dernand~.~

This thesis will analyse the process by which the pesantren has attempted to rnodernize its educational system to meet cornmunity and national demands; in other words, the dialectical relationship between spiritualism and materialism. This topic has been chosen for the following reasons: first, Indonesia is a multicultural country in which diverse cultures adhere to their own traditions, especially in nual areas. Any approach to modemize the pesantren must therefore invite the individuals in each specific community to participate in this Indonesian development. Religion cm often be used and sometimes has succeeded in bridging the differences between the different ethic groups, and the pesantren is often a key element in implementing cooperation.

Second, Indonesia is rich in naturai resources which have not been exploited due to a lack of human resources, particularly in rural areas. Initially, the Indonesian govemment fwussed its development program on the urban areas, while now it is focussing its attention on the rural areas; a sector long overdue for upgrading. Moreover, given the fact that developrnent can have positive or negative implications for the communities affected, and cm cause social and environmental problems as welI, and widen class divisions, it is very

See KZaus Schleicher, ed. Natimlisrn and Eiiucation (Franklürî am Main: Peter Lang, 1993), 24. important to elicit the participation of the community in this process, especially the pesantren. Therefore, it is a challenge for the pesantren to promote and participate in sustainable development programs which consider the needs of and the impact on specific communities. Developrnent rernains slow due to the lack of skills and technology; however if these are maximized properly, the natural resources and the rich cultures within Indonesia can be a huge asset to Indonesian development. For example, sorne industries developed in rural areas do not employ members of the local cornmunities due to their lack of skills. It is here that the pesantren can play an important role in the development of human resources as it is an expert in nual education as well as a source of inspiration for the community.

Moreover, with its method of leaming through practice, the pesantren cm make a solid contribution to the development of Indonesian communities. The difference between the secular and the pesantren's educational system is the bridge that the pesantren creates between theory and practise; in the boarding school environment it is possible to implement applied skills.

Third, in order to meet the national demands and the needs of the Indonesian communities, the pesantren has had to balance its religious goals with the demands of the

Indonesian government. As stated in Garis-Garis Besar Haluan Negara (GBHN or the

Broad Outlines of National Direction), the aim of Indonesian development is to consider and achieve both materialism and spiritualism within Indonesian de~eloprnent.'~While the national educational system has not been successful in achieving spiritualism, the pesantren

'O See John Surjadi Hartanto, Memahami UUD 1945, P4, GBHN 1993-1994, Waskat [Understanding the 1945 Constitution, P4, GBHN 1993- 1998, Close Supervision], (Surabaya: liidah, 1994), 8 1-82. has fai1ed to achieve the "material" aspects of the Indonesian national goals. Thus, it is hoped

that through the modemization of its educational system, the pesantren will be able to

achieve both goals.

Fourth, implicit in the Indonesian deveiopment process are new demands on

Indonesian society. Moreover, the complexity of the development process has meant that

some pesantrens were unable to operate their programs independently, and they have. had to

seek cooperation with other institutions and the government in order to rnodernize their educational system. Realizing that the govemment's involvement is necessary to achieve these complex goals, some pesantrens have had to integrate their programs within the national educational system with its accompanying politicai and ideological struggIes, manipulation, and dilemmas.

Finally, according to many analysts, the modernization of the pesantren has greatly weakened the social ad religious values characteristic of this institution. The andysts believe that the pesantren's cooperation with 'the government has led to a loss of the pesantren's unique characteristics as a self-reliant educational institution deeply embedded in local culture.

This thesis wiil examine these five characteristics of the modern-day pesantren; it wili be divided into three chapters with an introduction and a conclusion. This thesis will begin with a discussion of the Indonesian state's national values and the different values of the

Muslim communities, and will provide an historic overview of the nature of the Islamic

"community" up to the present day. It will explain also the developrnent of the Indonesian state, its accornplishments, direction, and the interaction between Islam and the state from independence to the present day.

An important methodological theme that runs through the thesis is provided by

Donald Eugene Smith in his remarks on secularization. His five-point analysis contends that

in the Third World, governments of new States seek to gain control over the societies that

they mle and that religion is one particular area that cornes under their scrutiny since it

dominates traditional societies. Governments act as agents of modernization, yually,

because the very concept of the nation-state is "modem" and they are encouraged by the

international community of nations to act in the "modem" way by controlling their populations and taking cmof the problems that arise within their borders. Smith asserts that there are five points that apply to such modernizing governments in their attempts to convert traditional societies into modem ones.

1. Poliv-separation secularization refers to the institutional separation of religion and polity ... and the denial of the religious identity of the polity... [the] Government ceases to perform its traditional functions as promoter and defender of the faith. 2. Polity-expansion secularization involves the expansion of the political system into areas of society formerly regulated by religion. The polity thus extends its jurisdiction into areas of education, law, economic activity, and so on, which were subject to religious nomand structures in the traditional system. 3. Political-culture secularization refers to the transformation of values associated with the polity; secular nations of political community, the legitimacy of the polity, and the meaning of politics replace traditional religious notions in the thinking of many people. 4. Political-process secularization is the decline in political saliency and influence of religious leaders, religious interest groups, religious political parties, and religious issues; it also denotes the weakening of religious identity and ideology of the actors as a consequence of participation in the political process ... 5. Polity-dominance secularization refers to a radical prograrn of secularization by revolutionary regimes that recognize no area of religious autonomy..."

The examination of Indonesian national values and the consequent Indonesian govemment concern with Muslirn boarding schools (pesantrens) wilI give us an opportunity to consider whether Smith's typology applies to Indonesia or not. Accordingly, several prernises wiIi be discussed in Chapter 1where the formation of the Indonesian state's value system is outlined. The relationship of that value system with corresponding and contrasting- values in the Muslim comrnunity will provide ample opportunity for a discussion of this prernise and how it applies to Indonesia. In particular points 1'3, and 4 will be covered.

The second prernise, i.e., policy-expansion secularization, has relevance for the material discussed in chapters 2 and 3. In those chapters the pesantrens are covered and the state's changing relationship to them allows an assessrnent as to whether Smith's methodology applies to the situation. Al1 five points will be reviewed in the Conclusion. In general, Smith's comrnents about modemization and secularization provide a backdrop against which the discussion of the Indonesian pesantren can be presented and understood.

Donald Eugene Smith, Religion Md Political Modenzization. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 8. Chapter 1

The Indonesian State's National Values and Muslim Community Values

Debates continue regarding the arriva1 of Islam to the Indonesian archipelago. These

debates are not concemed only with the date of the klam's arrivd, but also with the way

Islam spread in Indonesia. Some scholars suggest that Islam fmt arrived in Indonesia through

peaceful economic expansion. Frederica M. Bunge states that:

Muslims may have corne to the islands as early as the seventh century, for Chinese records tell of Arab traders at Guangzhou and other south China ports who must have stopped at Indonesian ports on the way ... Yet the Conversion of significant numbers of Indonesians to Islam apparently did no begin until around the thirteenth century... the medium of its infiltration seems to have been trade. Islamic merchants, most likely from Gujerat but possibly also from Malabar, Coromandel, Bengal on the Indian subcontinent, or Persia, were apparently active in encouraging mernbers of the Indonesian elite to adopt the religion. The accounts of travelers outline its gradua1 progress fkom points in Sumatra down to Java and finally to the most remote of the Outer Islands.'

And, on the process of islamization in Indonesia, M.C. Ricklefs states:

In general, two processes probably occurred. On the one hand, indigenous Indonesians came into contact with Islam and made an act of conversion. On the other, foreign Asians (Arabs, Indians, Chinese, etc.) who were already Muslims settled permanently in an Indonesian area, intermanied and adopted local Westyles to such a degree that in effect they became Javanese or Malay or 'whatever. These two processes may often have occurred in conjunction with each other, and when a piece of evidence survives indicating, for instance, that a Muslirn dynasty had been established in some area, it is often

' Frederica M. Bunge, ed., Indonesia: A Country Sfudy, (Washington DC: &encan University, l983), 10. impossible to know which of these two processes was the more important.'

It is also believed that sufism played an important role in this process of Islamization.

After the fail of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258, Sufism dominated the Islarnic world.

Therefore there is a possibility that Sufism was also spread by the Muslim traders who came

to Indonesia. Sufism, which focuses on the esoteric side of religion, is similar to the

mysticism in Buddhism, Hinduism, and the animism and dynamisrn sects of indigenous

Indonesian religions. Moreover, the egalitarian nature of Islam may have been more

appealing for most Indonesians than the caste system of Hinduism at that time. This may

have led to the rapid spread of Islam in the Indonesian archipelago.

Four geat world religions are practiced in Indonesia: Buddhism, Hinduisrn, Islam

and Christianity. In addition, some Indonesians stiU adopt animism, dynamism, and even

Aliran Kepercayaan (The Belief Sect). In fact, the faith and practice of some Indonesian

Muslims are strongly coloured by local traditions (adnt or custorns) including some practices

that conîradict Islamic doctrines especially in the private rituals surrounding marriage, death

and birth as well as public rituais such as planting nce, building bridges etc. which have been passed on from generation to generation.

It is dilXcult to discuss the values of Indonesian Muslims in generai since values are a matter of interpretation of what is valuable for the cornmunity and for the individual. As mentioned earlier, Islam inhdonesia, to varying degrees, has mixed with the local cultures; thus Indonesian culture is very complex and is not a homogenous grouping. Furthermore,

M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia cl3ûû to the Present, (BIoomington: Indiana University Press, 198 l), 3. much ethnic and linguistic local diversity exists. Geographically speaking, Indonesia is

divided into three areas: East Indonesia, Central Indonesia and West Indonesia.Ethnically

speaking, "there are more than 400 diffeferent temtory based ethnic societies inhdonesia, each with its own home territory, its own language, its own cultural tradition, its own social structure ,its own collective histoxy and, of course, its own ethnic identity.") The identity construction for individuals can incorporate issues of ethnicity, gender, religion and national political affiliation. On Islamic values B.J. Boland states:

Values in Islam have a dynamic, not a static, character. Sorne basic elements of the Islamic faith, some principles of wonhip and some fundamental social values are indeed unchanging. But apart from these values, Islam does not give any def~teprescriptions conceming activities in this world. The latter are determined by cultural values, which must be in a process of continuous developrnent, in order to scout the actual situation:

Nthough al1 Muslims base their religion on al-Qur'an and Hadith, some practices require interpretations, and Mushdiffer iqthe ways they interpret the same texts. Hence, there are four major schools of thought (madWrab) in Islam, namely: the Hanbalite, Shafi'ite,

Hanafite and Malikite schools. In general, basic practices such as gdab (praying), saum

(fasting), o#@ilgrimage), are the sarne in ,Indonesiaas in the rest of the Muslim world, but certain practices differ within these general fom of worship. Moreover, two Muslim groupings exist in Indonesia, the traditionalists and the modernists. The traditionalists are more tolerant of the practice of adot which are viewed by some people as (part of) Islamic

Harsja W. Bachtiar, "Indonesia's Society and Culture in 1994" The Indonesian Quarterly, 1995, xxiii (2), 175.

B.J. Boland, The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia, (Leiden: nie Hague, 1982), 223. values. In addition, the traditionalists proclaim themselves defenders of the mndhhab, and

most are Shafi'ite, which is the most prominent madhhb in Indonesia. The modernists, on

the other hand, totally reject any form of practice which they view as takhayul

(supersti tien)', bUi'ah (here~~)~and churafat (superstition)', known as TBC,and they do not strictly follow any madhhb.

In terms of modemization, B.J. Boland States: "Modernism or liberalism in Islam certainly has nothing to do with such critical studies of the text of the Scriptures and its historical sources as are made by Christian theologians. Even the most 'liberal' Muslim theologians maintain that such a critical study is simply impossible in Islam, as the Qur'm is a revealed book, sent down directly fiom Gad."' The difference arnong Muslims is on the interpretation of the scnpture. For example in salah (prayer), io general both the traditionalists and modemists adopt similar'practices with slight differences. The Modernists

"A concept applied by some purist Indonesian Muslims to many folk practices in Indonesian life, such as a ritual med (selamatan), the dynamism in certain blessed objects (keramat), and power of certain individuals (dukuns) to heal, cast spells, and foreteil events". Howard M. Fedenpiel, A Dictiomry of Indonesian Islam, (Athens: Ohio University Centre for International Studies Monographs in International Siudies, 1995), 262.

"A practise taken into religious activity that is not countenanced by religious sources but which has wide acceptance as being a legitimate activity. According to modemist Musknothing is allowed in matters of worship except that which is expressiy cornmanded by God, while in other matters al1 actions are allowable except those which have been expressly forbidden by God. Traditionalists differentiate between different khds of innovation, regardhg some as beneficial even in matters of worship". Howard M. Federspiel, A Dictionary, 36. ' "Superstition, often applied by puist Muslims to many aspects of popular Islam, particularIy the use of mulets, consultation with soothsayers, and saint worship". Howard M. Federspiel, A Dictionary, 130.

B.J. Boland, The Struggle, 218. (such as the ) do not reci te the niah: because for them the niah is an in temal

matter of the heart (qalb). The traditionalists, however, recite it. Apart from this, there is

also the sufi reaim which focuses more on spiritual matters rather than the sharpah.

There are many religious activities adopted by Indonesian Muslims throughout the

archipelago. A case in point, is the celebration of Muslim holidays. Muslims have many

holidays based on the Hijriah calendar, which are celebrated nationally. Among them are:

1. The Muslim New Year in the fmt of Ad'&arrh (the first month of the Hijriah calendar)

2. The Day of the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon Hirn), on the 12' of Rabi'

&A wd(the third month).

3. The day of the Isra lthe Prophet M~ammad'smiraculous flight from to

Jerusalem) and Mi'raj( the Prophet Muhammad's ascent to heaven) on the 27h of Rajab

(the eighth month).

4. The day of Niqd al- Qm'Bo (the first revelation of Qur9&) on the 17' of Ramadao (the

ninth month).

5. The 'AM al-E'r(the celebration of the end of the fasting penod) on the 1" of Sbawwal

(the tenth rnonth).

6. The 'Adal-ac@a '(the day that commemorates the sacrifice of Prophet Isma Vby the

Prophet fiidZ7in) on the 1oh of Dhu d-HiJJah(the twelfth month).

Indonesian Muslims celebrate these holidays by perfodng a mass Tabligh (speech) in mosques, parks, and in govemrnent and private offices and schools.

"A shoa declaration of intention pronounced audibly or mentally, immediately prior to prescribed religious ritual in which the performer States his intent to perfom the act with piety and religious purpose". Howard M. Federspiel, A Dictionary, 188. The month of Rma&ü~is considered a holy month, in which Muslims fast from

dawn to dusk. Fasting is obligatoiy for Muslims who are mature ( baligh)". Thus, children

fast for a half day only in preparation for full participation later. In this month, Muslims

intensify their worship ( 'fiid'. This can be seen in the crowded mosques where people

perform Salat al-Tm4and Salit al- Wjt~and mite al-Qu'Zn until nearly dawn. During

Rama@''the spirit of Iskirn is at i ts peak in Indonesia. Interestingly, in this month tradi tional

foods are sold in every region in Indonesia and are consumed by hdonesian Muslims while

breaking their fast.

The 'Md al-Fltr is celebrated by perfonning Salat al- 'Aid a(-FiCr which is mostly

held in the parks and the mosques, and often in roads. 'Aid al-F[fris also celebrated by

visiting neighbours and relatives. This is the tirne for Indonesian Muslims to gather with

their family. For tbis purpose, most Indonesian Muslims prepare cookies as well as other traditional foods in their homes. Preparation begins in the Iast week of Ra.&. The celebration of 'Aidal-a4a'th.i~ It is not very difterent from the celebration of 'Md al-Fi& except that, after perfomiing SdZt d-'Aid al-a@a 'people then perform Qmbih1'.That is why this day is also called 'Rid al-QmbaO.

One cannot deny that the Indonesian government prornotes religion, to a certain extent (although numerous govemment policies contradict religious doctrines). This can be seen in the government's policy to adopt and ceIebrate al1 Islamic holidays, as well as those

'O Maturity is recognized by menstruation in women and the ability to beget children in men.

"Worship performed by the sacrifice of certain animals (e.g. cow, lamb, carnel). of other religions, as national holidays. Thus, the holidays of one religion cm be celebrated

by the foliowers of other religions. hother example is the govemment's sponsorship of

Musabaqah Tilawntil Qu'& (MTQ or Qu'bRecital Cornpetition) held once every three

years. l2

1. Indonesian Muslims and politics.

Apart frorn the religious practices, political life is one of the major issues that concem

Indonesian Muslims. In fact, througbout the history of , Muslim activities

. have continuously been furnished with a political agenda, H.M. Federspiel states that:

Politics is important to the Indonesian Muslim cornmunity because the national history of hdonesia has witnessed a long-mnning contest over the role that Islam should play in national affairs. Certainly Indonesian Islamic values have not achieved the state role that politically-involved Muslims would have liked and activist Muslirns have not held political power to the exten t they would have preferred. SU, despite such disappointments, Indonesian Muslims overwhelmingly identiQ with the Indonesian nation- state.13

Since neither Indonesians, nor Muslims in general have supported western notion of

separation between church and state, the 'ulamù have long played a key role in Indonesian

poLitical life. The bai, for instance, who belongs to the 'ularna class, is regarded within the

commuflj.ty as the facilitator of human relationships with both Allah and his fellow humans.

I2 ~mongthe components of the cornpetition, conducted in the MTQ, are: the art of Qur'anic reading (tiIZwab),memorization of the Qur'k (fieal-Qzr9&), the explmation of the content of the Qu'& (fafs74,utilization of the content of the Qur'in (sharh), the sequence of the content of the Qur'Zn (tartil), and Arabic calligraphy.

l3 Howard M. Federspiel, Muslim Intellectuals and National Development in Zndonesia, (New York: Nova Science Publisher, Inc., 1W), 79. That is why the persona of the kyai is so central to the Indonesian concept of wunnh. On the

one hand, the kyai as an individual is r~sponsiblefor the propagation of Islam, while on the

other he is the community's caretaker in the practical matters of daily life, particularly in

rurd areas.

Moreover, upon closer examination of the issue, it homes clear that the Indonesian

Muslims have traditionally tied their socio-economic and political life to religion. The

'ulamii have always been at the heart of this system. This is amply demonstrated by the

'ula~'srole in the struggle for independence fiom Dutch and Japanese colonialism. Some

of those who were most active in this regard were Kyai Mojo14 fiom Java and Tuanku Imam

~onjol'' from . In this instance, the role that they played rivaled that of a

sultan (king). In fact, in the various sultanates and kingdoms of the region occupied by the

Dutch, the struggle against colonialism was sometimes spearheaded by the 'ulamü. This

proclivity was reinforced by the centralization of political, economic, and religious power

in the hands of Sunan Gin of , Sunan'Gunung Jati of Cirebon, Imam Bonjol in

Bonjol (West Sumatra), and Falatehan in ~akarta'~

l4 Kyai Mojo and Sentot Ali Basya were the war advisors of Pangeran (Prince Diponegoro). The Diponegoro war occurred between 1825-1830 in Java.

l5 The battle against the Dutch, headed by , is cdled the (1819-1832). The Padri movement in West Sumatra is an Islarnic refonnist movement influenced by the Wahabi movement.

l6 Fachry Aly, "Ulama dan Politik" ['Ulama and Politics] Pergulatan Dunia Pesantren: Membangun dari Bawah, phe Struggle in the World of Pesantrens: Develop from the Bottom] ed. Dawarn Rahardjo, (Jakâtta: P3M, 1985), 18 1. To stem the 'ulamû's powers, the Dutch resorted to military force, restricting al1 blamic activities. Moreover, by promulgating the so-called "ethicai policy", colonial officiais . made it easier for Christian missionaries to win converts in the country. Al1 of these factors also contributed to a decline in the 'ulamd's political prowess by rnid-century. Moreover, there has been no substantial change to the status quo since independence, for in the modem bureaucratic state of Indonesia, the 'ulamd have little if any power. As a result, they have been forced to limit the scope of their activities to social services, education and the local economy.

This is not to Say that the 'ulamd have not played any political role at the national level. They did, in fact, organize a movement stmggling for Indonesia's independence. This

Islamic nationdist movement was inspired by Muslim authors influenced by the reformist and modedst thuikers of the Arab world, particularly Jarnai &Diu al-Afghani and

Mdpmnad 'Abduh. In fact, 'Abduh's cd1 for the modernization of Musheducation was an important stimulus for the modernization of islamic education in Indonesia. Indonesian

Muslims were exposed to such ideas during study penods in Mecca or Cairo, and while on pilgrimage to the Hejaz. Furthemore, upon their return to Indonesia, these individuals collaborated together to establish institutions of religious education which parallelecl those of the govemment. Thus by the early 20th century, many Islamic educational institutions had been founded by various Islamic organizations which aspired for the same goals, namely, the reformation of Islamic beliefs and culhtre in such a way as to puri@ them of Western influences; and the resistance of colonial domination. In addition, this new Islamic system of education was designed to help in the stmggle against the prevalence of Islam Abangan17 and Christian missionaries.

During the late Dutch colonial penod, usually referred to as the Nationalist Era, many

Islamic social organizations were established, among them the Muhammadiyah on

Novernber 18, 1912 by . This organization sought to enhance the Islarnic knowledge and values of its members and to propagate Islam in general. Besides esbblishing religiously-oriented schools, the Muhammadiyah also founded a number of institutions for the teaching of modem subjects.

In the political arena, the Islamic nationalists established several organizations, al1 of which shared the single aim of bnnging Dutch and Japanese colonial rule over Indonesia to an end. Sarikat Islam was the first Islamic organization to exhibit a political orientation.

It was founded on October 16,1905 under the name Sarikat Dagang Islam (SDI or Islamic

Commercial Union), and later changed its narne on Novernber 11, 1912 to Sarikat Islam (SI or Islamic Union). Sarikat Islam was onginally éstablished to aid Indonesian merchants in the3 attempt to penetrate the economic monopoly of both Chinese merchants and Javanese . aristocrat merchants.

In the years between 1916 and 1921, Sarikat Islam spread throughout the entire

Indonesian archipelago. Each year it sponsored a national congress attended by representatives from every region, propagating a message of Islarnic nationdism.

l7 Zsiam Abmgan is a tem given to those who take Islam as theû religion but are not committed to continual and serious observation of its practices. In the field of education, Sarikat Islam made every effort to abolish the Dutch practice of discrirninating against indigenous students who did not belong to rich or aristocratie families. This practice made it very dificult, if not impossible, for middle and working class students to enroll in schools. Towards that end, SI pressured the Dutch colonial authorities to make education compulsory for dlIndonesian children up to the age of 15. Furthemore,

SI established many schools at every level, and provided scholarships for students to study abroad.

In line with the developments overtaking the modemist Muslim movements in

Indonesia, the traditionalist 'ulanzà played its own distinctive role in the Nationalist era. In

1926, the 'ulamd of Java come together to form the Nahdatd Ulama (NU) under the auspices of its farnous leader Kyai Hasyim Asy'ari. The association was especially active in operating traditional boarding schools (pesantrens) and, in many cases, undertaking modemization in a manner quite different hmthat of the modernists by continuing to stress Arabic and

Arabic texts, but using new methods of teaching'and broadening the cmicula. One of their famous educational institutions is Pesantren Tebuireng in East Java. The success of pesantrens stemmed fiom the fact that tbe NU kyais have a particulariy close relationship with the rural people, and have devised a pesantren system compatible with nual life.

Following the establishment of secular schools by the colonial administration, the various Islamic organizations established a system of madrasahs. This system airned at addressing the Dutch policies that placed limits on the nurnber of Indonesian students admitted in Dutch schools as weil as providing instruction in Islamic subjects ornitted by the

Dutch. Indonesian Muslims activists -- 'ulama,intellectuals, political leaders and their

followers -- had becorne an important political force by the 1940's and emerged from the

Japanese Era (1942-1945) as a substantial political bloc contributing to the success of the

Indonesian Revolution (1945-1949). The bloc was strong enough at the moment of independence in 1945 to prompt a historical discussion of the upcoming role that Islam was to play in the new Indonesian statement. This debate spelled out the relationship of Islam and the state for the next fifty years and set in motion two different concepts of national life that are only now beginning to merge into a new unity adfull understanding.

Prior to the independence of Indonesia, the Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiupan

Kemerdekaan Indonesia "(BPUPKI or Investigating Cornmittee for the Preparation of

Indonesian Independence) was established on March 1, 1945. This organization was

established with the aim of facilitating the move to an independent Indonesian state. During , its life span BPUPKI orchestrated two formal and one infomal meeting. The fust meeting, held fiom May 28 to June 1, 1945, dealt with'the philosophical basis of the state. This encounter was argumentative as the cornmittee members included "those who wished tu establish IsIam as the basis of the state, those who sought to establish a secular, constitutional state, and advocates of what became known as a negaru Ultegralistik ( an "integralistic state")19. The second meeting, held fiom 10 to 17 July 1945, dealt with the fom of the state, its temtory, citizenship, the drafting of its constitution, economy and finance, state defense

'' In Javanese, D6britsu Junbi C&ukai.

l9 Douglas Edward Ramage, Politics in Indonesia: Democracy. Islam and the IdeoZogy of Tderance, (New York: Roudedge, 1995), 11. and education." The informal meeting, organized in the penod between the two forma1 meetings, dedt with the draft of the preamble to the constitution.

The difference of opinion which charactenzed the Muslim and nationalist positions at the fmt BPUPKI meeting has continued to color uie debate over the nature of the state.

Supomo, in his speech on May 3 1, 1945 put it succinctly when he stated that the Muslims wished to form an Islamic state whereas the nationalists wished to separate religion from the state?

In the first BPUPKI meeting, on May 29, 1945, Muhammad Yamin delivered a speech in which he proposed five philosophical premises for the Indonesian state. They are:

Ketuhanan (belief in God), Peri Kerakyatan (democracy) and Xésejahteraan Rakyat (public welfare and social justice).22 Then, on May 31, 1945, Suporno proposed another five premises as the bais for Indonesian national phüosophy. They are: Persatuan (nationalism),

Kekeluargaan (humanitarianism), Keseimbangh Lahir dan Batin (balancing spiritual and material Me), Mus,awarah (democracy) and Keadilan Rakyat (Social Justice)." Moreover,

Sekretariat Negara Repubiik Indonesia, Risalah Sidang Brrdnn Penyelidik Usaha- Usah Persiapan Kemerdekaan Idonesiu (BP UPKI), Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPKI), [The report of the conference on the Investigating Cornmittee for the Preparation of Indonesian Independence, and the Preparation Cornmittee on Indonesian Independence], ( Jakarta: Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia, 1999,xvii. '' ~uhkmadYamin, Naskoh Persiapan Undang-wtdang Darar 1945, 1, [Preparatos, Text of 1945 Constitution], ( Jakarta: Yayasan Prapanca, 1959), 115- 1 16.

Z2 Muhammad Yamin , Narkah, 87-107, and Sekretanat Negara RI, Risalah, 8-29.

See Sekretariat Negara FU, Risalah, 3 1-61 ; and Muhammad Yamin, Naskah, 109- 1 2 1; aIso Mmati Djoenoed Poesponegoro and Nugroho No tosusanto, Sejarah hional Soekarno, in his speech on June 1, 1945 outlined five pnnciples of state philosophy which

he termed . They are: Kebangsaun Indonesia (nationalism), Peri Kemanusiaan

(intemationalism),Mufakat (democracy), Kesejahteraan Sosial (social justice), Ketuhanan

(belief in God)? Soekarno's speech marked the birth of the state philosophy Pancasila (five principles) with its fusion of Muslim and nationalist ideologies. It was this statement that uitimately became a political rallying point of nationalist groups, particularly non-Muslims and those who were nominal Muslirns, and later the formal doctrinal basis of the Indonesian state itself. Still at this point the issues were not yet decided and there were further developments at this early point in history that framed the debate.

Merthe fust BPUPKI meeting over a month lapsed before it reconvened. In the interim, the Paniria Kecil (Little Cornmittee) was formed with Soekarno as leader, and

Mohammad Hatta, Sutardjo Kartohadikusumo, Wachid Hasjim, Ki Bagus Hadikusumo, Oto

Iskandardinata, Muhammad Yamin and A.A. Maramis as members. Their task was to assess the feedback and suggestions relating to the forbation of an Indonesian state."

In the second meeting, on July 10, 1945, Soekarno, as representative of the Panitia

Kecil (little committee), reported that, in its endeavour, the new committee established another Panitia Kecil, narnely Panitia Sembilan (committee nine)26 which consisted of

Muhammad Hatta, Muhammad Yamin, Subardjo, A.A. Maramis, Soekarno, Kyai Abdul

- - - Inàunesia, VI, me National ], (Jakarta: Balai Pustaka, 1990), 69. " See Selcretariat Negara RI, Risalah,. 63-84; Muhammad Yamin, Naskah, 61-81. * See Sekretariat Negara RI, Risalah, 88.

26 Sekretariat Negara RI, Risalah, 88.

24 Kahar Moezakkir, Wachid Hasjim, and Haji .27Then, on

June 22. 1945 the Panifia Sembilan created the draft of the preamble to the Indonesian

constitution, texmed by Muhammad Yamin the Piagam Jakarta (). This

piagam was fashioned only after senous discussion and compromise between the Islarnic and

the nationalist proponents. Soekarno stated in his speech that initial dificulties were

encountered in the compromise between the Islamic proponents and the nationalists,

particularly in relation to accommodations between state and religion." The draft of the

prearnble was read by Soekmo to the gathered delegates on July 105 1945. It ran as

follows:

Preamble: As independence is the right of every people, any form of subjugation in this world, contrary to humanity(peri kemanusiaan) and justice (pi-keaùilm), must be abolished. Now the stmggIes of the Indonesian independence movernent have reached the blessed hour where the Indonesian people, safe and sound, have been led to the portal of the Indonesian state, which is to be independent, united, sovereign, just and prosperous. By the grace of the almighty God and motivated by the highest ide& of a free national life, the Indonesian people hereby declare their independence. Further, in order to establish for the Indon'esian state a govemment which will protect al1 Indonesian people and al1 Indonesian temtory, promote public welfare, raise the educational standards of the people, and participate in establishing a world order founded on freedom, everlasting peace and social justice, national independence is hereby expressed in a Constitution of the Indonesian state which is moulded in the form of the Republic of Indonesia,

'' Sekretariat Negara RI, Risalah. 94. " Piagam Jakarta (Jakarta Charter)consists of Pancasila. Compared to the five principles offered by Yamin and Soekarno, this Piagam Jakarta ranks belief in God as the first p~ciple.This tenet was originally followed by " dengan kewajibm rnenjalankan syari'at Islam bagi pemeluk-pemeluknya (with an obligation on the adherents of Islam to carry out saan"& Flamic law]". But these seven words were deleted fiom the Preamble to the 1945 constitution. See Sekretariat Negara RI, Risalah, 95.

" Sekretariat Negara RI, Risaluh, 94; and Muhammad Yamin,Naîkah, 153. resting upon the people's sovereignty and founded on (the following principles): Belief in God, with the obligation to carry out the syuri'at Islam(Islamic s6ank.h) for its adherents in accordance with the principle of righteous and moral humanitarianism, the unity of Indonesia, and a 'democracy respectfid of the mutual deliberation of a representative body and ensuring social justice for the entire Indonesian people.)'

In this meeting the preamble once again took center stage when the Panitia

Perancang Undnng-Undang Dasa?' (Constitution Planning Codttee) assessed the draft of the Indonesian constitution. In the following meeting, on July 11, the Panitia Perancang

Undang-undang Dasar reached a consensus on the ,contents of the preamble to the constitution as derived from Piagam

In further developments, the seven words following the first tenet were deleted.

Vanous reasons were cited for this decision. The most prominent one holds Hatta as stating that a Japanese naval envoy came to him to voice the objections of Protestant and Catholic representatives to these seven words. Iu their objections to these seven words the representatives voiced a concem that inclusion of these words would be discriminatory, and would exclude non-Mushs from Indonesian society. Before the meeting of Panitia

Persinpan Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Hatta asked Ki Bagus Hadikusumo, , Mr.

" Sekretariat Negara RI, Risalah, 95; and Muhammad Yarnin, Naskah, 154.

" Panitia Perancang Undang-undzngDmar was headed by Soekarno, and included: Mr. A.A. ~ar&nis,R. Oto Iskandardinata, B.p.h. Poeroebojo, H. Agoes Salim. Mr. Soebardjo, Prof. Dr. , MrNj. Maria Ulfa Santoso, K.H. A. Wachid Hasjim, Parada Harahap, Mr. Latuharhary, Mr. Soesanto Tirioprodjo, Mr. R.M. , Mr. K.R.M.T. Wongsonagoro, K.R.M.T.H.Woe rjaningrat. Mr. R.P. Singgih, Mr. Tan Eng Hoa, Prof. Dr.P.A.H. Djajadiningrat and Dr. Soekiman.

32 Marwati Djoenoed Poesponegoro, Sejarah, 72. Kasman Singodimedjo, and Mr. Teuku Hasan to convene for a short meeting on August 18,

1945, in response to this problem. On emergence, they announced their decision to delete the seven words for the sake of Indonesian unity." Thus, It was held that Pancasila could be a more neutral basis of unity if forma1 identification with Islam was kept at a minimum, As

Denys Lombard states:

As soon as (1945), President defended the idea of a secular State founded on "Five Principles" -- which he called Pancasila -- a sort of syncretism strongly influenced by Javanese philosophy, was coined to make paramount "the belief in one God (Ketuhunan Yang Mahaesa)and thus necessarily implied not just tolerance for al1 monotheistic religions, but also equal treatment for them. At the Ministry for Religious Affairs, there are in fact three other Directorates responsible for Protestants, Catholic and the Bali indus .M

The abandonment of Pancasila as enunciated in the Jakarta charter, should not, in

Ramage's words be seen as "the only cause of cleavage in ideological discourse in the new

Republic. Rather, it is the case that sharp ideological debate involving Islam and other alternatives for the dasar negara existed before tlie Jakarta Charter was proposed"" He was referring, of course to the lack of cooperation between the Muslim movements on the one hand, and the "nationaIist" movements on the other hand during the late colonial period.

33 , Sekitar Proklamasi 17 Agustus 1945, (Concerning the August 17, 1945 Indonesian Declaration), (Jakarta: TintaMas, 1982), 59-60. " ~en~sLombard, "Islam and Politics in the Countries of the Malay Archipelago" Islam and the State in 77ze World Today ed. Olivier Cm& (New Delhi: Manohar, 1987), 236. '' Douglas Edward Ramage, Politics, 15. In the 1950s, the debate about Islam and Pancasila was renewed in a new forrn. The

Majelis Suro Muslimin Indonesia " (Masyumi or Consultative Council of Indonesian

Muslirns) brought a new dimension to the discourse on statehood by promoting the ideology

that the state should strive to base itself on the teachings and faith of Islam and, if possible,

establish an Islamic state." Moharnmad Natsir, in his capacity as Masyumi's representative,

asserted in his speech to the Badan Konstituate's (Constituent Assembly) debate on the

foundation of the state in November 1957, that:

1 and my fnends in the feel we have an obligation to put before this honourable plenq session more broadly and in greater depth, the views that we presented to the First Committee and the Committee for the Preparation of the Constitution, that is to Say, our hkpe, already known to al1 here, that our State, the Republic of hdonesia, will be based on Islam: that it will be a democratic State, based on Islamic prin~iples.'~

36 Masyurni was established on November 8, 1945 as a result of the conference held on 7 and 8 November 1945 which was attended by almost dl Islamic organizations. At the the, Masyumi was the only Islamic political party. At the beginning, only four organizations joined Masyumi. They are: Muhammadiyah, Nahdatul Ulama, Perserikatan Umat Islam and Persatuan Umat Islam. These organizations were followed by al-Jamiyatul Washliyah and al-Ittihadiyah (North Sumatra), and in 1949 Persaîmn UlmSeluruh Aceh (PUSA or The Association of Acehnese 'Ub) joined Mas yumi. In 1958, many local and seved national leaders of Masyumi joined the revolt (especidly in Sumatra and Sulawesi) which sought to separate nom Indonesia and to establish an Islamic state. Consequently, Masyurni was banned by the govenunent in 1960, and all efforts to reestablish it were rejected in 1965. Then, in 1968, the government established Parîai Muslimin Indonesia ( or Indonesian Muslim Party) instead. For more information on Masyumi, see Deliar Noer, Partai Islam di Pentas Nusional, (Jakarta: Grafiti Press, 1987). For more information on the history of Pannusi see Kenneth E. Ward, The FoLUrdiZtion of the Partai Muslimin Zdonesia, (Ithaca, New York: CorneU Modem Indonesia Project, 1970).

37 A. Wahid, "The Islamic Masses in the life of state and nation" Prisma, 1985,8.

Moharnmad Natsir, IshSebagai Daror Negara, (Içlarn as the Basis of the State), (, Pimpinan.Fraksi Masyurni dalarn Konstituante, n.d), 8. The quotation in English is taken fiom Margaret Bocquet, and Robert Cribb (ed.), Islam and the Panca Sila, (North Queensland: James ~ookUniversity, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1991), 5. And, on the rejection of Islam as the bais of the state, he responded by declaring that:

Their rejection of Islam is not based on evaiuation of ment or worth; there is no suggestion that the content and characteristics of the Islamic way of life present some ineradicable problem, or that such a way of life is not embedded into the souls of what is recognized as the majority of the Indonesian population. The reason for the rejection is that Islam is embraced by one group, but not by every group... Further more, Mr. Chairman, such an argument wiU be ineffective, because, Mr Chairman, what if the Islamic side, whose way of life has been refùsed as the basis of the state on the grounds that "that belief is embraced by only one group arnong others ", then replies in tum, "Yes, and we people of Islam, what are our grounds ? Why should Islamic people accept 'Panca Sila' as the state's bais when Panca Sila too is really the belief of only one Party, not representative of other groups in Indonesia ? Anyhow, our Islamic way of life is not reflected by Panca ~ila.~'

Furthemore, Natsir described the decision to accept Pancasila as the basis of the state as tragic and harmfuI to the Indonesian context where comrnunity life is centered upon religion.

He also maintained that Pancasila, which is hardly a religious credo, cannot, therefore, be adopted as an ideology. And, although the pnnciple of belief in one God is enshrùied in its tenets, Pancaçifa remains, in essence, secular, atheist and irreligious, he argued. Moreover, the presence of any principle is not necessarily related to the overall spirit of the document.

Rather, the other principles appear to be unconnected to the principle of belief in one God which appears aùnost as an afterthought. The claim, therefore, that the principle of belief in one God ernbodies the soul of the other principles cannot be substantiated. Above dl,

Pancasila was devised with the express aim of serving a neutral ideology?' According to

39 , Islam, 5-6.

Mohammad Natsir, Islam, 24-28. Natsir, the Indonesian state, with its present emphasis on Islam is neither a theocracy nor a

secular state ,but, rather a theistic democracy! This appeal, however, was unsuccessful and

the proclamation of Guided Democracy in 1957 brought'down this chapter of the debate.

In Soekarno's view, Pancasila is the basic philosophical premise of Indonesian

independence, the buis of the state and the basis of the 1945 constitution, and should

ùierefore be irnplicitly and automatically recognized by anyone who is committed to that

constitution? This view reflected a wide spectnun of popular sentiment among Indonesians,

especially in , among leftists, non-Muslims, those who valued the living custorns

(adat) of the regions and the new administrative officiais. All the gmups believed that Islam

was a divisive issue at this point and would, if adopted as state philosophy, open the way to difficult problems and put the values of each particular group at risk. Their concern was heightened in the 1950s by intemperate Indonesian Muslims promoting an illegal and counter state movement under the general title of Danil Islam.

FoLlowing Sukarno's lead, Pancasila thus came to be regarded as the "official" doctrine of the state at the time and has not relinquished its place since then. In the Guided

Democracy period, however, it was still developing as a national concept and the leftists, in particular, often used it, dong with other political devices to exhort agest the political evils of reaction and neocolonialism with which they labeled their enemies, including the my and the generals. Significantly, at this time two other groups -- the army leadership and the

41 Mohmad Natsir, Islam, 28-30.

" Syafniddin Prawiranegara, "Pancasila as the sole foundation" Indonesia, 1984, No. 38, (New York: Corne11 Southeast Asia Program, New York), 76 and 78. state administrators -- began to use Pancasila as a more benign slogan, one which saw the

supremacy of the state over all factions as important and one which called for ci tizenship on

the basis of Indonesian unity overarching al1 divisiveness in the country, including that of

religion and feelings about Islam. The lefists view was triumphant for a time, that of the

moderator had a longer, deeper impact that lasted beyond the era.

Nonetheless, an "IsIam versus Pancasila" dynamic shaped much of the debate and

discourse surrounding politics in Indonesia until the mid-1980s. In the 1990s, an "Islam

versus non-Islam" dynamic has emerged in the political di~course.4~According to: Syafmddin

Prawiranegara, Pancasila is not a religion and cannot replace religion. Forcing Indonesians to accept Pancasila entails a reformulation of a religion revealed by God to an ideology which does not presume to cal1 itself a religion." Moreover, Muhammad Natsir asserted that

Pancasila was unequivocally secular and neutral. If its neutrality vanished, its raison d'erre would also vanish."'

The Indonesian Communist Parîy (Pwhad arnassed enough strength by 1965 to attempt to seize power. This move, however, was forcefully put down by the anny which used it as a means of increasing its hold on the govemment. This seizure of power was formally given by President Soekarno in the Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret (March 11

Mandate), in which he recognized General as the real leader of the govemment. The new government chose the title New Order and consolidated its power by evenhially

43Doug1asEdward Ramage, Politics, 16. " Syafhddin Prawiranegara, "Pancada", 99 and 8 1.

4s Muhammad Natsir, Islam, 27. 31 installing Suharto as President. Muslim nationalists hoped to play an effective role in the new

poiitical order by fostering doser ties to the Suharto regime. They were, however, denied that

role by the govemment which did not intend to gtant Muslim nationalists a participatory role

in the administration of the country. The origins of the New Order's rejection of Muslim

poiitical overtures seems to have sternmed fiom the desire not to dlow Masyumi activists

to play any role in the political process, on the grounds that numerous members of that party had associated with rebel groups in the late 1950's. Beyond this, there was a general belief that Islamic goals were inirnical to the army leadership and to the traditiond Indonesian way of life. As a result, the Pancasila state was continued and, in fact, given greater emphasis as a unity device for the Indonesian nation. Supporters regarded it as inclusive of religious values, including Islam, while Indonesian Musli. activists of the time regarded it as a secular device.

In Religion and Political Modernization, Smith posits the argument that secularization may be broken down into duee components: separation between state and religion, replacing the function of religion in the socio-economic sphere and emphasizing development as the route to the reaiization of certain obje~tives.~AU these trends cm be discemed in îhe New Order, which recognized IsIarnic parties but restricted their movements.

Thus, Indonesian Muslims who strove to reestablish the Islarnic Party, disbandeci in the

Soekarno era, were frustrated in their attempts after the creation of the New Order. In the case of Masyumi, for example, the New Order govemment created the Pmusi (Partai

Donald Eugene Smith, Religion and Political Modemizution, (New Haven: Yale university Press, 1974), 8. Muslimin Indonesia or Indonesian Muslim Party) rather than reestablish the Masyumi.

Furthemore, as part of its policy, the Indonesian govemment successfulIy disabled any

Islamic organization's capacity to function in the political arena. Consequently, these organizations have retreated from political life and had to deal in exclusively religious matters. A good example of this is the NU'S decision to remto the Khittah 1926 (The 1926

Principle) at its 1984 conference."

In 1973, conditions changed further when al1 the Islamic parties were forced to amalgamate into one political party, the Partai Persatuan pembangunane (PPP or United

Development Party). In addition, any member nominated for party leadership had to be approved by the governrnent. Since then, persistent intemal party conflicts have prevented it from becoming an effective political voice. In addition, "By the mid 1980s al1 traces of

47 The decision to retum to the Khiîîah of 1926 was declared in its 27th congress in Situbondo (East Java) in 1984. Previously Nahdlw Uama used to be a political party from 1952 to 1973. As a political party, NU had witnessed three different political eras, namely, the Liberal Democracy, the Guided Democracy and the Pancasila Democracy (New Order era). This long experience of the NU in Indonesian political life was a major factor in the objection of some 'ulami towards the remto the Khiîtah of 1926. As a consequence of this decision, NU had to withdraw from practical politics and to focus on its activities regarding religious and social matters. For further information the NU'S decision to retm to the Khittah of 1926, see Pengurus Besar , Hasil MrJdamar Nahdlatul UZarna ke 27 di Situbondo me Report of the 27' Congress of Nahdiahil Ulama in Situbondo] ,(Semarang: Sumber Barokah, 1985). " The Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (abbreviated as PPP) was established in 1973 as an amalgarnation of the four Tslamic Parties: namely, Nahdatul Ulum (NU); Parmusi; PSQ and Perti. It was hoped that this party would embody dlMuslim political aspirations. However, when the governrnent stated that ail parties should be based on Pancasila, PPP lost its character as an Islamic Party. Since then, the Islamic party has been formally eliminated. This policy, however, could not elirninate the image of the PPP as an Islamic Party, even though in the 1992 general elections, the govemment changed the party's symbol from the Ka 'bah to a star. formerly influential Muslims parties like Masyumi and Parmusi had been effectively obliterated. In Anny circles, Muslim extremism continued to be regarded as a latent threat, and there were frequent trials of alleged Muslim extremi~ts"~~

It should also be noted that, in the 1982 general election, dlgovernment officiais and the famüy of members of army were obliged to vote for the party supporting the govemment, the Golongan Karya (Golkar or The Group of Functionaries). In fact, the success of the chief authority in a given region, such as a governor, was measured by the number of ballots cast for Golkar candidates in the area under their jurisdiction. This goes a long way towards explaining why Golkar always emerges as the winner in national elections. Under this system any other party can have only win a small nurnber of seats, and have very little impact on public policy.

Sol is it possible for Indonesian Muslims to fulfill their political aspirations without the vehicle of an Islamic party ? This question may be equivalent to the classical debate on whether or not there, exists such a thing as in Islarnic tat te." The stniggle between

Indonesian Muslim activists and Indonesian state forces was a bitter stnrggle with most

Muslims apparently willing to accept Pancasila as state ideology while seeking hlamic standards in the nation in other foms. Munawir Sjadzaly played an important role in the promotion of Pancasila as state ideology. By challenging the concept that Islam embodies the concept of an Islamic state, he sought to dampen the enthusiasm of Indonesian Muslims

" Michael R. J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics Under Suharto: Order, Development, and Pressure for Change, (New York: Routledge: 1994), 121.

50 M Rusli Kariml Islam dan Konfik Politik Era Orde Baru, [Islam and Political Conflict in the New Order Era], (: Media Widya Mandala, 1992), 17. for creating an Indonesia nation based on Islamic principles."

Thus, it took a fut1 17 years for the New Order to marginalize Islam within the

political iren na,^^ and to implement the separation behveen state and religion that Indonesian

Muslims had so feared. The question remains, however: can Indonesian Muslirns really

channel and articulate their political aspirations effectively without an Islamic ideological

party ? If the answer is yes to the previous question, then it cm be stated then that the

government has succeeded in secularizing the Indonesian body politic.

At this point some consideration of Smith's points, raised in the Introduction, are in

order. If we consider that the therne of his typology is the nse in importance of the state vis-

a-vis religion, religious values and religious authority, it is clear that Indonesian history of

the twentieth century has, indeed, been concerned with such secularization. It appears, in

generd, that Smith's supposition is basicdly correct and that the Indonesian government is a attempting to rnarginalize religion. But, as in al1 such analyses, the results are not always

clear-cut and ouûight victory for the state is not dways apparent. In generd though the trend

in Indonesia has been in the direction of govemment dominance, as proposed by Smith. This

is especially true in point 1 where there is institutional separation of religion and polity and

point 4 where there is a decline in influence of religion and religious officiais in the political

sphere.

The first phase in the depoliticization of Indonesian IsIarn began with Suharto's

speech to the plenary session of Dewan Pewakilan Rakyat (DPR or Indonesian Legislative

M Rusli Ka-, Islam, 18.

s2 M Rusli Karim, Islam, 18. Assembly) on August 15,1982." At this time Suharto was promoting Pancasila as the sole

ideology for al1 organizations and parties. He aîtempted to promote the idea that without this

unifom ideological underpinning, al1 parties and organizations would succumb to

ideological conflict. For the PPP the choice was simple, either to conform to this policy or

face eradication from the political arena. Initially, this policy was only airned at political

parties, but soon it was extended to cover al1 social organizations. In reacting to this policy,

Islamic parties and organizations were split in two directions: those who were willing to

accept this policy and those who were not. The split was evident even within individual

organizations. Any Islamic organization or party that wished to remain active had no choice but to sacrifice their Islarnic ideology and accept Pancasila as their ideological platforrn. In response, even former supporters of Pancasila reacted negatively. Himpunan Mahasiswa

Islam (HM. or Lslamic Student Association) for example, which had been a supporter of

Pancasila from its earliest inception now reacted strongly against Pancasila as the sole ideology. For this reason, at its 1983 congress'in Medan, HM resolved to maintain its

Islamic pnnciples, thus leading to govemment counter-measures against it." The only practical choice Islamic organizations had was to accept Pancasila as the reigning ideology.

The only organization which rejected Pancasila as an ideology was the Pelajar Islam

Indonesia (PI1 or Indonesian Muslim Students). Since then, the PII has been banned and pushed underground.

53 M Rusli Karirn, Islam, 12. '' Kuntowijoyo, "Religion, State and Social Formation in Indonesia" Mizan, 1984, 1, no.2, 10. On the flip side, the govemment, through the Ministry of Religious Affairs, has

continued to oversee and sponsor Muslim matters of 'ibadah, including pilgrimage, infaq,

zaknh, and sadaqah through Bazis ( The Institution for Alms, Disbursement and Charity).

In this respect Musli.Indonesians were given the illusion that Islam was the bais of state."

In the words of Vatikiotis, "the Suharto govemment seemed to be emulating the oId Dutch

policy of emasculating political Islam while outwardly promoting its spiritual health ... Islam

has declined as a political force, but not as a potent influence on society. Indeed, there are

those who argue that Indonesia has become more Islarnic under Suharto's rule, despite the

regime's secular leanings"?

The concept of reactuaüzation of the shari'ah, promoted by Munawir Sjadzali in the

1%Us, sought to interpret the shar7ah in a manner relevant to an Indonesian cultural context.

This approach, argues Vatikiotis, "not only neatly solves the problem of perrnitting shari'ah

law to exist within the body of secular national law, but also reduces the chance of friction

between the religions"." Furthemore, "outside iti official patronage of Islarnic institutions,

for most of its twenty-fïve year rule, the New Order governrnent has demonstrated more suspiciion than trust towards Islam. The military has always been fearful of Islamic extremism"." The challenges facing Indonesian Muslims bent on gaining influence with respect to govemment policies, are: 1) a government so powerful as to impede the

" Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 121.

56 Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesiai, 121- 122.

57 Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 127.

Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, hdonesian, 127.

37 democratization process and the matunty of an egalitarian body politic; 2) underdevelopment

in science and technology; 3) a cultural divide engendered by an industrial era; 4) social and economical inequity; 5) the erosion of mords and ethics; 6) succession and regeneration of the 1945 generation; 7) the planning of a second Long-term Development Plan as a continuation of the fir~t.~~TOovercome these obstacles ,Indonesian Muslims will have to act, both individually and organizationally to promote a potent political Islamic entit~.~

The conundmm in which Indonesian Muslims find themselves stems from the fact that they expect their representatives to channel their aspirations through govemment policy, while, at the same time, regarding them with suspicion for having become members of any political party without histoncal ties to an Islarnic partyO6'The formation of ICMI, for exarnple, was regarded with scepticism by some Muslims because of its involvement in the bureaucratic arena. It may be argued, however, that involvement is a necessary evil if

Muslims are to Islamize the bureaucracy, a task no Islamic organization has yet ventured to do. A coherent, articulated response to the question of participation and interaction in

Indonesian political life and development has yet to be formulated by the Islarnists.

The causes of Muslirn marginalization are fourfold. In the fust instance, strong opposition was expressed to the concepts of hlamic law and the Islamic state beginning at the BPUPKI session for the dedaration of Indonesian independence in 1945, at the 1956

Constituent Assernbly sessions, and again in the 1990's in the wake of Islamic revivalism.

59 M. Rusli Karim, Zslam,49.

M. Rusli Karim, Islam, 4 1.

M. RUSEKatim, Islam, 26. Ironically, opposition did not emanate from non Muslim sources aione, but also from

Muslims who felt that the intensification of Islamic values and adoption of Muslirn law depends, to a great extent, on the social class, ethnic educational background and political identity of different individuals. This schism was caused by the application of customary law (adat),which was prominent in the early part of the century. In effect, the promotion of adut law engendered peculiarities in regional cultures, particularly in life-cycle ceremonies. This had a profound impact on Muslims since standardized Islamic practices conflict with these cultural mores in many ways. Historically, most Muslims accepted these cultural nomuntil the reformist and modemist tide began propagating the idea that Islamic law was superior to udat law.

In the second instance, hdonesian Muslims do not al1 share the same goals in achieving an Islamic basis of the state, i.e. the establishment of an Islamic state or Islamic ummah. Intellectuals such as Nurcholish Madjid6', Abdul Rahman wahid3, and Dawam

Rahardjoa, do not see the need for an Islamic date in Indonesia but rather emphasize the importance of the Islamic umh(community). Other authors, on the other hand, such as

62 argues that there is no term "Islamic State" in Islam. Islam is in line wiîh nationalist ideas. Therefore, there is no need for hdonesian Muslims to establish an Islamic state, as it is not the forma1 form of the state but the substance of the state that is most important. This cm be achieved with a cultural approach in its wider meaning, including education, propagation, art and intellectual dynarnism.

63 For Abdul Rahman Wahid the form of the state is irrelevant as long as ~hslims can practise their religion in a state which emphasizes social welfare and justice.

a Dawam Rahardjo argues that the goal of Islam is to establish an Islarnic community, not an Islamic state. He maintains that an Islamic state is an ideal constmct which is elitist and totalitarian. The elite, in the Islarnic state, are those who understand religious doctrines and act as Godis interpreters. M. Amien a ais,^ have argued that an 1sla.cstate is an imperative for Indonesia. Alas, these

differences have often led to misunderstandings and contributed to negative sectarianisrn,

thus diminishing the collective power of the Muslim cornmunity. The cumnt trend in

Islarnic political discourse is to emphasize the establishment of the Islamic mmh,as any

attempt to establish an Islamic state always faces resistance from the government. B.J.

Boland explains what Indonesian Muslim mean by Islarnic urnrnah:

(1) the attempt to have Islarnic pnnciples imbue Indonesian society; (2) the promotion and strengthening of the uchuwah Ishrniyah, Islamic brotherhood; (3) making visible the impact of Islam on public life; (4) spreading an klarnic style of life; in short (5) the furthering of everything that codd give Indonesia the colour of a Mushcountry, in accordance with the fact that far and away the majority of the inhabitants are ~uslirns.~

Thus, it can be said that the organization of an Islamic community is necessary for the

establishment of Lslarn as the basis of the sate. However, as the Islamic ummah has not yet

been established, Islam cannot yet serve as the basis of the state.

In the third instance, a leadership cnsis has contributed to the failure of Islamists to

promote Islam as the basis of the state in Indonesia. No leader of these divergent Islamic

organizations has had their decisions widely accepted by al1 mernbers of Muslim

organizations. Therefore, it is urgent for all leaders of these organizations to join together,

meet, and discuss how they wish to achieve their goal of an Islamic state. In general, there

" M. argues that the goal of the secular state is to fuU5.U public interests, but that there is no one standard regarding fulfilment of the public interest in any given country because of peculiarieies in ideology, and its indicator, public opinion. Moreover, the achievement of public interest is merely material. Whereas, in Islam the goal of the state is the establishment of faith and the indicator of public interest is not public opinion but the shd'ah.

B.J. Boland, The Struggle, 186. have been at least three approaches which Islamic leaders have initiated in relation to the

state's Islamic policie~.~The fmt approach has been to act inside govemmental institutions

by complying with the Indonesian government's policies regarding Islam. The second

approach has been to establish organizations or institutions outside the govemment while

continuing to maintain close ties with the govemment. The third approach has been to

establish and emphasize the concept of empowennent within Indonesian society as a.whole,

regardless of religion.

As mentioned above, Indonesian Muslirns played an important role in securing

Indonesian independence and in the establishment of the Indonesian state. This was possible

because of a climate of accommodation between Islam and the existing government.

Nevertheless, the relationship between Islam and the state was never free of antagonism in

either the Old Order or the New Order. In the 1980s, however, a slight change occurred,

allowing the relationship to go from antagonistic to accomrnodative. The cataiyst to this sudden rapport was the establishment of Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia (ICMI or

Indonesian Muslim Intellectuai's Association) on December 6$ l99O. There have kenmany interpretations of this event and the benefits which this new reapproachment has led to. A popular analysis by Afan Gaffar argues that îhis change in the relationship between Marn and the state was dictated by the state's need to CO-optJilam, and it is beIief that Islam must be accommodated as a substantive force in the political arena in order to avert civil conflict. In addition, the membership of ICMI includes government staff members who are not averse

67 Muhammad A.S. Hikam, "Islam and the Empowerment of Indonesian Civil Society" The Indonesian Qwrîerly, 1996, xxiv, (l), 33-35. to Islam and who are in a position to shape goverment political attitudes towards Islam. kistly, states Gaffar, the change in the political tactics of the Muslim thernselves has ailowed them to penetrate the political system as more than lobbyists."

In conclusion, 1 quote Federspiel:

"The major question to be asked is whether the recent trend toward religiosity and greater concem with Islamic forms will lead uliimately to an "Islarnic revolution", with the full imposition of Islarnic laws, as in Iran. That is not

impossible. Still it is likely that other societal forces in Xndonesia that have ' checked Islam in the past ... will continue to exert influence and prevent any transformation into an Islamic state. But, even without such wholesale Islamization, IsIarnic Iaw is apt to remain an important issue for Indonesian s0ciety".6~

2. Indonesian Muslirns and lndonesian development,

The goal of Indonesian national development is to create a just community balanced between spintuality and materialism based on Pancasila and the Constitution of 1945. This

"development is intended to create a better life and social justice in the community in al1 its aspects, whether political, economic, socio-cultud or otherwise. It also intends to guarantee the safety of the community, and the unity of Indonesia"."

" See, Afan Gaffar, "Politik Akomodasi: Islam dan Negara di Indonesia" [The Politics of Accommodation: Islam and State in Indonesia] Agama Demokrasi dan Keadilan, (Religion, Democracy and Justice) eds. M. hm Aziz, M. Jadul Maula, and Ellyasa K.H. Dharwis, (Jakarta: Gramedia, 1993), 98- 1 15.

69 Howard M. Federspiel, "Islamic Values, Law and Expectations in'contemporary Indonesia", Unpublished paper, 1996, 16.

70 John Sujadi Hartanto, Memahami UUD 1945, Pd, GBHN 1993-1998, Waskut [Understanding the 1945 Constitution, P4, GBHN 1993-1998, Close Supervision], (Surabaya: Penerbit lndah), 79-82. The national development of Indonesia is based on the Asas Pembangm Nasionol

(The Principles of Indonesian National Development) which encompasses nine principles:

1) The belief in God, which rneans that al1 the efforts and activities of national development

are motivated and guided by a belief in God. This is considered to be the holy value which

fomthe basis of the spiritual, moral and ethical application of Pancasila 2) The pnnciple

of beneficence, i.e. that al1 effortfi and activities of national development must have the

maximum benefit for humani ty, increase community welfare, develop citizen personality and

pnoritize the existence of Indonesian values, while preserving the environment. 3) The

democratic pnnciples of Pancasila, requinng national development to be motivated by a

spint of familiarity which is characterized by togethemess, mutual cooperation and unity,

through Musyawarah (consensus building) in order to reach mufakat (agreement); 4) The principle of justice and equaüty, resulting in an effort to distribute development and its results equally to amongst members of the community throughout the archipelago; 5) The principle of balance or hamonization in all ipects of life between this world and the hereafter, materialism and spirituality, physics and psychics, individuality and community, national and regional, national and international; 6) The pnnciple of law, encouraging development to foster the obedience of the Indonesian people and their govenunent to the law; 7) The pnnciple of autonomy, basing development on the potency of self confidence;

8) The principle of stniggle, in which the goverment and the community continue to posses the mentality, will, spirit of dedication, obedience and discipline to put national and state needs above individual and community needs; 9) The pnnciple of science and technology must be applied and mastered in line with religious and community values.7'

The Indonesian government has outlined the development of hdonesia in Rencana

Pembangunan Jan& Panjang (Long-Term Development Plan) of 25 years which in turn

is divided into five year plans in the Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Repelita or Five

Years Development Plan) which began with the Repelita 1in 1969. Currentiy the Indonesian

govemment is in the second Rencnna Pembangunan Jangka Panjang, begun with its

Repelita VI. In its development programs, the Indonesian government places much emphasis on industrialization and agricultural development. Through its intensification and extensification programs, success has been achieved in agricultural sustainable development.

Indeed, the "production of rice, the staple food, has grown at a rate unparalleleci in Asia over the past twenty years ... [rice production] in 1989-1990 increased by over 3 percent to over

30 million tonnes, ... Suharto took particdar pride in declaring self-sufficiency in rice in the mid-1980s. For maoy years the country was the world's largest rice importer.""

When Suharto took office, Indonesia's konomy was in a deplorable state: it had a negative growth rate, 600 percent inflation, no foreign reserves to speak of, and a national debt of over $US 2 billion. Suharto had no choice but to emphasize the development of the

Indonesian e~onorny.~~Consequently, "The new regime's rapid implementation of macro- economic stabilization saved the country from economic di~aster".~~For example, in the

...... -

71 John Sujadi Hartanto, Memahami, 82-84.

72 Michael R. J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 35.

73 Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 33.

74 MichaeX R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 34.

44 poverty alleviation programs, the Indonesian government placed emphasis on the rural areas,

where it has succeeded in reducing the poverty level substantially. From 1976 to 1987 alone

the annual mal poverty rate decreased by nearly seven percent." It is undeniable ,therefore,

that "Indonesia under Suharto has been held up as sornething of a mode1 of Third World

de~elopment.'"~

However, government development policies have often lead to social problems,

resulting from the marginalization of the lower and middle class businesses. Consequently,

one fmds that until now,the gap between the rich and the poor continues to remain wide. The issue of the increasing involvement of members of the lower and middle classes in the socio- econornic programs has been a goal for Muslim organizations in Indonesia. For example,

Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia (ICMI: or Indonesian Muslim Intellectual' s

Association) maintains a bzgaining position by retabhg its grass root support, thus offering a venue for participation in the development process. Moreover, as a lobby group, ICMI brings the aspirations of grass roots movemenk to the notice of the govemment, so that development becomes concordant with social welfare. The practical results of this program can be Seen in the establishment of Bank Muamalat Indonesia (BMI or Indonesian Business

Bank), and Bank Perkreditan Rakyat Shari'ah (BPRS Shan'& Public Credit Bank).

Indonesian development is characterized by industndization and modernization implemented through the adoption of technology and values from advanced countries.

75 Ali Wardhana, "Indonesia During the Economic Take-Off: Economic, Political, and Social Challenges" The Indonesian Quarterly, 1993, xxi (4), 453.

76 Michael R.J. Vatikiotis, Indonesian, 35 Although these outside values combine with the indigenous values to some extent tbey often contradict community values, especially in rural areas. Therefore, it is necessary for the

Indonesian govemment to consider local values in their development p~licies.~For example, when the texm rnodernization was introduced in Indonesia in 1966-197 1, it was, unfortunately, only partialiy understood. This term is preferable to words like revolution, but it has the disadvantage that many continue to understand it in terms of westemization and secularization. As such, the term development was henceforth used as a replacement for rnoderni~ation.~~This is not to Say that Indonesian Muslims are anti-modemization. Indeed,

"Muslims in Indonesia, generally speaking, do not feel difficulties with regard to most aspects of modernization ...Religion in Indonesia does not actuaily impede technologicd development. Of course, religions and religious leaders ofien tend to be suspicious of certain novelties and especially of developments which could change the estabfished structure of

~ociety".~'

In addition, when rnodemization was hi pursued in Indonesia, religion was viewed as an inhibithg factor, but later when declining social values occurred, religion was seen as a possible antidote. In this effort, religious symbols were identified as useN vehicles for motivating public participation in Indonesian development. It was also recognized that

Donald G. McCloud, Southeast Asia; Tradition and Modemity in the Conternporary World, (Colorado: Westview Press, 1995), 262.

M. Dawam Rahardjo bbIslamdan Pembangunan, Agenda Penelitian Sosial di Indonesia" [hiam and Developmenf the Social research Agenda in Indonesia] Pembangunan dan Kebangkitan Islam di Asia Tenggara [The Development and Resurgence of Islam in Southeast Asia] ed. Saifd Muzani, (Jakartê LP3ES, 1993), 272. '' B.J. Boland, The Stnrggle, 2 19. religion still wields critical power in the community. On this matter, Neils Mulder states:

What ever some people fancy about political reform, it carries little weight if compared to the moral appeal of religion. In the ideologicdly vacuous environment of the New Order, where money has grown to become the conspicuous idol, congregational religion, whether Islam or Chnstianity, is faring well. Joining is a means of searching-for and expressing a moral identity, one's ethical worth. In moque and church, a rneasure of criticisrn cm be voiced against the excess of development, such as the overwhelming worth of filthy lucre, the ovemding priority of pecuniary profit, the race for riches, the disgusting display-spending of the nouveaux riches, the Chinese . domination of the economy, the opaque monopolies and business conglomerates. Often religious participation, especially in Islam, can also be a means to react against the influence of foreign culture affecting Indonesian life in the fonn of alien life styles, western oriented consumerism, 'individudisrn', far-fetched fashions, American pop music, pornography, and dmgs... And whereas many wiii merely care for îheir own &airs, others seek a moral identity in religion ... Next to religious self-expression, there is another way of seeking an antidote to the disturbances of king uprooted and transplanted into a modem urban life far from home.''

The moral decadence resulting from modernization has led the members of the

Indonesian community to look for their identity in their religion, culture and custom. For this,

Donald G. McCloud states: "The process of redefining national identity and, by extension, the social and political institution that make up contemporary society has not been easy or uniform. Some values such as religion have been obvious areas for revitalization...""

Therefore, it is important to pay attention to the emergence and development of spintual movements in Indonesia, as B.J. Boland also argues that: "The need to pay attention to this spiritual aspect of modernization is evident f?om the rise and thriving condition of nurnerous

Neils Mulder, Inside Indunesian Sociey: An Interpretation of Cultural Change in Java,mangkok: Editions Duang Kamol, 1994), 123- 124.

DonaId G. McCloud, Southeast Asia, 263. groups based on mysticism, imer piety or a kind of moral rearmament"82

In terms of development and its effects, Muslim intelleciuals have responded in a

variety of ways. Some become interested in the problems of social change, as side effects to

economic development; and the factors supporting or obstmcting development. The later

usuaily view the social sciences as tools of social engineering and development. Similady,

there are those interested in identifying the relationship between economic and non-economic

factors in the development process and identimg the side effects of economic development.

Likewise, other Muslim intellectuals showed interested in development through an

. alternative theory, namely, the "Islamic econornical science".83 It is in this respect that

Xslamic organizations in Indonesia have tried to diminish the negative effects of rapid economic development and also to mediate between the middle and lower class businessmen in programs for economic development.

Of course, the success of the New Order's development program is undeniable, especially when measured in economic tem. This can be seen from the increased economic and political stability, as well as from the current increased emphasis the Indonesian govemment has placed on democracy, hurnan rights and environmental issues. A case in point, is the role of women in Indonesian development The GBHN, for example, states that women, as citizens and a human resource, have equal nghts and obligations to those of men

-- --- " B.J. Boland, The Stmggle, 217.

83 Generally, these inteliectuals are educated in Western universities but have "fundamental" attitudes on Islamic doctrines. in al1 aspects of Indonesian deve~oprnent.~Many scholars have also pointed out that the

conditions and position of women in Indonesia are very favourable whether compared to

other Muslim countries or non-Muslim countries of ~sia?

As the fourth most populous country in the world, the Indonesian govemment

actively encourages family planning programs. Muslim leaders and organizations have reacted to these programs in various ways. Some authoritative Muslims agree to this prograrn while others do not. 'The NU [Nahdatul Ulam] actively promoted family planning as a voluntary and responsible decision made within the family, depending on their health and socio-economic situation... Muharnmadiyah moved from passive opposition to passive acceptance of family planning, but continued to consider the prevention of pregnancy to be against the teaching of Islam ...MLTI [Majelis Ulam Indonesia or Indonesian Religious

Scholars Council] and Islamic leaders at the Ministry of Religious Affairs fully endorsed the launching of the national family planning prograrn in the 1970s".~~Culturally speaking,

1ndonesiA fanailies tend to have many children. There is a famous rnotto among Indonesians declaring that, "Banyak ana.banyak rezeki3' (the more children you have the richer you will be). Moreover, for the Bataknese, for example, there is a saying which claims "Maranak sapuluh pitu, mrboru sapuluh onom" (One should have 17 sons and 16 daughters). Not surprisingly then, the govemment family planning prograrn was initially rejected but

84 John Sujadi Hartaato, Menuthami, 46.

See, Rosalia Sciortino, Lies Marcoes Natsir and Masdar F. Mas'udi, "Learning fkom Islam: Advocacy of Reproductive Rights in Indonesian Pesantren" Reproductive Health Matters, November 1996, No. 8,87-89.

"Rosalia Sciortino, Lies Marcoes Natsir and Masdar F. Mas'udi, 'Zearning", 87-89. eventually became widely acceptai with the result that population growth has decreased significantly in Indonesia.

In respect to the diversity of cultures in the Indonesian society, and the effects of development on these diverse community values, it is important to note that socio-political development in Indonesia should take into account two factors: the distinct nature of cultural factors and the histoncal stmggle for self detemination?'

"Jusuf Wanandi, " Sociopoliticaldevelopment and hstitution Building in Indonesia" &ian Political Imtih~tiorzulization,edited by Robert A. Scalapino, Seizaburo Sato, and Jusuf Wanandi (Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies, 1986), 184. Chapter II

Islamic Educational Institutions in Indonesia

1. The role of education in Indonesian development.

The New Order govemment has focused Indonesian development on economic

growth and political stability.' These two points of emphasis are intercomected: politicd

stability is needed for investment to take place and more importantly, political stability is- needed to maintain the development process. Economic success in the New Order has led to social change which then Ied to a change in the policies which in turn, made development more effecti~e.~Divergent opinions on debates and policy have coloured Indonesian development, sometimes stressing technological advancement, other times focusing on social well-being. However, throughout the New Order development, a key variable has been the role that education plays in the development, process.' Since the 1940s, it has been hypothesized that in the process of economic development, countries generaiiy pass through

l For further information on the problems facing the national educational system and hdonesian development, see M. Arnien Rais, "MusIim Society, Higher Education and Development: The Case of hdonesia (1)" Muslim Society, Higher Education and Development in,Southeasf Asia, eds. Sharom Ahmat and Sharon Siddique, (Pasir Panjang: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987).

Ali Wardhana, "Indonesia During the Economic Take-Off: Economic, Political, and Social Challenges" The Indonesian Qua~edy,xxi, 4 (1993): 452.

See, Ingemar Fàgerlind, and Lawrence J. Saha, Education and National Development: A Comparative Perspective, 2nd ed., (New York: Pergamon Press, 1W2), 3. a demographic transition influenced by many factors, including education.'

"The Demographic transition covers the peiod during which s'population shifts from high mortality and high fertility, typical of low-income, preindusüial, larger agrarian populations, to low mortali ty and 10 w fertility, typical of high-income, industrial. and largely urbanized populations. nie sequence is normally, fmt, a fa11 in mortality (especially infant and child mortality), followed by an increase in the age of mamiage and a drop in fertility, which typically start well after the start in the fall of morality. However, the decline in mortality rates (again, especially infant and child mortality rates) typically continues long after the fertility rate has started to . decline.. . many factors associated with modem economic growth and development have been associated with these demographic changes. Clearly many are associated with changes in the economic status and role of women, of the farnily, and of children within it, in the process of industnali~ation".~

Realizing that education plays an important role in Indonesian development, the

Indonesian govemment has developed many poiicies affecting education. Ln 1973, the policy

of compulsory education for the primary level was launched. Then, through the Instruhi

Presiden (Presidential Decree) Number 10, 1973, the Indonesian govemment announced the

target goal of establishing at least one primaxy school in every ~illage.~As a result, fiom

1973 to 1994, 148,945 new schools and 166,195 new classrooms were established.' Free

James Cobbe, and Boediono, "Education, Demographics, the Labour Market, and Development: Indonesia in the Process of Transition ?" Journal of Asian and African Studies, Xxvm, 1-2 (1993): 2.

James çobbe, and Boediono, "Education", 3.

This program is known as Sekoluh Dacar Inpres (The President's Instructions for Primary Schools). ' H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tohun Pembangm Pendidikan Nusional 1945-1995: Swtu Anulisis Kebijakan 150 Years of National Education Development 1945-1995: A Policy Analysis], (Jakarta: Grmedia, 1995), 164. tuition fees for state primaxy schools began in the academic year 1977-1978.8 As shown in

Table 1, the number of uneducated Indonesians, in the 19 year period from 1971 to 1990, decreased from 45.2 % to 18.9 %, while those with a pnmary school education increased f'rorn 2 1.6 % to 30.1 %.9

Table 1 EducatIonal Background of Indonesians from 1961 to 1990

YEAR UNEDUCATED UNFINISHED PRIMARY HIGH TERTiARY ALL rn PRIMARY SCHOOL SCHOOL LEVEL PERCENT) SCEIOOL

Source: Ministry of Manpower, Republic of Indonesia, Manpower and Employment Situation in Indmesia 1993.

In PELITA III, the government fostered the TRDLOGI PEMBANGUNAN, the equal distribution of the results of development with a resulting emphasis on the fulfilment of basic human needs, and the placement of educational programs on an equal footing with economic pr~gr;uns.'~This emphasis not only increased the level of education for the entire Indonesian

See, Mari Pangestu and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human Resource Development and Management in Indonesia" The Indonesian Quarterly, xxi, 4 (1993): 462-263.

H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tahun, 201.

'O H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tahm, 129. nation but also improved the people's quality of life, thus, pennitting greater participation

in Indonesian development. The c~culumalso focused on specific political, economic, and

social outcomes. These improvements have been implemented through the five-year plan.''

As Thomas explains:

The fnst concem is education for general citizenship, made up of two main parts: (1) communication skills and basic knowledge of the social and natural environments that every citizen needs and (2) patriotism, meaning a cornmitment to ideals that bind the nation's assorted peoples together as a' unit, as reflected in the motto Bhinekz Tunggul Ika (Unity in Diversity). The first part has been provided by students studying the national Indonesian language, their regional language, English,' mathematics, and social and natural sciences. The second part -- patriotism or political indoctrination -- has been pursued pnmarily in a special class taught at every level of the schooling hierarchy, a class entitled Five Principles Moral Education (Pendidikan Moral Panca~ila).'~

The impact of science and technology on economic and social growth is both subtle and diverse in every country. In August 1979, the United Nations held a conference, inviting members to present papers on the contribution of science and technology to development.13

In any country, the importance of scientific literacy is evident in the development of four areas: the creation of a safe, healthy and comfortable climate for a scientific and technoIogicdy based society; citizen participation in public issues and decisions; and the

" R. Murray Thomas, ''hdonesia" Educatiort 's Role in Nationnl Development Plane Ten County Cases, ed. R. Murray Thomas, (New York: Praeger, 1992), 19 1.

l2 R. MuayThomas, bbIndonesia",19 1.

I3 Dennis G. Chisrnan, "Science Education and National Development" Science Education, 68,5, (Oct 1984): 564-566. maintenance and improvement of the country's position in the global economy.14

A second heavily emphasized type of relevant education has ken that of training workers to suit the country's economic development scherne. The principal aspects of this manpower-production goal have been those of (1) including some vocational education arnong general-education studies at ai1 levels of the schooling ladder above the lowest primary grades, (2) constructing more vocational schools at secondary and tertiary levels, and (3) channelling more high-school and college students out of general studies, humanities, and social sciences and into mathematics, science, technology, and business-education departments. In addition, a widespread network of. non-fomal education programs has been devised to stimulate the use of improved agriculturd techniques (high-yield seed strains, insecticides, fertilizers, crop diversification), cottage industries, business ventures, and community-development activities."

In terms of technological development, Indonesia ha encountered major problems

in adopting technological knowledge and managerial skills, mastenng thern and then

expanding thern to support growth.16 Therefore, the Indonesian govemment has placed more

emphasis on the educational sector, in order to develop the human resources required for this

achievement. The more advanced the technology, the greater the amounts of skilled

. manpower required. Consequently, the concept of "link" and ''match" in the national

education system has focused on the need of educated employees for development. H.A.R.

Tilaar states that, 'his concept is a human deveIopment concept, focusing on any level of

Indonesian development. This does not rnean that there is a simplification of the aims of

national education to merely provide the needs of employment; rather it maintains the

l4 Dennis G. Chisman, "Science", 566. '' R. Murray Thomas, "Indonesia", 192.

l6 Mari PangesN and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human Resource Developrnent and Management in Indonesia" The Inrionesian Quurterly, xxi, 4 (1993): 46 1. relationship between education and the labour A gap between educational output and the demands of the labour market still remain, however, with the result that, either the quality of the educational output is lower than the ski11 requirements of the labour market, or vice versa. This problem grows worse when the educational system produces more educated manpower than the labour market can absorb, indicated by the rapid increase in unemployment rates, especiaily among better educated urban youth, as weii as the nse in the percentage of unpaid family workers.I8

"The rapid expansion of tertiary Ievel education in the 1960s, 1970s and especially in the fmst hdf of the 1980s undoubtedly has produced educated manpower much faster than the economy of Indonesia is able to absorb. The chain reaction of educated unemployment probably could be described as follows: the high school graduates who fail to fuid jobs see no alternative other than to continue studying in higher educational institutions with the hope that they will have a better opportunity to obtain a job in the modem economic sector; after they graduate the modern sector of the economy cannot absorb thern; they must, therefore, either accept low-paying jobs for which they are overquaüfied or remain unernpl~yed".'~

On this matter, Keith Lewin also stated that: '

"Through the 1970s faith in education as an 'engine of growth' began to wane as some coumies began to expenence 'educated unemployment' suggesting to some that there was an over-investrnent in provision at particular levels. The growth of the 'brain drain' of high level qualified manpower from some developing countries, qualification escalation for job access, increased rural-urban migration and impressions of deteriorating quaiity also contributed to growing misgivings about the likely impact of

l7 H.A.R. Tilaar, M Tnhun, 196.

l8 Mari Pangestu and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human Resource", 47 1.

'9 M. Amien Rais, "Muslim", 23. See also M. Kazim Bacchus, "Education for Development in Underdeveloped Countries" ~om~arativeEducation, 17, 2, (June 198 1): 217. expansionary policies of educational provision".20

There are at least two reasons for the mismatch between the educational system and

the labour market. The Indonesian educational system prepares students to continue to the

next level of education, while the community regards education as a vehicle for social

rnobility and increased job opp~rhinities.~'The second reason stems from the educational

system itself, including its "quality of education, rapid development and changes in

technology, irrelevant school curriculum and outdated supporting fa~ilities".~~The national.

educational system has not made either the country or people more wealthy, rather it has

created unemployment and left the country "with increasingly burdensome claims on public

"For years to corne in Indonesia, the new, young cohorts entering the labour force will be larger in numbers than the older workers leaving the labour force because of death, retirement, or disablement. For a decade or so, the new cohorts will continue to grow in absolute size, although at a decelerathg rate; early in the 21st century, the absolute size of each year's cohorts of new entrants to the labour force is likely to s& to decline. However, the size of the entering cohort will still be substantially greater than that of the exiting cohort, because of earlier rapid population gro~th''.~~

20 Keith Lewin, "Quality in Question: A New Agenda for Curriculum Refom in Developing Countries" Comparative Education, 2 1,2, (1985): 11 7.

21 Mari Pangestu and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human", 47 1.

Mari Pangestu and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human", 472.

23 Ham N. Weiler, "Education and Development: from the Age of Innocence to the Age of Scepticism" Comparative Mucation, 14,3 (October 1978): 180.

James Cobbe, and Boediono, "Education", 6. Although govemmentsalaries are much lower than those of the private sector, large numbers of people continue to apply for jobs in this sector. Indeed, 'nie government is still seen as providing lifetime employment and se~urity".~In tems of the changing cumculum during the New Order period, the primay to high school cumculum has been changed four tir ne^.^^ However, this has not helped to solve the unemployment problerns of educated

Indonesians. One cause may be the direct adoption of an educational system designed for industrialized countries which is not suitable for Indonesia due to a different level of economic development."

"Higher Education in kdonesia was inherited from the colonial period, and afterwards it was adjusted and modified under European and American influences. Precisely because it is Western-oriented, it overlooks the real problems which are faced by the Indonesian people. Poverty and unemployment are the twin problems which cannot be mitigated by westem- oriented higher education geared to the projected needs of the modem economic se~tor".~~

In analyzing the educationd system's failure to reform the curricuIum, Kazim

Bacchus claims that too much effort bas been put into curriculum changes when the basic problem lies in social and economic refom. The dichotomy between the economic rewards of the modem and traditional sectors has created mereconomic stress. For workers in the traditional sectors -- peasant farmers and fann labourers, for example -- incomes are

25 Mari Pangestu and Mayling Oey-Gardiner, "Human Resource", 479480.

26 That is in 1968, 1975, 1984, 1994. For fuither information see H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tahun, 257-270.

27 M. Amien Rais, "Muslim7', 23. " M. Amien Rais, "Muslim", 25. uncertain and usually dependent on factors, such as market pnce fluctuation or droughts,

over which they have no control, while workers in the modem sectors of industrial and

commercial enterprises have more stable in corne^.^^

A solid educational system is, therefore, an urgent priority for Indonesian

development, one which ca.lead to a better life." Consequently, basing the curriculum on

the life expenence, culture, and environment of the students can achieve this goaL3' It

remains a formidable task, however, requiring a revival and reinterpretation of culture

itself." 20 a certain extent, the Indonesian govemment has attempted to include cultural matters in the curriculum, through national and regional languages and sometimes regional

art and literat~re.3~"Creating a new development strategy and reliving and reinterpreting the religious and cultural tradition selectively, progressively and creatively are the challenges to which Indonesian Muslim society must respond"? Nationally, Muslim society has demonstrated a high degree of interest in the development of ;ducation. Large numbers of private Islamic schools, from kindergarten to university, have been established throughout the country by individuals, organizations or communities. At the tertiary level, for example, there are Muhamrnadiyah universities in Solo, Central Java, Jakarta, and Medan as well as

29 M. Kazim Bacchus, "Education for Development in Underdeveloped Countries" Comparative Education, 17,2, (June 198 1): 2 19-220.

30 H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tahun, 132. '' M. Kazim Bacchus, "Education", 223.

32 M. Amien Rais, "Muslim", 25. '' R. Murray Thomas, 4bIadonesia",192. " M. Amien Rais, "Muslim", 26. the University of Ibnu Chaldun (Jakarta and Bogor), the Islamic University of North Sumatra

(Medan), the Islamic University of Bandung () and the Islamic University of

Indonesia (Yogyakarta).

The New Order government faces a nsing number of students, challenges to improve the quality of education, and curriculum refoxm. There are four factors that present difficuities for educational innovation in Indonesia, they are: (1) low motivation for discovering new concepts in education; (2) limitation of experimental activities; (3) rareness of research on education; (4) limitation of f~nding.~'

Apart from the fonnal educational system, the Indonesian govemment has succeeded in establishing informal educational programs which contribute to productivity, health and nutrition, the reduction of fertility, the realization of cognitive growth potential as well as non-cognitive attributes of individuals and the increased participation of marginalized groups. 36

2. The particular place of Islarnic education in Indonesian development.

As 85 percent of the Indonesian population is Muslirn, it is reasonable to say that the problem of education in Indonesia is the problem of Indonesian Muslim society. In fact, many educational institutions have been established by Indonesian Muslims. As Federspiel stated: "Religious Education has been a major theme of Indonesian Islam for several

" H.A.R. Tilaar, 50 Tahun, 185.

36 See Keith Lewin, "Quality", 118; and R. Murray Thomas, "Indonesia", 192;See also Dennis G. Chisman, "Science",S66. hundreds of years and continues today to constitute a major effort of the Muslim cornrnunity

there. Outside of worship itself, educational activities cleariy have been the paramount

interest, easily eclipsing political action".)'

As Pancasila is a way of life in Indonesia, religious education can play an important

role in creating pious members of Society. ''The problem is to determine the position and the

allocation of religious education in the national educational system. If we examine the 1945

Constitution, Section 31 Article 2 which States that 'the govemment should establish and

rnaintain a national educational system in line with the constitution', it is clear that al1

educational activities must be in this system, including religious ed~cation."~~

Islarnic education in Indonesia cm be divided into two categories, formal and

informal. The foxmal educational system is provided by schools, madrasairs, and pesantrens.

Most IsIarnic organizations (except some pesantrens) teach the govemment cuniculum in

their own Islamic educational institutions, with additional emphasis on the religious

teachings of Islam. Madraîahs can be divided into those which provide Islarnic sciences only

. and those which offer both secular and Lslamic sciences. Informal education is provided in

the mosque, , langgar, and even at home. The subject matters of informal Islamic

education focuses on the Qur'k, T'tt.l'd(thescience of recitingheading the Qur'h) and

37 Howard M. Federspiel, Muslim Intellectuals and Nationaï Developrnent in Idonesia, (New York: Nova Science hblisher, Inc., 1992), 17 1,

Alamsyah Ratu Penviranegara, Pernbim Pendidikan Agam meConstruction of Religious EducationJ, (Jakarta: Departemen Agama RI, l98Z), 36-37. 'fiidab (worship) such as, Ww'(ab1ution) and Salab (~rayer).)~informal education, on the

other hand, emphasizes individual teachings and learning methods, especially in the study

of the Qur'b,and teaching students one by one, according to their individual levels. This

teaching and learning process generally takes place in the evening, between the Maghrib and

'Zshà ' prayers.

Since Indonesian independence, formal ISlamic educational institutions have been maintained by the Indonesian govemrnent. In December 27, 1945, The Bodan Pekerja

Komite Nasional Pusat (Working Committee of the Central National Committee) issued

Pokok-Pokok Usaha Pendidikan dan Pengajuran (Basic Efforts of Education and Leaming).

Section 5 Article (b) of this decree explicitly States that for "Madrasah and Pesantren, especially the media and sources of education and development of the intellectual capabilities of the community, mut be taken into consideration and be assisted by the g~vernment"~

Since that time many acts, policies and regulations have been issued by the Indonesian govemment regarding the Islamic educational system in Indonesia. Hence, in December of

1946, the Minister of Education and Culture and the Minister of Religious Affairs issued

Mutual Decree (Surat Keputusan Bersama), declaring that the Minister of Education and

Culture is responsible for public education while the Minister of Religious Affairs is

39 See, Kare1 A. Steenbrink, Pesantren, Madrasah, Sekulah: Pendidikan Islam dalarn Kurun Modern [Pesantren, Madrasah, School: Islamic Education in the Modern Era], (Jakarta: LP~ES,1986), 10. " Djami1 Latif, Himpwuur Pernturan-peraturan tentang Pendidikan Agama [The Collection of Regulations on Religious Education], (Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan Pendidikan Agarna Islam, l983), 14, quoted in Aminuddin Rasyad and Baihaqi A.K. eds., Sejurah Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia me History of Islamic Education in Indonesia], (Jakarta: Ditjen Binbaga Islam, Departemen Agama RI, l986), 77. responsible for religious education? then, in 1966, through the Decree of MPRS (Majelis

Pennusyawaratan ReatSementara or Provisional People's Consultative Council) Number

XXVII/MPRS/1966, religious education became compulsory fiom the prirnary to the tertiary

levels in state- public schools." The importance of religious education was henceforth

always stated in the Garis-garis Besar Haluun Negara (GBHN or Broad Outlines of the

Nation's Direction), and strengthened in Section (39) article (2) of Undang-Undang tentang

Sistem Pendidikan N~S~OM~(The Regulations of the National Educational System) which

declared that' religious subjects are compulsory in the Indonesian national educational

system."

Islamic education is provided at every level of education, including Bus* al-AJm

(kindergarten), Madruah Ibtidayah (prirnary), Madrasah Tsanawiyah (Junior High School),

Madrasah 'Aliyah (Senior High School) and Pendidihn Guru Agam (Religious Teacher

Training School). At the tertiary level, apart fiom private institutions, Islamic education is provided at the Imtitut AgmIslam Negeri (IAIN or State Institute of Islamic Studies) and at Pergunuzn Tinggi Islam Negeri (State Islamic College). In addition, a large number of

'pesautrens exist throughout the Indonesian archipelago. In short, the Islamic educational

41 Hasbullah, Sejarah Pendidikan lslam di Indonesia [The History of Islamic Education in Indonesia], (Jakarta: Raja Grafindo Persada, 1995),76.

" Before this decree, religious education was complementary. However, in order to emphasize the new compulsory nature of religious education in public schools, the Indonesian government dways States this point in every GBHN. See Aminuddin Rasyad and Baihaqi A.K. eds., Sejarah, 104.

43 Undang-Undnng tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional [The Regulations of the National Educational System], (Jakarta: Sinar Grafika, 1993), 16. system is part of the Indonesian national educational system. As mentioned in Undang-

Undang tentang Sistem Pendidikun Nasional Section (1 1) Article (l),which declares that fomal education includes public education, vocational education, special education, in-job education, religious education, academic education, and prof&siond educati~n.~

The Indonesian Muslim community participates fuliy in the educational sector and many formai Islarnic education institutions have been established at each level. In fact, it is clearly stated in the Undang-Undang tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional of 1989 Section

(47) article (l), that the community, as a partner with the govemment, is allowed to participate in national educational program." Also the Peraturan Pemerintah (Governent

Regdation) No. 39 of 1992 on the Peran serta Masyarakat dalarn Pendidikan Nasional

(Community Participation in National Education) Section (6) states that community participation in education cm be undertaken by individual, group, or non-governmental institutionsP6 Thus, the informal education offered by the Muslim community is recognized as an effective contributor to public education in hdonesia, and a tool in shaping the rnorality of the Indonesian commUIUty. This is compatible with the aims of national education stated in the Undmg-Undang tentang Sistem Pendidikun Nasional Section (4): that nationd education is aimed at creating Indonesians who are "faithful, pious, moral, knowledgeable, skillful, healthy and re~ponsible";~'and Section (10) Article (4) which states that, education

" Undang-Undang, 6.

45 Undang- Undang, 18. " Undang-Undang, 292.

47 Undang-Clndnng, 4. provided within the family should inculcate religious beliefs, values, mords, and skill~.~'

Thus, Islamic education, both formal and informal, clearly plays an important role in

Indonesian development.

In its attempts to improve the quality of Islamic education, the Indonesian

govemrnent in the fiscal year 1993/1994 announced the start of a program that would send

325 Madruah lbtidaiyah teachers to take Diploma 2 program. The governmen t also supplied

174 thousand text-books and teacher guides; 447 sets of practical equipment; 332 thousand

religious text-books for Mudras~hIbtidaiyah; biiilt 108 classroorns; rehabilitated 5.8

thousand private Madrusah Ibridoiyah buildings and aided in the operational costs of more

than 21 thousand private Madrmah Ibtidaiyah. In addition, the govemrnent also supplied 3

thousand sets of practical equipment for teaching religion in general primary ~chools.~~

At the level of junior high school in the 1st year of Repetita V, the Indonesian

government rehabilitated 176 State Madrasah Tsanawiyah classrooms; supplied 180

thousand text-books and teacher guides; 3,160 se& of practical equipment; and upgraded 457

State Madrasah Tsczmwiyah teachers and managers. As for religious education in general junior high school, the govemment upgraded 200 teachers and managers; supplied 55

thousand religious text-books, 10 thousand sets of practical equipment; and established 15

thousand places of wor~hip.'~

49 For further information please visit Indonesia Net home page at http://indoneshnet.corn /hilighl/rel2.htm. For Mer information please visit Indonesia Net home page at ht@://indoneshnet.com /hilight/rel2.htm Moreover, in the program for the improvement of religious education at the senior

high school, in the fiscal year 199311994, the Indonesian government supplied 17 thousand books and teacher guides, 24 sets of practicd equiprnents; rehabilitated 120 classrooms for state Madrusah Aliyah. Furthemore, for generd senior hjgh school, the govemment suppiied

50 thousand religious text-books and upgraded 120 religious teachers. At the same time, at the higher educational level, the govemment added 22 thousand square-me+s of class-rooms; supplied 51 thousand science books for 14 IAINs, 100 titles of scientific research reports; provided graduate programs for IAIN professors, that is 264 professors for

Masters programs and 84 for doctoral programs held at home or abroad. 5 t

3. The pesantren in the Indonesian educational system.

The pesantren is an indigenous Indonesian Islamic educational institution where

Muslims leam to apply the teachings of Islam in their daily lives. Zamakhsyari Dhofier defines a pesantren as " a religious boarding schobl in which students reside and study under the direction of a teacher lmown as a kya~.'~There is little historical documentation on the origins of the pesantren, although the institution is believed to have existed for at least 300 or 400 years. Pesantren students are known as sontris, a word derived from the Sanskrit shaFrn. The term pesantren itself is constmcted from the word santri, tbe prefix ''p"and the suff11x "an" which together create the word pesantrim. In the course of time, pesantren come

For further information please visit Indonesia Net home page at hîtp://indonesianet.com fiilighUrel2. hîm "Zamakhsyari Dhofier, " Contemporary Feahires of Javanese Pesanûen" Mim,n.p., 29. to mean, literally, the place where the santri study Islam. The word pesantren is dmost

always accompanied by the word pondok, derived from the Arabic wordfunduq, meaning

bedroom, house, inn or hotel. In this context pondok means boarding house.

The pesantren community is usually composed of three groups: the bai, the ustadhs

and the santris. Kyai is a term denved from the Javanese language. Broadly speaking, it

refers to someone or something that people respect on account of his or its extraordinary

character. In this case, kyai refers to the founder or the leader of a pesantren. The title kyai

cannot be earned through academic achievement. It is bestowed by the community in

recognition of the talent, honour, and nobility possessed by a particdar individual. One of

its requirements is that a kyai must have a deep lmowledge about Islam. The kyai has many duties. In the pesantren, he is the decision-maker who programs, manages, and even maintains the curriculum of the pesantren, in addition to teaching. In the community,the kyai functions as a mernber of the 'ulamü, and is expected to understand the social structure of the community and to be capable of interpreting blamic doctrines. The second group is made up of the ustadhs who fùnction as teachers in the pesantren. The third component is that of the santri. A santri is a pesantren student. Becorning a santri means entering a new community in the pesantren , the kyai functions as father, spiritual guide and teacher, responsible for the growth and development of the santris.

The pesantren is a unique community in which the kyai, the santri, and other pesantren boarders live according to Islamic nomand values. They have their own way of life, different from that of the outside community. The life, as well as the education, in a pesantren is based on the foliowing p~ciples.First, it is theocentric, meaning that all of the activities are directed toward the worship of Allah (God). Al1 activities therefore, are based

on Islamic doctrine and aimed at achieving happiness in the akhirat (the hereafter). To this end, the pesantren comrnunity emphasizes reverent or pious attitudes and behaviour. Second, great stress is placed on devotion which, in fact, is the core pnnciple of pesantren education.

Learning, teaching, and other activities are pedormed voluntarily and are aimed at obtaining

+ùt al-Llàh (God's blessing). Third, it is based on wisdom as understood in Elamic doctrine. The santri must achieve this for a better understanding of life. The fourth principle is modesty, which means that daily life in the pesanten must conform to proper behaviour, food, dress, speech, etc. Coliectivism is another principle of the pesantren. Mernbers of the pesantren cornmunity always help one another, not only in daily activities but also in economic matters. In terms of nghts, the sanhl must give precedence to others, but in tems of obligations, the santri must give precedence to himself. From an early age the santri is trained to be self-reliant, to manage for himself his budget, study, and al1 his daily activities.

This phciple of selfdiance is very important in a student's life after graduating from the pesanben. The final pnnciple is guided fkeedom, based on the theory that every individual has his own ability and personality. The pesantren allows the santri to optimize his abilities and personality within the Islamic context.

Many different kinds of pesantrens are found in Indonesia, and each pesantren has its own charactenstics, depending on the propnetor, the aims of that particular pesantren, and the kyni. However, most pesantrens share several important charactenstics. ~kt,the bai and. the santri live together in the pondok for the entire period that the student studies there.

Second, pesantrem usually occupy large properties which contain many different buildings. The main buildings include the mosque, the kyui's house, the santri boarding houses, and the

study roorns. Usually pesantrem are located in a somewhat isolated area, away from the main

population, and the pesantren often has its own farm and livestock. Third, the pesantren is

a privately-run institution and the govemment has no Say in its operation. Fourth, it features

its own traditional teaching methods, i.e. bandongan (individual teaching), sorogan (classical teaching), and haluqah (discussion groups).

Aithough there are many different types of pesantrens, bey cm be classified into two major categories: Pesantren Salufi which teaches classical Islamic texts and adopts the madrasah sy stem without including secular subjects; kdPesantren khul& which offers both blamic and secular subjects."

Basically, the pesantren has three functions: it provides education, it propagates the faith, and it helps in socializing students." In order to fulfil its educational function, pesantrens have established many formal schools from the primary to the university levels.

The subjects taught are mostly Islamic in nahiie (e.g. , , Arabic language), but courses in the secular sciences and practicai skius are also offered. As an Islamic institution, the pesantren bases its educational philosophy on Islamic doctrines, oriented towards fiqh and mysticism. This is why the vision of the akhirat plays an important role in the santri's

" Mastuhu, DUiamika Sistem Pendidikan Pesantren [The D ynarnics of Pesantrens], (Jakarta: NS,1994), 59-6 1. Two of the most important pedagogical methods used in the pesantrens are repetition and application. The repetition method is the most commonly used. The same topic is introduced at every level but through the use of different texts. The santri makes his own decisions about the courses he will take. The more subjects the santri studies, the longer it will take him to finish his pesantren education. Individual teaching is aiso provided in the pesantren, thus enabling teachers to understand the individual differences arnong s,mdents and to assess students' potential in order to implement the educational techniques and courses that will be most successful to thern." In addition to this, the success of the kyais in teaching their santris is not determined by the number of santris who graduate from their pesantren, but rather on the number of the santris who become bais or authorized religious leaders in their communities. The application method requires the santri to not only master a subject in the academic setting, but also to apply it in his daily life. The main task of the bai is, therefore, to instill values and knowledge in the santri that he cm apply outside the classroom. Consequently, the subjects studied in the pesantren can contribute to the promotion of IsIamic values in both the individual and the cornrnunity.

The pesantren has its own tirne dimension, different from that of other educational institutions. The tirnetable of study is based on the schedule of prayers; and lessons are usually held after each set of prayers. Moreover, the period of graduation is not fixed at a certain number of years; it depends entirely on the progress of the santri. In other words, if the sunti needs the kyai's help to complete his studies, the surzfri WUremain'at the pesantren until he is satisfied with his progress.

" Zarnakhsyari Dhofier, " Contemporary ", 27. 70 In addition to its educational function, the pesantren dso serves as a base for the propagation of Islam. This is clear from the activities of the kyois, who teach Islam not only in the pesantren but also outside it. Tliey often travel great distances from their own institutions to accomplish this task. The sanrris also participate in the dissemination of

Islamic knowledge in the local community, usually through the pesantren's mosque.

Pesantrens are also known as social institution^.'^ In addition to their educational duties, both santris and bais are active in community development. For example, they usually provide free education for disadvantaged students, especially orphans.

ParalleI to its role in community development, the pesantren is constantly forced to develop and adapt itself to issues affecting human and natural resources. Thus, the practical skills and knowledge of the santri are continuously hamessed to meet the needs of the community's development process. Since the 197Os, pesantrens have modemized their educational system and developed ncw social programs. In designing these programs, the pesantrens either implemented these programs on'their own initiative, or in cooperation with other organizations, such as Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat ( Non-Govemmenta.

ûrganizations), or the Perhimpunan Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat ( Indonesian

Society for Pesantren and Community Development). The programs consist of vocational training applicable to cornmunity life in fields such as agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, cooperative management, and also appropriate technology. The pesantren also provides an informal education system in for disseminating both Islamic doctrines and

For further information see, Dawa.Rahardjo, ed., Pergulatan Dunia Pesantren: Membangwt duri Buwah [nie Struggle in the World of Pesantren's: Develop fiom the Bottom], (Jakarta: P3M, 1985), 16-21. technological information to their cornmunities, thus improving comrnunity attitudes to

deve~o~ment,encouraging people to be more receptive and progressive, and accelerating

improvements in rural conditions.

Dificulties always aise when people try to trace the history of the establishment of

the pesantren. As the oldest traditional educational institution in Indonesia, it predates the

advent of Islam in hdonesia; in fact, the institution was founded when Hinduism and

Buddhism were the prevalent religions in hdonesia After the advent of Islam, the pesantren

developed into an Islamic educational institution. However, there is no clear evidence

indicating when this development took place. According to research conducted by the

Ministry of Religious Affairs of Indonesia, the oldest pesantren appears to have been

Pesantren Jan Tarnpes II, in 1062 in Parnekasan, ~adura." The Islamic fom of the

institution must have developed afler Muslirn ûavelers and merchants began preaching their

religion, possibly as eady as the end of the seventh Islamic century. Nevertheless, given the

fact that the spread and development of Islam ih Indonesia was most intensive during the

period between the 13th and 17th Christian centuries; a tentative conclusion may be reached

that the Islamic pesantren was born during this Gme.

During the 18th century, the pesantren became increasingly weIl known as an

educational institution, especially in terms of its function as a center for the propagation of

Islam. In the Dutch colonial era, the pesantren was regarded as an institution which had a

very close relationship to the community. As a center of leaming independent of the Dutch

57 Departement Agama RI, Nam dan data Potemi Pondok-pondok Pesantren seluruh Indonesia 1984/1985 [The Narne and Data of the Potential of Pesantrens in Indonesia . 1984/1985], (Jakarta: Departemen Agama RI), 668. school system, the pesantren did not corne under the control of the colonial education authorities. Thus it was able to maintain its own teaching methods and offer subjects which the indigenous population considered important.

This independence made the pesantrens natural centres of resistance against the

Dutch in the colonial exa. Many santris were also guerilla fighters during this stmggle, with some forming the force known as ~sbullbh(Allah's soldiers), which later becarne the embryo of the Tentara Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian ~miy).~~

In more recent times, the pesantren has had to face certain challenges caused by the curent national development. Indonesia's third Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun (Five-

Year Development Plan) which focussed on indusby, required that the school system provide well-trained workers for the emergence of an industrial society. Therefore, since the business of education is to support industry, the educational system has had to adapt, and to adjust people to jobs and jobs to people. As a result, these changes affected the pesantren's educational system as well, requiring it to react io political and social changes.

Surprisingly, the pesantren has managea to avoid isolation, even though it still retains its traditional lifestyle and conservative values. In other words, the pesantren has succeeded in introducing a dichotomy into its educational system, that is, by providing its students with instruction in both Islamic and secu1ar sciences.

As Indonesia's Muslim comunity has developed, the pesantren's role has had to change to meet the new demands of society. In the early 20th century, when the mudrasah system was introduced to supplement the pesantren education system. The pesantren also began to evaluate students on the basis of the level of their studies. Furthemore, students

were encouraged to stay in school until they finished their programs. This had the advantage

of maintainhg the pesantren educational system at the sarne level as the Dutch educational system. Further progress was made between 1958 and 1959 when the pesantrens introduced compulsory courses to meet the govemment's education guidelines. At this time, many non- religious schools (public schools or sekolah mm)were being established. Therefore, out of concern for the decreasing student population in the pesantrens, the pesantren cumculum began to offer the sarne subjects as the public education system. Hence, some pesantrens today follow the govemment curriculum while others do not. The greatest challenge for the pesantrens is the change in their administrative structures. Earlier, the pesantrens were run without any standard regdations wiih regards to acadernic activities and financial orgaaization, and all decisions were made by the Mi. This pattern, however, changed after the adoption of the Dutch system; the administration of the pesantren was no longer a personal affair, and the bai's role declined com'iderably as a result.

To conclude this chapter we might look agah at Smith's typology about secularization that was introduced in the introduction. In the discussion of educational goals and concems it is clear that Smith's second point is relevant, where govemment extends its juisdiction in areas of education, law and other matters. The entry of the Indonesian state into education did bring it directly into contact with religion, i.e., Islam, which had provided much of the education up to this point in histoxy. However, the result of the meeting was not clear cut, either initially or subsequently. A national school system gained considerably in strength throughout the period and many Muslim elementary and secondary schools (mudrasah) were brought into it, preserving their identity only in part. The adaptation was

done by the Musli.schools, indicating the prevailing supremacy of the state in such matters.

At another level, that of the pesantren, however, the government made onIy a moderate

impact, for the pesantrens generally retained their cumculum, their teaching style, their

subject matter and their heavy emphases on religious values. While the trend is toward

change, to this point in history it can be said that religion clearly resisted the force of the state

in this narrow field of education, but that the resistance appears to have been only a temporary respite. Smith's hypothesis then about state control of societd fields does not yet fully apply to the Indonesian case, although in large part the government is proving its dominance. Chapter III

The Interaction of the Pesantren, Government and Non-Governmental Organizations

1. The Pesantren's educational system.

It is difficult to make generalizations about the pesantren's educational system and to have these generalizations describe al1 pesantrens in Indonesia, because: first of dl, the religious function of the pesantren's classical educational system cannot be separated fiom its role in comrnunity development Second, the pesantren's educational system still depends to a large extent on the personality of the owner, founder, and bai. In fact, its educational system seldom follows the standard model. Third, the pesantren's activities are based on

Islarnic values rather than goverment ideologies.

Pesantrens can be classified into four categories. The first categov consists of pesantrens where students live with the bai and where the cumculum depends entirely on the kyai. In this pesantren, there is no drasah. The second category consists of pesantrens which have a mculrasak, and therefore a certain curriculum, but where the kyai continues to function as a teacher for a certain pied of the, especially in the application of knowledge.

In this type of pesantren, students live in the pesantren dormitory. In the third category are pesantrens which function as a dormitory. The students study in either the madrasah or a public school. The function of the kyai in this pesantren is moral guidance. The fourth category contains pesantrens which offer a public education 0nIy.l

The strength of the pesantren lies in its basic motivation, which is anything but economic. Moreover, the pesantren's educational activities are religiously motivated, with the goal of acquinng and disserninating religious knowledge, which is regarded as an Islamic obligation. The initiative to establish a pesantren generaily cornes from an individual with religious motives. This is why pesantrens sometimes cease to exist when the hi (the founder) dies. As an individual enterprise the pesankn neither needs government approvd, nor depends on govemment support for its control and operation.

The kyai is a link in an intellectual and spiritual tradition that spans many generations.

In order to maintain continuity, the kyai usually attempts to pass on his knowledge and reptation to a member of his family. He most often focuses his attention on his sons, educating and guiding them so that one day they can take over his position in the pesantren.

If it proves to be impossible for a bai to pass on his position to a member of his famüy, he will choose the best san~as his succe~sor.~Maniage between the family of one kyai and the fandies of other kyai is also intended to maintain the Srai tradition by enlarging the possible pool of successors.

The educational system in the pesantrens has been able to adapt to the vagaries of time. By accornmodating modem educational methods to traditional teaching patterns, the pesantren continues to offer a viable standard of education. The degree of accommodation

' Team Penyusun BKP3, PermPondok Pesantren dalarn Pembangm me Role of Pesantren in Development], (Jakarta: Paryu Barkah, n.d.), 54-55.

See Mastuhu, Dimika Pendidikan Pesantren [The Dynamics of Pesantren], (Jakarta: NS,1994), 88-9 1. depends on bodi the attitude of the individual kyai and the extent to which modem methods can be harmonized with the demands of Islamic teaching.

The objective of pesantren education differs from institution to institution, depending on the kyni's pupose in establishing his pesantren. Consequently, the perception, knowledge, and specific tradition of the kyai al1 play an important role in determining the objectives of pesantren education. The wtadtts (teachers) in a pesantren are thus usually made to focus their teaching-leaming activities on these objectives. Every santri and every ustadh has an important role in maintainhg and developing this tradition. The kyai has a responsibility to enhance his knowledge, deepen his insight, and broaden his interpretation of religious doctrine in teaching-learning activities; he should also maintain good relations and communications with every member of the pesantren, motivating them in the acquisition of knowledge and the dissemination of the pesantren's ideology. This ideology cm have a great impact on the social and political life of its cornmunity.

The subjects taught in a pesantren includei Arabic; fiqh (islamic jurisprudence) which deals with personal duties, worship, transaction, etc.; u.@ al-Bqh (the science of Islamic jurisprudence) which deals with the denvation of an Islamic law from the sources of the law;

Arabic literature; Qur'anic exegesis; IsIamic theology; the history of Islam; sufism; &a&

(Prophetic traditions) which covers the Prophet's utterances, actions and appro~als;~and

Islamic ethics.4

In addition, there is another field related to the hadito. namely, the science of I$a&ttli (.El d-&Zth)7 which examines the reliability of any Oa&th.

See Zamakhsyari Dhofier, "Contemporary Feahires of Javanese Pesantren" Mîzan, n.p, 27; also Dawam Rahardjo, ed., Pergulatan Dunia Pesantren: Membangun dan Bawah The bai's perception of the religious, social, and political life of the community

further detemines the ideology of the pesantren. As a result, pesantrens in Indonesia feature

a rich valiety of specializations in different fields of knowledge, ranging from those which

focus on mysticism to those modem pesantrens concerned mainly with community

development.

The goal of any pesantren is to strengthen and to maintain the morality (aMldq)of its santri and to provide them with howledge, either Islamic or secular, that they can use in everyday life. 'The student's goal in education mut not be to obtain power, money, or glory; learning is an obligation, a dedication to ~od"?Accordingly, those santris who leave a pesantren without qualifying as kyai, 'ulmor uttadh should not be regarded as &op-outs or faüures, as certification is not the sole purpose of a pesantren ed~cation.~Rather, it is hoped that both the sanmi who complete their education and those who do not may become uswatzuz @smh(exemplary models) in their communities, contributing to the propagation of Islam at the local level.

The effects of the pesantren are not limited to developing the Mushpersonality of its santris, but also to raising the standard of living in the community in tenns of education, social welfare, and economy. In the early years of the New Order period, the social function of the pesantren outweighed its educational function. I would thus argue that pesantrens have

FeStniggle in the World of Pesantren: Develop from the Bottom], (Jakarta: P3M, 1985), 7-8.

Zamakhsyari Dhofier, "Contemporary19,27.

Manfred Ziernek, Pesantren dalarn Pencbahan Sosial [The Pesantren and Social Change], (Jakarta: P3M, 2986), 157. been instrumental in instilling a Muslim personality, not only in their students, but in their communities as well. .

The social function and success of the pesantren in maintaining the Muslim community raises the question of who should be responsible for the development of the pesantren ? On one level, every Muslim shares this responsibility, as every Muslim benefi ts from the pesantren's community efforts. However,.considenng the pesantren's contribution to Indonesia's developrnent one would extend this responsibility hirther to al1 Indonesians and, specifically, to the Indonesian govemment, particulady since the pesantren's success is a major tool in enhancing the ducational level, the standard of living and the morality of the citizens of Indonesia.

Indonesia's development efforts have traditionaIly focussed on rural communities. In order to make headway in this difficult area, the participation of all Indonesians is necessary, especially since it cannot be achieved solely through regulation. In rural areas, in fact, the contribution of the pesantren to this process is siacant, not just because the kyai has high respect fkom the community, but also because the pesantren's activities are always correlated to the needs of the community. This stems to a great extent from the fact that these communities, where the majority is Muslim, especially in rural areas, are still very religious and, therefore, require spiritual leadership. Religious activities such as prayer, fasting, even selamatan' are important to community life. AU of these needs are fulfilled by the pesantren.

"A communal feasf popular arnong the nominal Muslim [] population on Java, given to cornmernorate important events in an individual's life. The ceremony attached to the meal has an animistic flavour". Howard M. Federspiel, A Dictionary of Indonesian Islam, (Athens: Ohio University Centre for International Studies Monographs in International Studies, 1995), 235. The kyai's position and his function in mobilizing the comrnunity are important in this

respect.

Sidney R. Jones has stated that there are at least three different groups studying in the

pesantren. Ordinary villagers, including village children, women and older men who

undertake the pengajian (shidy circle) for the purpose of becoming better Muslims.

Pengajian, which focuses on Qur'anic dhibrecitation and cornmentary by the kyai, usually

takes place once a week for adults and once or twice a day for children. Instruction inchdes

basic lessons in the Arabic alphabet. The sons of the Muslim middle class generally study in the pesantren for discipline, character-building and preparation for advanced religious training. The pesantren also educates a third group; the students who intend to become religious scholars.'

In considering the role of the pesantren in the development of Indonesian society, it is clear that the government and all Indonesians of every background need to put more effort into the pesantren's educational program. Only h this way can the pesantren's educationd system be kept relevant to the needs of Indonesia's communities. It is true, however, that the laws of social change are not easily applied to a traditional Islamic institution of this kind, and that substantial change needs time and adaptation. Moreover, modemking the pesantren and helping it reach its potentid for social development, requires a great deal of motivation and encouragement.

Sidney R. Jones, 44kabicInstruction and Literacy in Javanese Muslirn Schools" Prisnui, 2 1 (June 198 1): 73-75; see also Zamakhsyari Dhofier, "Contemporary", 29. Realizing that national educational goals cannot be achieved solely through the

govemment's own institutions and that non-govemment schools can play a vital role, the

Indonesian government has occasionaiiy tried to intervene in the pesantren system. This has

led to the pesantrens' suspicion that the govemment's real goal is to prevent their influence

from spreading9. Moreover, village administrators often interpret modemization and

development policies in ways that create conflict between the formal leadership they

xepresent and the informal leader of the comrnunity (the kyai). In these cases, the pesantren

may take the initiative and set its own educational policy, such as pesantrens which provide

instruction in non-religious subjects. The government could support the pesantren's efforts

in this area by subsidizing the facilities necessary to implement this instruction.

The dificulty in modemking the pesantren lies primarily in its organization, which

depends on the kyai whose direction of the institution cm be very personal in nature. The

new generation of untris, however, often buiId their own modem pesantrens in order to

avoid conflict with their kyai.

The modernization of the pesantren's educational system has brought on the

following changes: 1) The classical method now requires a limited number of students in

each class (usually 30-40 students), who are taught at the same time, leading the pesantren

to hire more teachers for both Islamic and secular sciences; 2) The teaching of secular

sciences has led pesantrens to hire teachers from outside the pesantren system. 3)

Modernization has Ied pesantrens to develop a more organized structure; including teachers'

This is due to the expenence of Indonesian Muslims, from the colonial era to the New Order era, in which Islam has been treated marginaily and viewed as a threat. board and student organizations, for example; 4) The pesantren systern no longer depends

on the kyai as an individual but rather on his position in the pesantren structure. For example,

the kyai plays îittle role in designing the curriculum which is decided by the governrnent or

other institutions involved in pesantren development; 5) The problem of monitoring has

arisen when pesantrens have many separate branches; 6) Organizational developrnent for

educational adaptation has led to bureaucratization and the introduction of forma1 noms in

pesantrens. As a result, the patrimonial relationship (pnvate relationship, farniliarity) has

decreased and replaced by rational and impersonal relationships, allowing the pesantren to

produce prominent figures with skills in administration and organization; 7) In the traditional

pesantren, the kyai represents the sole model for the students; modernization, however, has

established several models for the latter. Students may continue to pattern their moral and

religious ideology on the bai, while they may adopt teachers with an acadernic degree as

their model of intellectual development, family education and the pattern of family life; 8)

Some pesantren figures actually want to defeiid the existence of sorogan (individual

teaching) and wetonan or bandongan (group teaching) methods as characteristics which

differentiate the pesantren method from that of the public scho01.'~In their cpinion, both

methods can play an important role in creating a deeper understanding of religion. In fact,

the use of these methods is fading because the pesantren systern as a whole can no longer

depend on the traditional pattern. The pesantren system can no longer assume that santri

integration will follow the traditional system. In addition, students who do'not live in the

'O On these methods, see Manfred Ziemek, Pesantren, 168-169,and Mastuhu, Dinarnika, 61; also Dawam Rahardjo, Pesantren, 88. pesantren boarding house will have no time for the traditional system. Moreover, in tems

of rewards, the modem system has more incentives: students receive a certificate that is

vatuable for anyone with career or employment goals. The sorogan and wetonan systern, on

the other hand, do not provide clear rewards. In addition, the key figures in the functioning

of the pesanûen, including the @ai, are now more involved in new jobs, which has also led

to the decrease of the traditional system. Although the sorogan method is still applied for

children beginning to read the Qur'a, the wetomn" has been changed to a weekly study

circle; 9) In the traditional educational system, the pesantren focussed on training candidates

for positions of 'ularruï. With the adoption of a broader curriculum, and the addition of

secular subject to the curriculum, the pesantren was able to contribute to both, higher

religious education and public education as well.12

Three important changes have taken place in the pesantren's educational system this century. In 1905,the madrasah system was introduced in the pesantren setting, while in 19 16 the pesantren introduced the donnitory system for female students; and in 1926, secuIar subjects were introduced into the pesantren. Zamakhsyari, commenting on these changes, said:

The introduction of the madrasah system, education for female students, and the teaching of secular subjects within the pesantren complex was, to some

l l See, Dawarn Rahardjo, Pergulatan, 270-271.

lZ Imam Tholkhah, "Adaptasi Sosial Pesantren Takeran: Sebuah ~injauanSistemik" [Social Adaptation of Pesantren Takeran: A Systemic Approach] Kajian Agam dan Masyarakat: 15 Tahun Badun Penelitian dan Pengembangan Agama 1975-1990 [Religion and Community: 15 Years of the Institution of Research and Religious Development, 1975- 19901, ed. Sudjangi, (Jakarta: Departemen Agama RI, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Agama, l993), p. 339-342. extenf a response of the ulama to the changes caused by the Dutch policy in Indonesia at the end of the nineteenth century. The Dutch, from this penod on, introduced education of a Western type to native Indonesians."

Skills subjects are included in the pesantren's cumiculum since not dl students want

to be 'ulamz and to avoid having many pesantren aiumni working in the non-religious fields

without any preparation for such skills. Even the 'ularnihd mubaligh find it difficult to

propagate Islam without additional practical skills which can help them earn a livelihood.14

Providing skill subjects in pesantrens enables these schools to create pious skilled Muslims

who can assist in Indonesia's development, and place the pesantren within the structure of

the national educational system, with its goals of creating manpower development and

manpower planning." Implementation of this program requires two stages: conducting a

survey for data on what ski11 programs are needed by the pesantren and approaching the

pesantrens for the possibility of their acceptance of the programs , then providing training

for students as instmctor candidates for their pesantren.16 The survey, however, does not

guarantee that the ski11 programs are in conjwktion with the needs of the pesantren, as indicated by the fact that some pesantrens have faüed to implement these skills on a continuous basis.

l3 See Zamakhsyari Dhofier, "The Role", 16.

l4 Proyek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pondok Pesantren dan Pengembangan Keterampilan [Pesantren and SUDevelopment], (Jakarta: Proyek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Departemen Agama, 1982), 2.

lS Proyek Pernbinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pondok, 2-3.

l6 Proyek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pondok, 3-4. Pesantrens must take into account seven basic principle when considering skill

programs: 1) Studies and survevs. It is important to conduct a study and survey on the

reliability of such ski11 programs in the community life. The survey should determine, . the

long-term requirements for specifîc skills. The survey should dso examine the obstacles that

may arise in both the training program and later application of the skills to enable pesantrens

and other institutions to solve such problems before they mise. 2) The need for professional

training. This training should enable students to develop future skills, and also to meet higher

standards of skill. 3) Trainin P for multiri1e students. The training programs which have been applied selected some students, assurneci to have interest in the skill prograrns, and expected them to spread their knowledge to other students. This expectation has seldom been fulfilled, however, with the trainees often retuming to their hometowns or pursuing studies in other institutions; or the trainee may become busy with other activities. This happened before a cadre of students had been fomed." Therefore, it is important to train many students at every pesantren and in al1 grades. This can lead to a climate of high motivation in skill program training which is necessary for the success of the ski11 program itself. This is because the

"students' achievement is more immediately affecteci by the charactenstics and attitude orientations of the other people around them in the school than by the technoIogical or physical aspects of the school envir~nment".~~4) Shident trainin? in line with their persona1 interests. This requires selecting and grouping students according to interest. Students trained

l7 Proyek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pdok,8.

l8 BO OC OC^, SmeSpence, Sociology of E&cation: An Introduction, 2nd ed., (New York: University Press of America, 1980), 204. on the bais of their personal interests will have a high motivation in what they do, which

often leads to high achievement. 5) Varied lenp~hof training is needed. Pesantrens should

provide a specific time frame for the skill prograrns, and make:.these an integral part of

pesantren curriculum. 6) Place of training. Training need not be held in the pesantren.

Pesantrens can send their students to Balai Lntihnn Kerja (Job Training Centre) to acquire

knowledge that can later be taught in the pesantren. Altematively, the pesantren cm apply

the magang (volunteer) system, by aliowing students to work on a farm for a period of tirne.

7) Contact with the communitv and institutions. A joint cooperation with institutions or the

community can provide valuable assistance in developing skill programs, especially for

pesantrens without special funding or a budget for this purpose.

A number of issues need to be Wen into account in the modernization of the

pesantren' s educational system.

FM,does the pesantnn's educational system aim merely at producing dami?Some

scholars suggest that to participate fully in Indonesian developrnent, pesantrens should also

offer the degree of "'damaplus", to 'ul'5who have achieved mastery not only in the religious sciences but also in the secular sciences. The Indonesian community now requires

a well-rounded knowledge; more importantly, modem Indonesian development may lead to complex problems that require a good grounding in Lslamic doctrines. At the same time, some pesantrens feeI that the inclusion of secular subjects in their cumculum may diminish their religious mission. The reason for this sentiment is perhaps that this may discourage from becoming 'dam5and turning their attention to other skills or to work in non-religious sectors. In my opinion, the modernization of the pesantren's educational system does not dirninish either the purpose of the pesantren producing 'ularnd or the function of the

pesantren as a religious education institution. kla,m every Muslim is asked to balance

theû life between worldy flairs and the hereafter. Therefore, pesantrens should view secular

subjects and skill subjects and al1 activities that conelate them as part of the religious activities. Consequently pesantrens should broaden their educational objectives into several levels with the aim of prdducing ulamai, as the first prioity, and producing good Muslims who not ody apply Lslamic doctrines and master Islamic science, but are also able propagate

Islam without being 'ufam~as the second priority. This is in line with the fact that not al1 students of pesantrens want to be 'uIami However, some pesantrens are self-reliant institutions with very lirnited hdsfor running the pesantren and have Little, if any, money for secular and skill subjects. in this case, the pesantren should make the religious education of ufamatheir nurnber one priority.

Second, are there any specific skills requirements for preparing students to become agents of development in rurd communities?'Outside pressures force the pesantren to provide not only a religious understanding that will ailow students to propagate Islam, but also the skills to enable them to eam their living and to help develop the rural community.

Religious leaders in rural areas continue to play an important role in co&nity development. As every rural area has its specific development problems, questions arise as to the type and degree of skiIl level needed. Are the skills being taught in pesantrens in line with cornmunity development ? Some pesantren use their budgets to maintain and to provide skill subjects for laboratories and workshops. In other pesantrens, however, students have mastered skills but cannot apply them due to a lack of funds or the nature of the cornrnunity's needs. Sometimes students graduate, leaving behind no other students involved in the same

skill area Unless a ski11 program has boih continuity and applicability to the cornmunity life,

there is no need for the pesantren to invest heavily in this ares.'' The challenge for both

pesantrens and those who are involved in the programs is to provide preparation in sküls

training programs that have long-run application, and to ensure continuity of training.

Third, do pesantrens provide graduating students with the skills to make choices for

the future? Some students attend the pesantren, not because of their own interest, but rather

in obedience to their parents. Not every student wants to joint the rank of the 'dama. If the pesankns provide basic knowledge and skills for the future, students will be able to make

tbeir own career decisions. Therefore, the pesantren, which provides continuous education and an individual teaching and learning system, makes it possible for students to acquire the knowledge and skills that are rnost suited to their interests.

Fourîh, is the pesantren's educational system any different fiom general (non- , religious) education? As mentioned before, pesahtrens have different educational systems; it might even be said that every pesantren has a different system. Therefore, pesantrens should carefully select the secular and skill subjects they intend to teach, choosing those which their students will more urgently need. It may be difficult -- even impossible -- for pesanirens to fumish all the subjects taught in the public schools. Moreover, pesantrens need the flexibility to choose which secular subjects they want to incorporate in their curriculum, and the govemment should give pesantrens the freedom of selection. h this way, pesantrens

l9 See Gerald D. Cheek. "The Secondary Vocational Program" VocorioMl Educatim in the 1990s: Major Issues. ed. Albert J. Pautler, (Am Arbor: Prakken Publications, Inc., 1WO), 50-5 1. cm determine the quality of 'ulmathey graduate. At any rate, if pesantrens include every

subject taught in public schools, then what role will other areas of education play ? 2o

Fi'h, can pesantrens provide skiIl programs for all levels of students? Pesantrens are

now asked to provide quality skül programs, applicable to the community, for students with

various abilities, interests and motivations. Questions surround the level of these programs

and their purpose. In my opinion, skill programs can be provided fiom the primary Iyel to

the high school level, with a specific purpose for each level. The skill programs at the primary level may focus on stimulahg students to participate in programs and may be used as a tool for matching students with the most suitable skills. At the high schooI leveI, ski11 programs should focus on preparing them for application in the community.

Sixth, can pesantren teachers meet diverse expectations? The pesantren, especially the kyui, should be open-minded to the possibility of hinng teachers who have no pesantren or even religious educational background, without worrying that the character of the school may be compromised. nie pesantren's educationd system which takes both secdar and skill subjects seriously will produce more successful graduates in both areas. Questions surrounding the selection of teachers in non-religious subjects include: Who is qualified to teach various subjects in the pesantren? Must they have a religious background or even be

Muslim? Are those who have field experience more likely to be better teachers than those who do not?

"See David J. Puce], "The Curriculum" Vocational Education in the 1990s: Major Issues, ed. Albert J. Pautler, (Am Arbor: Prakken Publications, hc.,1990), 157-159. Seventh, is it possible to continue the implementation of the current simple technology program (TTG to Tehnologi Tepat Guna)? Based on the fact that the ?TG program allows studentslgraduates to eam their living while increasing the cornmunity's income, it is important to continue this program. Moreover, since the program for more advanced technology requires fmancial investment more than pesantrens can afford and aiso since the TïG program is an extra-cmicular prograrn, therefore, the current simple technology program is still worth king implemented. However, it should be noted that every

ïTG prograrn should terminate with a capstone intemship experience in the community, encouraging students to continue development.

Eighth, can pesantrens prepare students to be wiraswasta (entrepreneurs) or for employment in the work place? Not ail pesantren alumni become "pure 'ulm2..'"1;many pesantren graduates work in either the pnvate or the government service. However, since high youth unemployment and poor economic conditions have become national problems, pesantrens, should, therefore, provide skill prograhs and secula. subjects that enable students to earn a living, create their own employment opportunities in the community, or enter the workforce. Skill programs mn the danger of himing into dead ends if they are terminal programs whose graduates have no opporîunity for further education or training, or if they prepare students for a narrow range of jobs, neglecting to educate them in the affective and cognitive aspects of wiraswasta or workplace employment. Consequentiy, serious assistance fkom both the govemment and the private sector for programç in agriculture, business, health,

21 What 1 mean here by the "pure 'ulami" is 'dama who take positions as religious scholars, and who provide only religious teaching, witbout undertaking any other employment . home economics, marketing, and industry can contribute to the success of students after they

graduate fiom pesantrens. However. this requires that the pesantren put sufficient time and

effort into skill programs and secular subjects. The skill programs should be integral to the

pesantren's curriculum and not merely complernentary subjects. In order to provide the

greatest benefit to students, student background, experience, capability, interest and motives

should be taken into account in providing these programs.

2. The involvement of the government in the pesantren's educational system.

Garis-garis Besar Haluan Negara (GBHN or Broad Outlines of the Nation's Direction)

states that national education is clearly based on Pancasila, and the purpose of a national

education system is to increase piety towards God, intelligence, skills, morality, strength of

character, nationalism and love of the fatherland." This will permit every citizen to develop

both themselves and the nation to the best of their ability. The Islamic educational system,

including the madrasah and pesantren, are included and are expected to conform to the goals

of Indonesia's national education. Moreover, Islamic education fiom kindergarten to the

university level is part of the National Education scheme, playing an important role in

helping to achieve the goveniment's objectives.

The Department of Religious Affairs, which oversees all Islamic educational institutions, has instituted a number of policies dealing with the maintenance of the system.

One of the policies is the Surat Keputwan Besam Tiga Menteri (Three Ministers Decree)

" John Sujadi Hartanto, Memahami UUD 1945, P4, GBHN 1993-1994, Waskat [Understanding the 1945 Constitution, P4, GBHN 1993-1998, Close Supervision], (Surabaya: Indah, 1994), 224. issued by the Minister of Education and Culture, Minister of Intenor, and Minister of

Religious Affairs in 1974, concems the improvement of the quality of education, particularly in drasahs.The quality of secular sciences taught in madrasahs should be the same as that offered in public schools, giving the madracah's ceMicate equal value as that issued by the public school. The graduates of the maiirasah may then continue thek studieç at public schools, or vice versa.

The development of the pesantren is cunently being pursued throughout Indonesia; the chief aim of which is to turn the santris into agents of national development. To accomplish this, the govement has drawn the pesantren into the national education system.

In his speech at the seminar on Islam and National Education, delivered on April25, 1983, the Minister of Religious Mairs Munawir Sjadzali stated thap the development of the pesanaen is directed at creating a Muslim santri who is not only pious, but also able to participate in all sectors of Indonesian development, especially the spiritual sectors. For this purpose, the govemment provides pesantrem with support in teaching the following subjects: civics, art, scouting, sports and health, manual sus,and environmental studies."

In fact, the pesantren's activities, especially those related to the community, extend far beyond the cornponents that are provided by govemment. Koperasi (Cooperation) for example, although regarded as part of the skills component, is actually more economic in character. The pesantren, however, faces a number of problems in its socialization program.

23 For more details, see Islam dan Pendidikan Nusional Flam and National Education], ( Jakarta: Lembaga Penelitian IAIN Jakarta, l983), 22-23.

24 Islam dan Pendidikun Nasional, 23. They include: the integration of the pesantren into the national educational system; the

difficulties. of broadening its socio-cultural, and socio-economic roles; the reduction of

factionaiism in order to build an ideal community; and the question of the link between faith

and cie en ce.^ The first problern seems most crucial, due to the cornmunity's need for

employment; consequently, the desire for official govemment employment is high. Thus, in

order for its santris to obtain government certificates, the pesantren tends to accept the

government curriculum, since only those who have govemment certificates are allowed to

become govemxnent officids.

"The involvement of the Indonesia govemment in developing pesantren was begun

in 1973,"~~under the coordination of the Department of Religious Affairs which instituted

the Badan Koordinasi Pembinaan Pondok Pesantren ( The Development of the Pesantren

Coordination Board). This organization provides for the foundation of pesantrens. The fmt

foundation was realized in the second Repelita (Five Years Development Plan) 1973-1978

under the coordination of the Direktorat Bimbingan Masyarakat Islam (Directorate for the

Guidance of Muslirn Communities). The Indonesian govemment's focus on the development

of the pesantren makes sense since the pesantren, as a traditional Islamic educational

institution supported by the community, is capable of further development, has made a solid contribution to the development of the mal community, and creates employment.

Nevertheless, the encounters between the government and the pesantren have created

zs AbduTTahman Wahid, "Pondok Pesantren dan Pengembangan Masa Depan: Sebuah Kajian Dini" [Pesantren and Future Development: A Prelirninary Study], Pesan, 1983 (5 Sept-Okt), 12-13.

26 Manfred Zemek, Pesantren, 206. conflicts between the government which demands that pesantrens follow the national

educational system fully, and the pesantren which desires current and future independence.

By facilitating the pesantren's integration into the national system, the govemment has put more emphasis on secular programs and activities which have a practical ski11 orientation. Some weaknesses in the quality of organization, administration or even educational practice have influenced the government's policies towards the pesantren."

Government aid generaliy takes the form of ski11 or vocational package programs, e-g. electronics and carpentry. However, the pesantrens define these programs as extra-cumcula

activities, leading to their ineffectiveness. This failure cannot. . be blamed on the pesantrens alone; the government mut plan their programs more carefully, designing them to meet the needs of the pesantrens.

In an effort to dynarnize and to modemize the pesantren, the Minister of Religious

Affairs, A. Mukti Ali introduced five components of activity in each pesantren: 1) Religion;

2) Scouting; 3) Health; 4) Art; 3) Skills. In 1974, this program was included in the budget of Pelifa II (Second Five Years Development Plan)." In 1974-1975, the development project selected a number of pesantrens which were willing to implement the project and participate in further development efforts later. These included Pesantren Dmssalarn in Ciarnis, Pondok

H. Kafkawi, "Sambutan Direktur Jenderal Bimbingan Masyarakat" [The Speech of the Director General of Community Guidance] in Buku Lapomn Pendidikan dan Larihan Pembina ~ondikPesantren Indonesia meReport on the Education and Training for Indonesian Pesantren Instructors], (Jakarta: Departemen Agarna RI, 1W8), 2.

28 H. Kafrawi, Pembahruan Sistem Pendidiknn Pondok Pesantren sebngai Usaho Peningkafun Prestaa Kerja dan Pembinaan Kesat2uur Bangsa [The Modernization of the Pesantren's Educational System in an Attempt to Elevate the Work Achievement and Maintain the Unity of the Nation], Jakarta: Cemara hdah, l978,93. Kaya Pembangunan Nannada in Matararn, Pesantren Pabelan in Magelang, and Pesantren

Sabiqul Muttaqien in ~adiun?The program offereà instruction in a number of different

areas, including electronics (radio), tailoring, carpentry and handicrafts, photography,

agriculture, mechanics, administration and business. In 1976, the library programs were

added to provide an orientation on the use of the library and on the development of

knowledge, especially Islamic development. In addition, this program was designed to educate the librarian in each pe~antren.'~

In its 1977-1978 budget, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, working through Proyek

Pembinaan dan Bantuan kepada Pandok Pesantren (Project for the Development and

Foundation of Pesantrens), aimed at the development of 500 pesantrens throughout

Indonesia. This would include the fûnding of practical work, workshop and materials as well as physical and academic motivation and the hplementation of both education and training

Mukti Ali stated, "In the context of national development, teaching skills subjects seeks to retum the pesantren to its original function, to integrate it with its environment, to promote active participation for the development of the villages in which the pesantren are situated ... to be an agent of development through mental and spintual development, and to create a development mentality among people. This leads people to a more open, rational, objective, dynamic and imaginative Life and to increase participation in community welfare. By becoming active in modemizing the village, the pesantren is able to eliminate obstacles like traditionalism and feudalism. In terrns of village development, the pesantren can boost the village development process in order to achieve the Desa Swasembada [self-

29 H. Kafrawi, Pembaharuan, 94.

H. Kafiawi, Pembahurunn, 96.

31 H. Kafrawi, Pembaharuan, 100-10 1. sufficient village]"."

In addition, the pesanûens which had a modrasah in their educational system, gained an advantage when the government issued the SKB 3 Menteri on 24 March, 1975, which explicitly stated that the Ministry of Religious Affairs is responsible for maintaining rnadrasahs. This meant that the Madrnsah's certificate is equal to that issued by general

(non-religious) schools, and that the graduates of muàrasahs cm continue their stqdies in public schools, or aitematively that the student in a drasah cm tramfer to a public scho01.~~This also meant that the students who graduate from drasahs affiliated to pesantrens have equal rights to those graduating from public schools.

Indonesia needs educated people to contribute to the cause of developrnent. Alone, the Indonesian government cannot provide sufficient education for al1 its citizens. Hence, participation in this process by private institutions as well as non-govemmental institutions is vital. Most Indonesians still live in rural areas, thus, giving the pesantren the opportunity to play a major role in education. Religion is one of the national assets for Indonesian development; its importance in development is clearly stated in the GBHN, both as one of the Azas Pembangunan Nasional [The Principles of National Development] and as one of the Modal Dasar Pembangunan Nasional (the Basic Assets of National Development).

Since the end of Pelita I, the Ministry of Religious Affairs has taken a chah strategy and policy tow ards the development of pesantrens. This strategy includes motivating and guiding; for instance, motivating pesantrens to

32 Mukti Ali, Ag- dmr Pembangzutun di Zndonesia [Religion and Development in Indonesid, (Jak-. Biro Hukum dan Hubungan Masyarakat Departemen Agarna RI, 19761, 165. complete their educational component by providing the secular science and skills as well as religious sciences, and improving the organization and management of pesantren, or rnotivating pesantrens to modemize their educational system and methods, improving the library, cooperation (koperm etc. Other funds include providing the materials for ski11 subjects, books, physical means, and training for instnictors and coaches?

By the end of Pelita II, the gant donated by the govemment came to more than eight hundred million rupiah, in the form of training for 2,436 pesantren coaches, providing ski11 instruments for 595 pesantrens. building workshops for 87 pesantrens, rehabilitating buildings and boarding houses for 36 pesantrens and providing books for 1,744 pe~antrens.~~

In Pelitu El, the govemment increased the founding for pesantrens and other religious institutions. Jn line with the Keputusan Presiden Nomor 30 Tahun 1978 (Presidential Decree Number 30, in the year 1978) the Ministry of Religious Affairs created a department to deai with pesantren, the Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan Kelembagaan Agam Islam (Directorate General of Construction for the Islarnic ~nstitutions).~~

Govemment finding is not designed to diminish the self-sufficiency of pesantrens and mndrasahs but is rather intended to motivate and to enhance their self-sufficient spirit."

Presently, Indonesia faces several national problems. Among the national problerns are: population, urbanization, juveniIe delinquency, unernployment, children who cannot be accommodated by the existing schools, etc. As Islamic institutions, the pesantrens have been actively participating in solving the problems in educational sector. Also, in the sectors designed to cope with juvenile delinquency and moral crisis, pesantrens have played an important role ... One thing that should be improved is the involvement of pesantrens in coping with unernployrnent

Y Alamsjah Ratu Penviranegara, Pembinaan Pendidikan Agam [The Construction of Religious Education], (Jakarta: Departemen Agarna RI, 1982), 74.

35 Alarnsjah Ratu Perwiranegara, Pernbi~an,75.

36 Alamsjah Ratu Penviranegara, Pembinaan, 75.

37 Alamsj ah Ratu Pemiranegara, Pembimn, 75-76.

98 problerns... Therefore, in the present day, in stages and with a plan, the ski11 subjects are applied in pesantrens in order to prepare the santri for employment"."

In Repelita Il, a program on pesantren development was stated clearly, embodying

a design for the development of a project on the Percontohun Pesantren Pernbangmn (The

Mode1 of the Developmental Pe~antren).~'In the Religious Education Institution Seminar

heId fiom May 3 1 to June 4, 1971, Mukti Ali, the Minister of Religious Aff'airs, stated that

the modemization of the pesantren's educational system is meant to make the pesantren's

educational system better than ever, using a cntena which measures improvement by the

impact of the educational system on national devel~pment.~Since Repelita Il, the goal of

education has continued to focus on needs in the area of hurnan resources. In addition, the

curriculum of non-govemment educational institutions has been standardized, while non-

govemmental educational institutions, including the pesantren, have been provided with guidance and information, including a design for physical facilities for pesantrens, designs for education management and organization, c&culum design and educational rnethod, a design for community services and a design on matters of logistics. 41

The purpose of the Indonesian governent (in this case the Ministry of Religious

Affairs) is not to interfere with their autonorny in modernizing pesantrens, but to function

'' Alamsjah Ratu Perwiranegara, Pernbinaan, 76-77. '' Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan, 23. " Team Penyusun BKP3, Perunan, 23.

41 Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan, 24-4 1. 99 as a motivator and supporter for de~elopment?~In this role, the Indonesian govemment has determined that there are three patterns of pesantrens. One which considers itself a purely religious educationai instimtion and which aims to provide 'ulmiFor this kind of pesantren the govemment provides assistance in physical facilities and library aid. The second pattem is the pesantren which integrates skill subjects into its curriculum. The government provides this type of pesantren with training prograrns and workshops. The third pattern is the pesantren which has a public scho01.4~

Governrnent aid to modernizing pesantrens may measured by the number of initiatives made:

a The improvement of the Pesantren's Institutional Objectives (Tujuan Institutional Pesanfren) in the fiamework of national education and the improvement of its function as a social institution in the rural area. b. The improvement of the educational c~culurn/methodin order to promote the efficiency and effectiveness of pesantren development. c. The intensification of ski11 subjects in pesantrens in order to help pesantrens develop their potential in social facilities and quality of life. d. The relevance of madrasah and pesantrens to the SKB Tiga Menter?'."

However, some pesantrens are reluctant to accept this government assistance, and instead ' maintain their own educational systems. This reluctance may be due to their fear of loosing the religious function of the pesantren or because lack of funding, which prevents the adoption of the educational system proposed by the govemment.

42 Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan, 59.

" Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan, 60-61.

Team Penyusun BKP3, Peranan, 62.

100 3. The involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations in the pesantren's

Educational system.

Non-Govementd Organizations have also become involved in the effort to make

the pesantren more dynamic. It seems, however, that NGO programs follow govemment

policy. This may be because the NGOs think that the govemment policy on the pesqntrens

is on the right track. The Department of Religious Aff2iirs and the Lembaga Penelitian

Pendidikan dan Penerangan Ebnorni ~osiald' (LP3ES or The Institution of Research,

Education, and Information of Economy and Social) have fonned an organization called

Perhimpunun Zndonesia untuk Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat (P3M or

Indonesian Society for Pesantren and Community Development) which has operated since

1983. This organization is designed to explore Islamic thinking on community development

and to expand the function of the pesantren in Indonesian development (specifically the

development of the cornmunity); it also attempts to develop human as well as natural

resources to achieve happiness in this world and the hereafter. The P3M has undertaken a

number of activities to achieve these goals, namely, research,'training, publishing, and joint

cooperation with other organizations which share similar attitudes towards pesantren and cornmunity developrnent.

45 LP3ES is a non-govemmental organization established in 1971 by a group of economic and social intellectuds, technocrats, politicians, and joumalists sponsored by the foundation of Friedrich NamnStifrung, Germany. The purpose of which is to help the govemment in maintainhg the concept of development of Indonesian politics. In case of the pesantren, the aim of this organization is to help the pesantren community adjust to the modernization process and the development of the rural community. Cooperation behveen these NGOs and the pesantrens began in the 1980s with the

opening of a dialogue between the kyois and Muslim intellectuals on the importance of

modeniizing the pesantren's educational system. The initiative for this dialogue came from

LP3ES Jakarta's interest in helping the pesantren adapt to modemity and the Indonesian

development process, as well as to make the pesantren a catalyst for rural community

devel opment.

The relationship between the pesantren and the community cannot be emphasized

enough because the community,isthe bais of pesantren development. Many examples of

successful cooperation exist -- for exarnple, Pondok Pesantren Gontor. Moreover, the

community base is not only a characteristic of the pesantren but is, in fact, an important

factor for the institution's continued existence. Indeed, without this community support,

pesantrens are threatened with collapse. Cases in point are those pesantrens which were

established to answer the needs of the owners, but collapsed when established to answer to

the needs of the owners but couapsed when they were no longer supported by the owners.

Since the 1970s and the early 1980s, LP3ES has cooperated with some pesantrens in

the development their surroundhg communitiesP6 Generally, some pesantrens have institutions seeking to maintain communi ty development. Each institution is run by the

senior saniri, the kyai's family members, with or without the active participation of the owner of the pesantred7 The process of establishing such institutions always begins with

46 Bisri Effendy, "Pengembangan Masyarakat Melalui Pesantren: Kasus Lima Pesantren di Jawa" [Community Development through Pesantren: The Case of Five Pesantrens in Java] Pesan, No.04, (199 l), 36

47 Bisri Effendy, "Pengembangan", 37. the participation of representatives from pesantrens in community development, and their

acquisition of training held by LP3ES in Jakarta. In this case, LP3ES functions as a

facilitator, while the ideas for planning community development activities corne from the

pesantren itself.

In the mid 1970s, the successful cooperation between the pesantrens and LP3ES

inspired other organizations to initiate involvement in pesantren development, such as the

Lembaga Studi Pembangunan (LSP or Development Study Board), Sekretariat Bina Desa

(Rural Development Secretanat), and Yayasan Agribisnis ( Agibusiness Foundation).

The Tenaga Pengembangan Mmyarczkut (TPM or Community Development Staff)48 plays a key role in coordinathg the segments involved in the pesantren development program. The success of this program depends on the TPM members' sensibility, communication abilities, and creativity; their institutional basis in pesantrens also means that they are able to use the5 authonty with both forma1 and infoxmal leaders as well as the community in order to mobilize all community bomponents.

LP3ES usually recruits young santns as members of TPM and provides them with six months of training, focussing on the following areas: achievement motivation training, rural development orientation, planning programs and activities, organizational models for self-reliant xural communities, and evaluations and reports. These components emphasize the practical orientation and are based on actual case studies. After finishing this training program, the memben of TPM then continue with individual action programs for another six

" TPM usuaily consistç of smtris with a modem orientation who have been trained in special programs in this field. The special requirements for theû activities include a good relationship with pesanûzn leaders; and the willingness of the community to rely on them. months in order to apply this knowledge.

For the continuing education of TPM's mernbers, LP3ES provides courses in specific

areas, such as library and documentation science, environmental science, and health services

as applied in rurd communities. In the health service program, pesantrens do not iimit

themselves to methods of treatrnent, but also promote well-being by offering healthy food

to those suffenng frorn malnutrition as well as information on balance diets.

The main purpose of this program is to provide medicine, both synthetic and

traditional. The pesantren operates Usaha Kesehaian Masyarakat ( Health Community

Program) in cooperation with Plcsat Kesehatan Masyarakat (Puskesrnas or Community

Health Centre). This program educates the cadres about common disease treatment, the use

and storage of medicines, first aid, etc.

Success in implementing rural development programs seems to depend on the ability

of the pesantren and the TPM to mobilize community participation, and on the

appropnateness of the initial decisions conc'erning application and evaluation. The paternalistic pattern of traditional commUIZities requires the involvement of local leadership in any activity and program prior to community acceptame. As the kyai is the main religious leader in most communities, any organization involved in rural community development programs must pay attention to the kyuts requests and needs. Although some changes in tradition may be highly beneficial to the comunity, such changes are unlikely to be successful unless the community understands the correlation between these changes and its future. The modem community views the pesantren as an institution which has succeeded

in inculcating Islamic values to the younger generation; many believe the pesantren's

influence prevents immoral behaviour among the Young. For example, many parents send

children who are causing trouble to the pesantren to leam values and discipline. Pesantren

Suryalaya in West Java, for example, is famous for its recovery program for troubled youth,

especially those addicted to heroin. Pesantren Kilat has a similar program and has atwcted

a great deal of interest fkom people. especially urban youth. Such students seek not only to

familiarize themselves with Islamic doctrines, but aiso with the experience of life in the

pesantren: a life based on moderation, egalitanan values and cooperation.

The emphasis which Muhammadiyah has placed on developing its modem school

system has 1ed to crisis in its 'ulamü cadre. Thus Muhammadiyah recendy began paying

greater attention to the muùraruh system, and has built a nuber of pesantrens, including one

in North Sumatra.

4. The pesantren and Indonesian development.

Although the pesantren is a religious institution, it has a direct involvement in state

affairs. In this regard, the bai plays an important role in the political attitude of the

pesantren. There are at least four types of political orientations held by pesantrens: those

which directly support the PPP, those whi& direcdy support Golkar, those which support

Golkar indirectly, and those which keep a distance frorn all three political parties. Hence,

some pesantrens are used to mobhthe vote, and many politicians visit pesantrens in pre- election times in an effort to obtain the political support or at least sympathy of the pesantren. To enhance the quality of the pesantren's political participation, Riaty Rafiuddin suggests that pesantrens must develop their educational system at the macro-level. A wide perspective, openness to life outside the pesantren, and a self-sufticient economy can influence the quality of pesantren participation in politics. Rafiuddin also advises pesantrens to maintain direct communication with their comrnunities and to understand local problems?9

The pesantren and the comrnunity are interconnected to the extent that the influence of the pesantren outweighs the administrative region of the surrounding villages.50With its extensive influence, the pesantren can thus stimulate change in its environs in the social, economic, and cultural as well as religious aspect^.^'

The Pesantren cornmunity development programs include the provision of water sources (tempat penyediaan air), cooperation, training in vocational skills (like tailoring, mechanics, and welding), cultivation of plants with econornic value (like lamtoro gung and mangoes), and the cultivation of individual gardens with vegetables (like tomatoes and eggplants). In general, most pesantrens have succeeded in their community development programs. SimiIarly, in the cooperation programs, pesantrens have successfully established a credit systern without interest, thus releasing the community from usury, and eliminating the tradition of rnortgaging land for loans. Moreover, fbe plantation programs not only

49 See Riaty Rafiuddin, ''Di itara Empat" [Among the Four], Pesan, xii.01 (1992), 25-26.

50 Fahrni D. Saifuddin, Peranan Ponabk Pesantren untuk Mewujudkan Kefahnan Masyarakat Desa [The Role of Pesantrem in Creating the Stability of the Village . Community], [microfiche], (Jakarta: Markas Besar ABRI, Lernbaga Ketahanan Nasional, 1986), 36.

Fahmi D. Saifuddin, Pera~n,37.

106 provide the community with additional income, they also raise consciousness of the

environment. Some communities have been able to establish public health centres as well

with the support of their local pesantrens.

The pesantren plays an important role in forrning community opinion regarding the

importance of environmental programs, especially in Java, the most populous region in

Indonesia. The pesantren's environmental program includes: reforestation, building houses

and horticulture. Some pesantrens in East Java have received awards for their environmental

programs. Pesantren An-Nuqayah in Madura, for instance, received an award fiom President

Suharto in 1982 for building an irrigation system and for successfùl reforestation. They had

mobilized the community to plant 1.5 million plants. Likewise, Pesantren Pabelan is

cwently involved in repairing traditional community houses which have no ventilation or windows. This pesantren has also hplemented a horticulture program, which trains people to plant vegetables and fniits, which cmemich the farnily's nutrition. In addition, it trains people in its sanitation programs. Pesantren Pabélan received the Aga Khan Award for its

Rural Architecture Renovation program in 1980 and a National Award for its environmental program in 1982.

In the field of economics, pesantrens have helped in increasing the income of rural communities through Kelompok Swadaya Mosyarakat (KSM or Self-supporting Cornrnunity

Groups) and by increasing productivity in a number of sectors, including farming (e.g. providing seeds, fertilizers, insecticides). animal husbandry ( introducing poultry breeding), fisheries, and home industries. An examination of two successful community development programs indicates the wide range of options available for pesantren involvement in development. In 1982,

Pesantren Al Nuqayah successfully built water sources (tempat penyediaun air) and public

MCK (Mandi, Cuci, Kakur or public bathing. washing, and toilet facilities) in Karnpung

Brumbung with local cornmunity cooperation. Over the next few years, Pesantren Al

Nuqayah also succeeded in mo tivating and guiding the community to build their own .MCK.

In short, pesantren Al Nuqayah's community development program succeeded in elevating the village of Guluk-guluk from a desa swadaya to a desa swakuryu and then to a desa swa

~ernbada.'~Similarly, Pesantren S d&yah Syafi' i yah (in Sukerejo, Situbondo) developed a program enabling the community to use simple technology for hatching chicks, building a bridge and broadening the road for easier tran~portation.'~

52 This village typology was created in 1976 dividing villages (desa) into five categories. Pra desa (pre-village) refers to a community which does not live in a village. Desa swaduya refers to the village in which people tied to local custom, relationships arnong people are still close, social control is based on familiarity, livelihood (income) is based on low technology, and low productivity. Desa swakarya refers to a village in which custom is in transition because of outside influence which in tuni changes the way of thinking of the villagers, and where techology is advanced and productivity is high. Desa swawrnbada refers to a village in which people are not tied to custom at all, the relationship among people is rational, various livelihooâs (income) are avadable and, new technology in farming leads to high productivity. Desa PancasiZa refers to the village which has reached its optimal development, in which all the villagers are able to fulfil their primary needs, and there is an equal distribution of education, health, jobs, and justice for al1 villagers. For further information on this village typology, see Kustomo Usman, "Pengklasifikasian Desa Sebagai Dasar Pengarahan Kebijaksanaan Perencanaan Pembangunan Fisik Desa" [The Village Classification as the Basis of folicy for the Physical Village Development Plan], Undergraduate Thesis, (Bandung: Departemen Tata Pembangunan Daerah dan Kota, Institut Teknologi Bandung, 1979).

53 Bappeda Propinsi Daerah Tingkat 1Iawa Timur and DIIN , Laporan Penelitian tentang Pengaruh Pondak Pesantren terhadap Upaya Pernbangunan di Sekitamyu [The Report on the Research on the Contribution of Pesantrens in the The success of the pesantrens in introducing community-onented prograrns has

resulted from close ties betwen the pesantren and the local population on the one hand, and

a deep understanding of the conditions in which they live, thus making the development

needs of the community a pnonty. Pesantren community development prograrns include the

establishment of Pusat Kesehatan Masyarakat (Puskesrnas or Community Health Centres),

building bridges, broadening and hardening road, and establishing security posts. ne kyai

belfis considered a specialist on community development. Exarnples of kyai involvement

include providing housing for the villagers by selling his own land to the vilIagers, who then

pay for it in installments." And although the pesantrens have faced a variety of problems, ranging fkom conceptual clifferences and inadequate pedagogical strategies to difficulties in raising the consciousness of the community, the character of the pesantren and its community-onented philosophy makes it possible for the pesantren to implement programs of this nature.

The success of the Teknologi Tepat G& (?TG or Simple Tecbnology) which has been developed by pesantrens depends on two factors: 1) the interna1 factor, that is the leadership system in the pesantren which varies according to the attitude and perspective of the @ui, ustadh, and santn as weli as the conditions goveming pesantren organi~ation;~~2)

Development Efforts in Their Environs]. Microfiche. Bappeda Propinsi Daerah Tingkat 1 Jawa Thur and JIUN Sunan Ampel, 1989,97-100. " Bappeda Propinsi Daerah Tingkat 1Jawa Tiand iAIN Sunan Arnpel, Luporan, 62. '' Some pesantrens wony about the negative impact of providing skilIs programs since the provision of these programs wiU force the pesantrens to hire teachers from outside the pesantren. Pesantrens also worry that these teachers will decrease the chaisma of the the extemal factor, that is the anitude of the cornmunity towards the pesantren, govemment

institutions; or other modem institutions. This includes ideas and social processes within the

c~mmunity?~Other factors which should be considered in the application of the'TT~is the

program's reliability in solving community problemd7

Of course, some programs are unsuccessful. The main causes of failwe stem fiom the

lack of a trained group -- as some santris retum to their hometowns after graduation. -- and

a lack of interest by the pesantren, which may not see the benefit from the skill training

programs. Other problems include a lack of financial support for the skiil programs and the

. implementation of programs not suited to the cornmunity. This happens when the pesantren

is unaware of the community's needs?

Concerning the failure of the Community Development Programs, Fahmi D.

Saifuddin states that: "Among the main causes is the Indonesian development policy which

cornes from above [the govemment]. Therefore, non-govemment programs at the local Ievel,

including the pesantren, are very limited; as a resdt, there is little expectation of big changes

to the benefit of the co~nmunity"~~To strengthen the function of the pesantren in mal

community development, Saifuddin suggests strengthening five areas: 1) the role of the @ai

as an informal leader; 2) the function of the pesantren as a social institution in village

bai. More seriously, they wony that the skills programs will diminish the function of the pesantren as a religious institution.

56 Fahmi D. Saifuddin, Peranan, 46. '' Fahmi D. Saifuddin, Peranan, 46. Proyek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pondok, 8-10.

59 Fahmi D. Saifuddin, Peranan, 47. 110 modernization; 3) the quality and hinction of the pesantren as an educational institution; 4)

the function of the pesantren in village information and communication; 5) the function of

the pesantren in security and defence?

It is, therefore, hoped that the involvement of the pesantren in national development

will contribute to Indonesian development. Indeed, given the fact that there is a large number

of pesantrens throughout Indonesia, mostly in rural areas, and that the system enables

students to live together unintemptedly (which means that they can be easily mobilized for

activities at any time), and that pesantrens have traditionally instilled such personal qualities

such as modesty, cooperation, assistance and self reliance (which are much-needed qualities

for Indonesian development), al1 these elements make the pesantren a viable tool for

comrnunity de~elopment.~'

As a final point we need to look again at Smith's five points conceming

seculdzation. His second point conceming entry to societal areas, such as education, is relevant to this chapter. At the conclusion of Chapter 2 it was observed that the state had not pen&ated the pesantren system in the early years of Indonesian mtional history. At this point in our discussion, however, it can clearly be seen that this was a short-tem phenomenon and

Fahmi D. Saifuddin, Peranan, 77.

Royek Pembinaan dan bantuan Kepada Pondok Pesantren, Pondok, 1.

111 that the drive for state control of the entire educational realm continues. Govemment

insistence on pesantnn accommodation is persistent and has made significant inroads into converting these schools over to a part of the national educational system,.Religionand religious personnel will correspondingly be limited in their influence over the pesantren.

Smith's prediction is now rapidly being fulfilled. Conclusion

Islam came to Indonesia through the coastal areas, brougbt by travellers and merchants from India, Arabia and Persia. Graduaily, Muslim immigrants took over the important positions in the community, fmt the trading and port administration, later the administration of the small kingdoms around the port. Afterwards, Islam became the legal religion of the coastal kingdoms.

The characteristics of Islam linked with Indonesian culture motivated Indonesian

Muslims to become active in political, economic and social welfare. Moreover, influenced by religious motives, Indonesian Muslims were active from the advent of Islam until the present tirne. During the era of Dutch and Japanese colonialism, much of the struggle against foreign occupation was inspired by Muslim leaders, 'd'Z and kyais, who were motivated by religious spirit. This led to Islarnic nationalism in Indonesia. Needless to Say, the pesantren, as the social and cultural centre of the'community, had an important role to play in the life of the community and occupied a significant role in this stmggle. Moreover, in the era of independence, the Indonesian Muslim had to sbuggle for his place in politics and socio-economic development. This stmggle, especially in the political arena, created an antagonistic relationship between Muslim activists and those who ran the Indonesian govemrnent. This condition penetrated to the educational arena, especially the pesantren. In the Old Order era, the dichotomy between general and religious education remained, and it was only after the communist rebeliion of 1965, that religious education become compulsory in the Indonesian educationd system. Education is one of the aspects that Indonesian Muslims are concemed about, not

only for the provision of Islarnic teachings. but also for the provision of secular knowledge

that will enable them to lead a better life. In the non-fomal sectors Islamic education is provided in the home, mosque, surau and langgar. In the formal sectors Islamic education is provided in islamic public schools, madrarahs and pesantrens. A large number of pesantrens are spread across the Indonesian archipelago and each pesantren has its own characteristics, policy, and priority towards its prograrns, but al1 share the same goal of participating in Indonesian development in order to achieve a better future for the mmah

(community).

As an lslamic institution, the pesantren cm never be separated from the Islamic spirit in any of its activities. This has inevitably Ied some pesantrens to become suspicious of the government, which has experienced Muslim hostility in several rebellions, and consequently views any movements and activities based on Islam as dangerous. The reaction to such hostility is viewed by much of the Muslim cominunity as hostile in itself. As a result, it is impossible to prevent suspicion on both sides. Accordingly, the pesantren, which views the govemment as "anti-Islamic", regards any government effort extended towards it as an unklamic effort to nationalize and secularize the pesantren. On the other hand, the govemment views the pesantren as a tool capable of igniting Islamic militancy at a moment's notice.

In the 1980s, Indonesian Muslirns made a reaproachrnent towards the government, beginning a movement toward govemment accommodation, and becoming involved in government policies. In addition, Muslun acceptance of Pancasila as the only bais for social and political activities led to a new development in the history of Islam in Indonesia,

especially among the elite bureaucratic class; those fonnerly marked by Islamic phobia

become proud Muslirns. The climax of intimacy between the govemment and Muslims was

marked by the establishment of IChfi, the Muslim Intellectuals Association which heralded

a new era of mutual accommodation.

The pesantren, since its establishment, has always devoted its activities to fiilfilling

the needs of the community, especially the promotion of ethics, mords, and the social

welfare of the cornrnunity. Together with other educational institutions, the pesantren wants

to provide the finest coniribution possible to Indonesian development and to be able to meet

the needs of the community. Nevertheles, as a private educationd institution with special charactenstics, the pesanhen has its own direction and good reasons for not wanting others to determine its future. However, with the recent stress on education and the emphasis on achieving excellence, resulting from the complexity of developments within the comrnunity itself, any educational institution in Indonesia should redefine its systern, including the pesantren. Moreover, significant numbers of influentid people, educators, politician, 'ulm, etc., view the pesantren's educational system as less than excellent in terms of its contribution to Indonesian development. As a result, the pesantren's educational system has undergone numerous changes during the past two decades. These changes have corne about due to pressures from both outside and inside the pesantren itself. In some pesantrens, however, such changes were implemented rather quickly without the support of reliable research and community involvement. Some pesantrens which have adopted the modern educational system face various problems ranging from funding. facilities, administration, organizational structure and teaching-leaming methodology to having an adequate number of tcachers for both the Islamic and secular sciences. In addition, the modemization of the pesantren has led to the introduction of out-side material which may in fact overshadow the religious values of the pesantren in the long run. Moreover, the introduction of modemization weakens t~ some extent socid and religious values as the primary characteristics of the pesantren. Realizing these factors, some pesantrens attempt to limit their accommodation in order to retain control over their development and not to lose their religious identity. In fact, many pesantrens succeeded in cooperating with the government without losing their own identity.

In modernizing its educational system, the pesantren should take some considerations ioto account. Pesantrens should clearly defme the educational objectives which cm fulfill the individual needs and differences of their students. The secular and ski11 subjects should be carefully selected, with care taken not to provide more subjects than the students need, as well as to differentiate between the pesantren and other educational institutions. The openness of the pesantren towards modemization programs is also necessary, especially in the introduction of the secular sciences and teacher requirements. In addition, pesantrens should not be afraid of losing their ideology and identity to the extent of refusing al1 change. hdeed, it is the time for pesantrens to widen their perspective and programs, focussing not only on their surrounding community but also on the Indonesian community at large. Last but not least, pesantrens should always create and welcome the entrepreneur spirit in students. The problerns of the pesantren's educational system cannot be separated fiom the problems of the national educational system. From day to day the results of education are viewed as behind the needs of Indonesian development. In addition, the dichotomy between religious education and secular education has not been bridged even in the present day. This is clearly shown fiom the administration of education. Public education is under the administration of the Minisûy of Education and Culture, while religious education is. under the administration of the Ministry of Religious Affairs. The budget allocated for public education, under the coordination of the Ministty of Education and Culture is much higher than that for religious education under the coordination of the Mnistry of Religious Affairs.

Therefore it is difficult for state Islamic education institutions to compete with general state educational institutions in Indonesia. Hence, Muslih Usa stated that: "It is strange, that for the majority of the Muslim community, Islamic education hk not provided it with the chance to compete in the development of this large population. The Indonesian government gives

Little attention to Islamic education"'

The effort to modernize the pesantren's educational system has led to the involvement of individuals2, govemment and non-govemmentai organizations. Their involvement takes the form of assisting pesantrens in providing secular subjects, facilities, scout programs and skill programs, as well as assisting pesantrens in modemizing their

l Muslih Usa, ed., Pendidikan Islam di Ihesia:Antara Cita dan Fakta JJs1am.i~ Education in Indonesia: Between Ideality and Reality], (Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 199l), 11.

For example, Pesantren Danil Hikmah in Tapanuli Tengah North Sumatra was founded by Faisal Tanjung and Akbar Tanjung. For more information on this pesantren see its home page at: http://r~ww.geocities.c0m/C011egeParW9llO/inde~.h~. cwiculurn to meet the needs of the Indonesian community. Indeed, serious efforts are still needed not only to provide hinding but also to maintain the pesantren educational system.

It is also necessary for educators to become involved in this. On the government's side, assistance to pesantrens should be proposed to enhance the potential of the students and to prepare them for better participation in Indonesian development rather than merely approaching the pesantren for political objectives. On the pesantren's side, serious efforts are needed to place secular and ski11 subjects on the same level as Lslamic subjects. In terms of sWsubjects, it is important for pesantrens to conduct a study and find out the kind of ski11 subjects that should be provided in each pesantren, the required professional skiIl training programs, skiil subjects based on student interest, need and time, maintain cooperation with the co&nunity as the consumer of the graduate skills and with other institutions as well, in order to obtain and offer both financial assistance and professional training to them.

It should be understood that the pesantren has its roots in the rural cornmunity, and that it plays a significant role in the development of this community. Thus, in its attempts to help pesantrens become more accommodative to rural community development, the

Indonesian government should therefore, not hedge its policies towards pesantrens with strict national regdations which emasculate the pesantren's freedom. hstead, the government should refonn its dualistic national educational system in such a way as to integrate the

IsIamic and secular systems, allowing them to hannonize rather than clash with each other.

Indeed, there is a room for both approaches. By itself, the national educational system cannot create a productive young generation with spiritual values, while on the other' hand, the national educational system applied in pesantren is not able to create an entrepreneurid spirit in the santris.'

Regarding the unique characteristics of each pesantren, it is important for those

involved in the modemkation of pesantrens to take into account each pesantren's uniqueness

so that each pesantren can maximize its speciality in education. The abilities of each pesantren to adjust to the needs of the community should also be taken into account in order to ensure that the pesantren's social programs meet the needs of its community. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that programs which have been successhilly implemented in one pesantren will yield the same results in other pesantrens. If these conditions are taken into consideration, pesantrens will play a major role in Indonesian development, especially in rural development.

As a final point of observation in this thesis, a review of Smith's typology and its application to Indonesia is useful. As we have seen in the preceding chapters, points 1 through 4 proved true in Indonesia through the material presented in this study. The state did effect a separation of state and religious values. Second, the state moved forcefully into societal areas, particularly education, which has deeply affected the education offered by religious institutions. Third, the rise of the polity has greatly challengeci the sense of religious community membership so prevalent before Indonesia's creation. Fourth, religion and religious personalities have lost heavily in the state's drive to control politics. It is only on point 5, where religion is no longer recognized, that Indonesian state power has not

The national educational system focuses on creating skilled labour in order to increase Indonesia's economic growth. While the pesantren's educational system focuses on creating an entrepreneurial spirit in its santris. In addition, it is assumed that Indonesian backwardness is the result of its citizen's lack of entrepreneurial ability. materialized. This is because the contemporaiy regime has concluded that religion remains

an asset to nation-building and is not considered a hindrance. Religion has fostered attitudes

and outlooks that support govemment programs and policies and has been successful in that

endeavour.

But, if most of Smith's points have been proven, it is only part. Indonesian Muslim

values are surviving and finding new ways of influencing the emerging state dominance.

Islam in Indonesia is hardly weaker that it was fifty years ago before the emergence of an

Indonesian national state. At the same time, the position of Islam is different, no longer

tightly tied to traditional concepts, but increasingly adaptive to a new world of nationalism

and state dominance. Moreover, conceniing the pesantren, there appears to be no shameful

surrender to state authority, but a careful accommodation to changed conditions and an

attempt to promote the national good dong with the futher institution of Islarnic values, albeit in a revised delivery system of education.

Many issues in relation to the pesantren abd development have not been covered by this thesis; therefore, further research, especially field research, on the pesantren is still needed to help pesantrens develop an educational system that can play a more important role in Indonesian development. This research should take the form of educational, psychological, sociological and anthropological studies from the perspective of socio-economic development . Bibliography

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Depariemen Agama RI, Nam dan data Potensi Pondok-pondok Pesantren seluruh Indonesia 1984/1985 [names and Data of the Potential of Pesantrens in hdonesia 1984/ 19851. Jakarta: Departemen Agarna RI, 1985.

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Dhofier, Zamakhsyari. Pesantren :Studi Tentang Pandangan Hidup Kyai [Pesantren: a Study of the Kyai Way of Life]. Jakarta : Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan dan Penerangan Ekonomi dan Sosial, 1985.

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Abdurrahman, Moeslim. "Nationalism in Indonesia from an Islamic Perspective," Mizan, 1984, 1 (2), 3 1-38.

Aawar, Khaidir. " Islam in Indonesia Today," The Islarnic Quarterly, 1979, vol xxiii.(2),99- 102.

Anwar, M. Syafi'i. "Islamic Political Thinking and Its Articulation in Indonesia," Mizan,. 1993, v (4j, 31-42. ------"Islam Bureaucracy and Social Political Convergence in the New Order," Mizan, 1992, v (2), 59-67.

Asy'arie, Musa. "Gunakan Agama untuk Pemberdayaan Ekonomi Umat," Kompar Online, Januari 30, 1996.

Ayubi, Nazih N. "State Islam and Communal Plurality," The Annalî of the Arnerican Academy, November 1992,524,79-9 1.

Bacchus, M. Kazim. "Education for Development in UnderdeveIoped Countries," Comparative Education, June 198 1, 17 (2), 215-227.

Bachtiar, Harsya W. 'Tndonesia's Society anil Culture in 1994," The Indonesian Quorterly, 1995, xxiii (2), 175-18 1.

Chisman, Dennis G. "Science Education and National Development," Science Education, Oct 1984,68 (S), 563-569.

Cobbe, 3ames and Boediono. "Education, Demographics, the Labour Market, and Development: Indonesia in the Process of Transition ?," Journal of Asian and Afrrcan Studies, 1993, xxviii, (1-S), 1-29.

Dhofier, Zamakhsyari. "The RoIe of Qur'anic Schools in the Universalization of Basic Education in Indonesia," Mizan, 1992, V (S), 12-23. ----- " Contemporary Features of Javanese Pesantren," Mizan, n .d., 27. ------"Pesantren Alternatif Dipertanyakan," [AIternative Pesantren in Question], Pesan, 199073,12- 15.

Donner, Fred M. "The Formation of the Islamic State," Journal of the American Orientul Society, 1986, 106, 283-296.

Effendy, Bisri. "Pengembangan Masyarakat Melaiui Pesantren: Kasus Lima Pesantren di Jawa," [Community Developrnent through Pesantren: The Case of Five Pesantrens in Java], Pesan, 1991, No.04, 36-43.

Evans, Karen and Ian Haffenden. "Education for Young Adults in Developing Countries: some Emerging Issues," Educatior~alReview, 1988, 40 (2), 2 11-2 18.

Faiakh, H.M. FajruI. "Memperluas Partisipasi Politik Pesantren," [Enhancing Political Participation of Pesantren 1, Pesan, 1992, 1, 3 1-32.

Federspiel, Howard M. "Contemporary Southeast Asian Muslim Intellectuals: An Examination of the Sources for Their Concepts and Intellectual Constructs," Unpublished paper, 1996.

------"The Importance of Islamic Law in Twentieth-Century Indonesia," Unpublished paper, 1995.

------"Islam and Nationalism: An annotated Translation of and Comrnentary on Islam dan Kebangsaan, A Religious-Political Pamphlet Published by Al-Lisan in the Netherland East Indies," Indonesia, October 1977, 24,3946.

.,..-mm-- "Islam and Development in the Nations of Asean," Asian Suwey, 1985, xxv, 805- 819.

------"klamic Values, Law and Expectations in Contemporary Indonesia," Unpublished paper, 1996.

------"Sukarno and His Muslim Apologists," Essays on Islamic Civilization, ed. Donald P. Little, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1976, 89-102.

Gaffar, Afan. "Islam dan Politik dalarn Era Orde Bani: Mencari Bentuk Artikulasi yang Tepat," [Lslarn and Politics in the New Order Era: the Quest for a Coherent Articulation, Ulumul Qur'an, 1993, iv, 18-25.

Habte, Aklilu and Stephen Heyneman. "Education for National Development: World Bank Activities," Prospects: Quarterly Review of Education, 1983, 13 (4), 47 1-479.

Haryono, Anwar. "Islam, Nationalism and Democracy," Studia Islamika, 1995,2, 185-207. Hefner, Robert W. "Islam, State, and Civil Society: ICMI and the Struggle for the Indonesian Middle CIass," Indonesia, October 1993,56, 1-35.

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Hennida, Alfred. "The State and Islam," Africa Report, 39, 55-58.

Hikam, Muhammad A.S. "Navigating between Two Strearns: Islam in Modemising Indonesia," The Indonesian Quarterly, 1995, xxiii (2), 114- 2 16.

------"Islam and the Empowerment of Indonesian Civil Society," The Indonesian Quarterly, 1996, xxivi (l), 3 1-37.

Hunt, Richard. "The Role of Religion in A Changing World," Mizan, 1984, 1 (2), 5-7.

Johns, A.H."khn in Southeast Asia: Reflection and New Directions," Indonesia, 1975, 19, 33-55.

Jones, Sidney R. "Arabic Instruction and Literacy in Javanese Muslim Schools," Prisnta, June 1981,21,

Kelarnbora, Lambert. "Indonesia: Problems of Irnplementing the Religious Instruction Policy," The Eighth Conference International Association of Historians of Asiu: Selected Paper, ed. Mohammad Amin Hasan and Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abd. Rahman, Selangor: Organizing Cornmittee, Eight Internationai Conference IAHA, History Department, Unversity Kebangsaan , 1988,459-47s.

Kmtowijoyo. "Religion, State and Social Formation in Indonesia," Mizan, 1984, 1 (2), 8-27.

Lewin, Keith. "Quality in Question: A New Agenda for Cumculum Reform in Developing Countries," Comparative Education, l985,2l (2), 1 17-133.

Lewis, Bernard. "State and Society Under Islam," Wilson Quarterly, 1989, 13,39-47.

Liddle, R. William. "Soeharto's Indonesia: Personal Xule and Political Institutions," Pacifie Aflairs, 1985,58,68-90.

Maarif, Ahmad Syafii, " Islam and Constitutionalism: the Indonesian Experience," Prisma, 1985, N0.35, 83-96.

Muzani, Ahmad. "Hubungan Agama dan Budaya dalam Pembangunan," [The Correlation between Religion and Culture in Development], Pesan, 1990, No. 1, 30-31. Noer, Deliar. "Islam As A Political Force in Indonesia," Mizan, 1984, 1 No.2,32-47.

Pangestu, Mari and Mayling Oey-Gardiner. "Human Resource Development and Management in Indonesia," The Indonesian Quarterly, xxi, 4 (1993): 461-482.

Prawiranegara, Syafruddin. "Pancasila as the Sole Foundation," Indonesia, New York: Corne11 SEA program, 1984, No. 38,74433.

Rafiuddin, Riaty. "Di antara Empat," [Among the Four], Pesan, 1992, xii (Ol), 25-27.

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Rasyid, M. Ryaas. "Indonesia: Preparing for Post-Soeharto Rule and Its Impact on the Democratization Process," Southeast AshAfSairs 1995, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 149- 163.

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m. Reports and Special Compiiations

Bappeda Propinsi Daerah Tingkat I Jawa Timur and TAIN Sunan Ampel. Lnporan Penelitian tentang Pengaruh Pondok Pesantren terhodap Upaya Pembangunan di Sekitanzya FeReport on the Research on the Contribution of Pesantrens on the Development Efforts in Their Environs]. Microfiche. Bappeda Propinsi Daerah Tingkat 1 Jawa Thur and IAIN Sunan Ampel, 1989.

Direktorat Jenderal Pernbinaan Kelembagaan Agama Islam. Pondok Pesantren dan Lingkungan Hidup [Pesantren and Environment]. Microfiche. Jakarta: Proyek. Pembinaan dan Bantuan kepada Pondok Pesantren Direktorat Jenderal Pembinaan keIembagaan Agama Islam, Departemen Agama RI, 1984. lAIN Walisongo. Lapuran Hasil Penelitiun tentang Pengaru h Pendidikan Keterampilan pada Beberapa Pondok Pesantren di Jawa Tengah [AResearch Report on the Effects of Vocational Training in Some Pesantrens in Central Java]. Microfiche. Semarang: LP3M MIN Walisongo, 1982.

IKIP Muhamrnadiyah. Seminar Perkernbangan Pesantren Menuju Tahun 2012 [Seminar on the DeveIopment of Pesantrens toward the Year of 20121. Microfiche. Jakarta: Majelis Pendidikan Tinggi, Penelitian dan Pengembangan Muhamrnadiyah, Institut Kegunian dan Ilmu Pendidikan, 1987.

Ismai 1, Farid. Perbandingan Mobilitas Sosial antara Alurnni Pontlak Pabelan dengan Alumni Sekdah Umum Di Desa Pabelan [The Comparative Studies of Social Mobility between the Alurnni of Pesantren Pabelan and the Alumni of Public Schools in Pabelan Village]. Microfiche. Jakarta: Unit Penelitian dan Kajian Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat, 1985.

Departemen Agarna. Pondok Pesantren dan Pengembangan Keterampilan [Pesantren and Vocational Education]. Microfiche. Jakarta: Proyek Pembinaan dan Bantuan kepada Pondok Pesantren, Departemen Agarna, 1982.

Sai fuddin, Fahmi D. Peran.cn PondDk Pesantren untuk Mewujucikan Ketahanan Masyarukxt Desa me Role of Pesantrens in Creating the Stability of the Village Cornrnunity]. Microfiche. Jakarta: Markas Besar ABRI, Lembaga Ketahanan Nasional, 1986. Soejoethy, Aly, et.al. Lnporan Penelitian Unsur-unsur Pragmatik yang Temuut daZorn Sistem Pendidikan Pesantren [Research Report on the Pragmatic Factors of the Pesantren's Educationd System]. Microfiche. Yogyakarta: Fakultas Filsafat, Universitas Gajah Mada, 1984.

Undmg-Undnng tentang Sistem Pendidih Nasional dan Peraîuran Pelakranaannya [The . Regulation of the National Educational System and Its Application Guides], Jakarta: Sinar Grafrka, 1993. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (QA-3)

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