1957 – The Year the Space Age Began

Roger L. Easton, retired Naval Research Laboratory

Linda Hall Library Kansas City MO 6 September 2007

Conditions in 1957

z Much different from now, slower, more optimistic in some ways z Simpler, yet very frightening, time

1 1957 in Politics z January 20: Second Presidential Inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower

1957 in Toys z First “Frisbee” from Wham-O

2 1957 in Sports

z Third Year of Major League Baseball in Kansas City z the “Athletics,” not the “Royals”

1957 in Sports z No pro football in Kansas City z AFL was three years in future z no Chiefs until 1963

3 1957 at Home z No microwave ovens z (TV dinners since 1954) z Few color television sets z (first broadcasts late in 1953) z No postal Zip Codes z Circular phone diales z No cell phones z (heck, no Area Codes, no direct long-distance dialing!) z No Internet, no personal computers z Music recorded on vinyl discs, not compact or computer disks

1957 in Transportation

z Gas cost 27¢ per gallon z September 4: Introduction of the Edsel by Ford Motor Company z cancelled in 1959 after loss of $250M

4 1957 in Transportation z October 28: rollout of first production Boeing 707

1957 in Science

z International Geophysical Year (IGY) z (actually, “year and a half”)

5 IGY Accomplishments

z South Polar Stations established z Operation Deep Freeze z Discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges z evidence of plate tectonics z USSR and USA pledged to launch artificial satellites (“man-made moons”) z discovery of Van Allen radiation belts

1957: “First” Year of Space Age z Space Age arguably began in 1955 z President Eisenhower announced that USA would launch small unmanned earth-orbiting satellite as part of IGY z Project Vanguard

6 Our Story:

z The battle to determine who would launch the first artificial satellite: z Werner von Braun of the U.S. Army Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville AL z Milton Rosen of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC

Rockets in WWII z German V-2 Missiles attacked London z German missile experts brought to USA for Operation “Paperclip” z Best known was Dr. Werner Von Braun

7 Post WWII Rocket Experiments

z Milton Rosen used V-2s as launch vehicles for scientific experiments z Needed more performance z Proposed improved vehicle z led to Viking Rocket

Viking Rocket z 1949, built for NRL by Glenn L. Martin Co. z Important innovations in Viking: z gimbaled rocket motor for steering z aluminum as principal structural material z intermittent gas jets for stabilizing vehicle after the main power cutoff z Launches z Viking No. 1, spring 1949, 50-mile altitude z Viking No. 4, May 1950 from ship, 104 miles

8 Scientific Results from Viking

z NRL Electron Optics Branch z ion chambers and photon counters to measure radiation from sun at x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths z Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit z antecedent of Minitrack z Continuous tracking of small instrumented body in space z Viking 10, April 1954, 136 miles, measured ion composition z Viking 11, May 1954, altitude of 158 miles radio

9 Viking Results z Five years of successes z Total cost less than $6 million z Encouraged NRL to propose a more powerful rocket engine and added upper stages to build vehicle capable of launching an artificial earth satellite

Project Vanguard z Grew out of NRL Proposal z Led by Dr. John P. Hagen

10 Vanguard Launcher & Satellite

z Efficient Three-stage launch vehicle z Stage 1: based on Viking z Stage 2: based on Aerobee Sounding Rocket z Stage 3: new solid-fuel rocket z Innovative, Miniaturized Scientific Payload z Planned IGY use: measure locations of Pacific islands

11 Planned Vanguard Trajectory

12 Solar Cell Batteries z 6 units on sphere

Later Vanguard Spacecraft

z Larger spheres z More scientific equipment

13 Plan for Tracking Vanguard Satellite z Remember, no worldwide tracking stations z no communication network, not even telephones z Would be difficult to ascertain whether satellite had orbited (hence, Project Moonwatch) z Satellite Tracking Program in Project Vanguard: z Minimum Trackable Satellite = Minitrack

Minitrack Antenna Array

14 Minitrack Station, Blossom Point, MD

Tracking Computer

z Vanguard Computing Center z in downtown DC z IBM 704 “Electronic Data-Processing Machine” z Magnetic core memory (not vacuum tubes) z 40,000 = 40 × 103 instructions per second z fastest 2007 computers Washington Post, July 10, 1957 z 300,000,000,000 = 300 × 109 instructions/second

15 Competitor to Vanguard: Project Orbiter z Proposal by U.S. Army, led by Werner Von Braun z Believed his project was certain to be chosen

Orbiter Satellite & Launcher z Launched by Army Redstone IRBM z range of 200 miles, 55-mile vertical height z Subsequent boost from 3 Rotating (for stability) clusters of unguided solid-fuelled Loki anti-aircraft rockets z 2nd Stage: Bundle of 24 Loki, burns for < 2 sec z 3rd Stage: Bundle of 6 Loki z 4th Stage: 1 Loki z Switched to following Loki stage at intervals of 2.5 seconds (!)

16 Project Orbiter Payload z 5-pound, 20-inch diameter sphere z no radio transmitter z would be tracked by optical telescopes ONLY z difficult, not reliable

z No science – propaganda value only z would only be able to say that USA had orbited a spacecraft

Launch Vehicle: Loki Rockets z Unguided, solid-fueled rocket z Based on German Taifun from WWII z Loki failed in antiaircraft role z replaced by Nike-Ajax in September 1955 z Loki later used as a sounding rocket z Small payload: 3.2 kg z Dimensions: z booster: 2.63m long × 76mm dia. z payload “dart:” 1.02m long × 35mm dia.

17 Loki Rocket

“Dart”

Booster

Selection by “Stewart Committee” z Chaired by Homer Stewart of Jet Propulsion Laboratory z Eight members to select proposal for funding z Vote on August 3, 1955 z 1 member absent z 3 votes for Vanguard z 2 votes for Orbiter z 2 other members (“not rocket scientists”) voted with majority z Final vote: 5 to 2

18 Reasons for Decision: Deficiencies of Project Orbiter z Very Limited Weight Capacity – 5 lbs. z Uncertain Optical Detection of Successful Orbit z Untested Launch Vehicle z Problems had not been fixed (at least, not well enough) z Technological world had changed, but von Braun had not

Plusses for Vanguard

z Launch vehicle based on Viking z no interference with research in ballistic missile weaponry z less tied to military vehicle zgood for propaganda purposes z Much better tracking system z Better scientific value z Innovative vehicle and payload z also a “minus” ⇒ uncertainty and complexity

19 Second Hearing by Stewart Committee z August 15, 1955 (12 days later) z Army memo had been circulated that criticized NRL satellite program for low probability of success and time required to develop launch vehicle z In short, von Braun could not believe he and the Army had lost

Project Orbiter Killed z September 9, 1955 z Army forbidden from launching satellites z NRL forbidden from soliciting scientific data from military missile programs z Vanguard team could not believe it had won

20 Vanguard Launch Sequence

Vanguard Launch Sequence

21 October 4, 1957: News Flash Sputnik successfully launched into orbit

Five Scientific Objectives of Sputnik z to test method for orbiting an artificial satellite; z to provide information on density of atmosphere by calculating orbital lifetime; z to test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking; z to determine effects of atmospheric radio wave propagation; and z to check methods for pressurizing satellite

22 Sputnik I Rocket Booster

Track as seen in Washington, DC on night of 15 October 1957 Easily visible to unaided eye

Sputnik Radio Transmitters z 20.005 MHz and 40.002 MHz z NRL converted Minitrack receivers at Blossom Point Tracking Station from 108 MHz in two days z New Antennas and Receivers installed z Worked well until someone “tidied up” the site

23 Minitrack System Calibration z Opportunity provided by surprise launch of Sputnik z Satellite’s orbit computed using Doppler shifts of radio transmissions z After orbit established, NRL proposed “illuminating” Sputnik with FM transmitter at Fort Monmouth, NJ z Reflected signal used for calibration z Led to idea of using “bistatic” radar to track orbiting bodies z Naval Space Surveillance System “Fence”

Navspasur Radar Sites

24 Reaction to Sputnik z Pressure from Press/Public/Politicians for Vanguard to launch z Launch of “Test Vehicles” considered point of national pride z Revived/modified plan from U.S. Army

Test Vehicle 3 (TV-3) z December 6, 1957 z Nationally televised z First-stage guidance failed z Satellite survived in “working” order z now in NASM z TV-3B, 5 February 1958, second stage did not ignite

25 Army Backup Plan

z small spacecraft carried by four- stage Jupiter-C launch vehicle z based on Jupiter IRBM z Contained Vanguard electronics package to appear as a scientific experiment

Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958

26 Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958

Pickering, Van Allen, von Braun

Next Vanguard Attempt z March 1958 z Test-Vehicle 4 (TV-4) + small satellite

27 28 HAVE BALL, WILL ORBIT

29 Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4)

z Successfully launched March 17, 1958 z Stable orbit z apogee: 3969 km z perigee: 650 km z Early predicted orbital life: 200 years z 7-cell mercury battery, two radio transmitters, temperature sensor, six clusters of solar cells

30 Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4) z March 17, 1958 z Two radio transmitters z 108 MHz @ 10 mW z 108.03 MHz @ 5 mW z Signal after 1 year z Transmissions ceased after 75 months

31 Vanguard I

z 3 pounds, 6.4-inch diameter z Khrushchev called it “the grapefruit satellite”

Scientific Experiments z Radio phase-comparison angle-tracking system z 10mW battery-powered transmitter at 108 MHz, transmitted internal temperature z 5mW transmitter at 108.03 MHz powered by solar cells z inferred north-south asymmetry of earth’s shape z described as “pear-shaped” with “stem” at North Pole z Signal strength used to measure total electron content along line of sight between satellite and selected ground-receiving stations z Satellite drag atmospheric density inferred from and sequential positions and tracking data

32 Tracking Orbits

Scientific and Engineering “Firsts” from Vanguard I z First use of rotatable exhaust and gyroscope for roll control z first solar-powered satellite z first use of miniaturized circuits z Oldest man-made object in earth orbit z Observations of orbital motion established that earth is “pear-shaped”

33 Current Status of Vanguard I z Oldest man-made object in space z Oldest three are Vanguard I, II, and III z 194,000+ orbits z has traveled 6.6 billion miles = 70 au z 1 astronomical unit = distance from Earth to Sun z 70 au is farther than distance from Sun to Pluto

Vanguard II z 17 February 1959, orbital lifetime of 300 years z 20-inch diameter sphere, 21 pounds z First satellite designed to observe and record the cloud cover of the earth z forerunner of the “television infrared observation satellites” (TIROS)

34 Vanguard III z launched 18 September 1959 into geocentric orbit, orbital life of 300 years z Objectives: measure earth’s magnetic field and solar X-ray radiation

Legacy of Vanguard z Vanguard I, II, and III are the three oldest man-made objects in earth orbit z NASA was formed around a base of the staff from Project Vanguard z Far from being a “failure,” Project Vanguard was a very successful test project that broke ground for the space programs that followed

35 Legacy of Minitrack – NAVSPASUR z Timing issues led to more careful considerations of relativistic effects

Measurement of Time Intervals z Timation

36 Use of Time-Interval Measurements to Navigate z Navstar – GPS z Now a multibillion-dollar industry

Acknowledgements and Thanks z John P. Hagen z John Mengel z Martin Votaw z …

37 Further Reading z Orbiter, Overflight, and the First Satellite; New Light on the Vanguard Decision from “Reconsidering Sputnik, Michael Neufeld z How Man-made Satellites Can Affect Our Lives, Joseph Kaplan, National Geographic Magazine, December 1957

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