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1957 – The Year the
Space Age Began

Roger L. Easton, retired Naval Research Laboratory

Linda Hall Library Kansas City MO 6 September 2007

Conditions in 1957

z Much different from now, slower, more optimistic in some ways

z Simpler, yet very frightening, time

1

1957 in Politics

z January 20: Second
Presidential Inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower

1957 in Toys

z First “Frisbee” from
Wham-O

2

1957 in Sports

z Third Year of Major League Baseball in
Kansas City

z the “Athletics,” not the “Royals”

1957 in Sports

z No pro football in
Kansas City

z AFL was three years in future

z no Chiefs until 1963

3

1957 at Home

z No microwave ovens

z (TV dinners since 1954)

z Few color television sets

z (first broadcasts late in 1953)

z No postal Zip Codes z Circular phone diales

z No cell phones z (heck, no Area Codes, no direct long-distance dialing!)

z No Internet, no personal computers z Music recorded on vinyl discs, not compact or computer disks

1957 in Transportation

z Gas cost 27¢ per gallon

z September 4:
Introduction of the

Edsel by Ford

Motor Company

z cancelled in 1959 after loss of $250M

4

1957 in Transportation

z October 28: rollout of first production Boeing 707

1957 in Science

z International Geophysical Year (IGY)

z (actually, “year and a half”)

5

IGY Accomplishments

z South Polar Stations established

z Operation Deep Freeze

z Discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges

z evidence of plate tectonics

z USSR and USA pledged to launch artificial satellites (“man-made moons”)

z discovery of Van Allen radiation belts

1957: “First” Year of Space Age

z Space Age arguably began in 1955

z President Eisenhower announced that USA would launch small unmanned earth-orbiting satellite as part of IGY

z Project Vanguard

6

Our Story:

z The battle to determine who would launch the first artificial satellite:

z Werner von Braun of the U.S. Army Redstone
Arsenal, Huntsville AL

z Milton Rosen of the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory, Washington DC

Rockets in WWII

z German V-2 Missiles attacked London

z German missile experts brought to USA for Operation “Paperclip”

z Best known was Dr.
Werner Von Braun

7

Post WWII Rocket Experiments

z Milton Rosen used V-2s as launch vehicles for scientific experiments

z Needed more performance z Proposed improved vehicle

z led to Viking Rocket

Viking Rocket

z 1949, built for NRL by Glenn L. Martin Co. z Important innovations in Viking:

z gimbaled rocket motor for steering z aluminum as principal structural material z intermittent gas jets for stabilizing vehicle after the main power cutoff

z Launches

z Viking No. 1, spring 1949, 50-mile altitude z Viking No. 4, May 1950 from ship, 104 miles

8

Scientific Results from Viking

z NRL Electron Optics Branch

z ion chambers and photon counters to measure radiation from sun at x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths

z Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit

z antecedent of Minitrack

z Continuous tracking of small instrumented body in space

z Viking 10, April 1954, 136 miles, measured ion composition z Viking 11, May 1954, altitude of 158 miles radio

9

Viking Results

z Five years of successes z Total cost less than $6 million z Encouraged NRL to propose a more powerful rocket engine and added upper stages to build vehicle capable of launching an artificial earth satellite

Project Vanguard

z Grew out of NRL Proposal z Led by Dr. John P. Hagen

10

Vanguard Launcher & Satellite

z Efficient Three-stage launch vehicle

z Stage 1: based on Viking z Stage 2: based on Aerobee Sounding
Rocket z Stage 3: new solid-fuel rocket

z Innovative, Miniaturized Scientific
Payload z Planned IGY use: measure locations of Pacific islands

11

Planned Vanguard Trajectory

12

Solar Cell Batteries

z 6 units on sphere

Later Vanguard Spacecraft

z Larger spheres z More scientific equipment

13

Plan for Tracking Vanguard
Satellite

z Remember, no worldwide tracking stations

z no communication network, not even telephones

z Would be difficult to ascertain whether satellite had orbited (hence, Project

Moonwatch)

z Satellite Tracking Program in Project

Vanguard:

z Minimum Trackable Satellite = Minitrack

Minitrack Antenna Array

14

Minitrack Station, Blossom

Point, MD
Tracking Computer

z Vanguard
Computing Center

z in downtown DC

z IBM 704 “Electronic
Data-Processing Machine”

z Magnetic core memory (not vacuum tubes) z 40,000 = 40 × 103 instructions per second z fastest 2007 computers

z 300,000,000,000 =
300 × 109

Washington Post, July 10, 1957

instructions/second

15

Competitor to Vanguard:
Project Orbiter

z Proposal by U.S. Army, led by Werner Von
Braun

z Believed his project was certain to be chosen

Orbiter Satellite & Launcher

z Launched by Army Redstone IRBM

z range of 200 miles, 55-mile vertical height

z Subsequent boost from 3 Rotating (for stability) clusters of unguided solid-fuelled Loki anti-aircraft rockets

z 2nd Stage: Bundle of 24 Loki, burns for < 2 sec z 3rd Stage: Bundle of 6 Loki

z 4th Stage: 1 Loki

z Switched to following Loki stage at intervals of 2.5 seconds (!)

16

Project Orbiter Payload

z 5-pound, 20-inch diameter sphere

z no radio transmitter z would be tracked by optical telescopes ONLY

z difficult, not reliable

z No science – propaganda value only

z would only be able to say that USA had orbited a spacecraft

Launch Vehicle: Loki Rockets

z Unguided, solid-fueled rocket z Based on German Taifun from WWII z Loki failed in antiaircraft role

z replaced by Nike-Ajax in September 1955

z Loki later used as a sounding rocket z Small payload: 3.2 kg z Dimensions:

z booster: 2.63m long × 76mm dia. z payload “dart:” 1.02m long × 35mm dia.

17

Loki Rocket

“Dart”
Booster

Selection by “Stewart Committee”

z Chaired by Homer Stewart of Jet
Propulsion Laboratory

z Eight members to select proposal for funding

z Vote on August 3, 1955

z 1 member absent z 3 votes for Vanguard z 2 votes for Orbiter z 2 other members (“not rocket scientists”) voted with majority z Final vote: 5 to 2

18

Reasons for Decision:

Deficiencies of Project Orbiter

z Very Limited Weight Capacity – 5 lbs. z Uncertain Optical Detection of Successful
Orbit

z Untested Launch Vehicle z Problems had not been fixed (at least, not well enough)

z Technological world had changed, but von
Braun had not

Plusses for Vanguard

z Launch vehicle based on Viking

z no interference with research in ballistic missile weaponry

z less tied to military vehicle

zgood for propaganda purposes

z Much better tracking system z Better scientific value z Innovative vehicle and payload

z also a “minus” ⇒ uncertainty and complexity

19

Second Hearing by Stewart
Committee

z August 15, 1955 (12 days later) z Army memo had been circulated that criticized NRL satellite program for low probability of success and time required to develop launch vehicle

z In short, von Braun could not believe he and the Army had lost

Project Orbiter Killed

z September 9, 1955 z Army forbidden from launching satellites z NRL forbidden from soliciting scientific data from military missile programs

z Vanguard team could not believe it had won

20

Vanguard Launch Sequence Vanguard Launch Sequence

21

October 4, 1957: News Flash

Sputnik successfully launched into orbit

Five Scientific Objectives of
Sputnik

z to test method for orbiting an artificial satellite; z to provide information on density of atmosphere by calculating orbital lifetime;

z to test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking;

z to determine effects of atmospheric radio wave propagation; and

z to check methods for pressurizing satellite

22

Sputnik I Rocket Booster

Track as seen in Washington, DC on night of 15 October 1957

Easily visible to unaided eye

Sputnik Radio Transmitters

z 20.005 MHz and 40.002 MHz z NRL converted Minitrack receivers at
Blossom Point Tracking Station from 108 MHz in two days

z New Antennas and Receivers installed z Worked well until someone “tidied up” the site

23

Minitrack System Calibration

z Opportunity provided by surprise launch of
Sputnik

z Satellite’s orbit computed using Doppler shifts of radio transmissions

z After orbit established, NRL proposed
“illuminating” Sputnik with FM transmitter at Fort Monmouth, NJ

z Reflected signal used for calibration

z Led to idea of using “bistatic” radar to track orbiting bodies z Naval Space Surveillance System “Fence”

Navspasur Radar Sites

24

Reaction to Sputnik

z Pressure from Press/Public/Politicians for
Vanguard to launch

z Launch of “Test Vehicles” considered point of national pride

z Revived/modified plan from U.S. Army

Test Vehicle 3 (TV-3)

z December 6, 1957 z Nationally televised z First-stage guidance failed z Satellite survived in
“working” order

z now in NASM

z TV-3B, 5 February 1958, second stage did not ignite

25

Army Backup Plan

z small spacecraft carried by fourstage Jupiter-C launch vehicle

z based on Jupiter IRBM

z Contained Vanguard electronics package to appear as a scientific experiment

Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958

26

Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958

Pickering, Van Allen, von Braun

Next Vanguard Attempt

z March 1958 z Test-Vehicle 4 (TV-4) + small satellite

  • 27
  • 28

HAVE BALL,
WILL ORBIT

29

Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4)

z Successfully launched March 17,
1958

z Stable orbit

z apogee: 3969 km z perigee: 650 km z Early predicted orbital life: 200 years

z 7-cell mercury battery, two radio transmitters, temperature sensor, six clusters of solar cells

30

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